PerceptionPerception

Meaning :Meaning : Perception refers to the Perception refers to the way we try to understand the world way we try to understand the world around us.around us.

Definition:Definition:

It is a process by which individuals It is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their give meaning to their environment.- environment.- Stephen.P.RobbinsStephen.P.Robbins

The Perceptual ProcessThe Perceptual Process

Comprehensive Definition:Comprehensive Definition:

“ “Perception includes all those processes by Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives info about his which an individual receives info about his envt –seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and envt –seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling. The study of these perceptual smelling. The study of these perceptual processes shows that their functioning is processes shows that their functioning is affected by three classes of variables –the affected by three classes of variables –the objects or events being perceived, ,the envt objects or events being perceived, ,the envt in which perception occurs, and the in which perception occurs, and the individual doing the perceiving”.individual doing the perceiving”.

Therefore Perception is composed of six Therefore Perception is composed of six processes, viz., receiving, selecting , processes, viz., receiving, selecting , organizing , interpreting, checking and organizing , interpreting, checking and reacting to stimuli.reacting to stimuli.

1.1. Process of Receiving StimuliProcess of Receiving Stimuli: : It is received through five sensory organs It is received through five sensory organs

i.e vision, hearing, smell, touch and i.e vision, hearing, smell, touch and testing . Stimuli May be external and testing . Stimuli May be external and also internal. External – sound,video. also internal. External – sound,video. Internal –digestive system, Secretion of Internal –digestive system, Secretion of hormones.hormones.

2. 2. Process of Receiving StimuliProcess of Receiving Stimuli: : Two factors govern the selection of stimuli Two factors govern the selection of stimuli

: External and Internal.: External and Internal.a)a) External Factors Influencing External Factors Influencing

SelectionSelection ; ;1.Nature : Visual or audio.1.Nature : Visual or audio.2.Location : 2.Location : 3.Intensity :Higher intensity are perceived 3.Intensity :Higher intensity are perceived

more yhan the objects with low more yhan the objects with low intensity.intensity.

4.4.Size Size :Larger size receive more attention than :Larger size receive more attention than smaller one. smaller one.

5.5.ContrastContrast : This states that the external stimuli : This states that the external stimuli that stand out against the background or that stand out against the background or which are not what people are expecting.which are not what people are expecting.

6.6.MovementMovement :moving objects receive more :moving objects receive more attention than an objects that is standing still.attention than an objects that is standing still.

7.7.Repetition Repetition : repeated external stimulus is : repeated external stimulus is more attention drawing than a single onemore attention drawing than a single one

8.Novelty and Familiarity8.Novelty and Familiarity: New objects in : New objects in familiar settings or familiar objects in new familiar settings or familiar objects in new settings.settings.

b) b) Internal Factors Influencing SelectionInternal Factors Influencing Selection1.1. LearningLearning :People tend to perceive what they want to :People tend to perceive what they want to

perceiveperceive

2.2. Psychological Needs :Psychological Needs :

3.3. Age Difference : Age Difference :

4.4. Interest :Interest :

5.5. Ambivalence : Mixed feelings about the situationAmbivalence : Mixed feelings about the situation

6.6. Paranoid perception: so selective that he can find Paranoid perception: so selective that he can find little common ground for communication with little common ground for communication with others. i.e emotionally disturbed person perceptual others. i.e emotionally disturbed person perceptual field differs from that of most other persons.field differs from that of most other persons.

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3.3. Process of Organizing Process of Organizing : : a) a) Figure GroundFigure Ground b) b) Perceptual Grouping:Perceptual Grouping: Include similarity, Include similarity,

proximity, closure and continuity.proximity, closure and continuity. c) c) Perceptual Constancy :Perceptual Constancy : Gives a sense of Gives a sense of

stability in a changing world.stability in a changing world. 1. 1. Shape ConstancyShape Constancy eg: Pot eg: Pot 2. 2. Size ConstancySize Constancy i.e objects moved i.e objects moved

farther away we tend to see it as more or farther away we tend to see it as more or less invariant size. less invariant size.

3. 3. Colour ConstancyColour Constancy

3.3. Process of Interpreting :Process of Interpreting : a)a) Perceptual Set:Perceptual Set: Previously held beliefs about objects Previously held beliefs about objects

b)b) Attribution:Attribution: Refers to the process by which the Refers to the process by which the individual assigns causes to the behavior he conceives. individual assigns causes to the behavior he conceives. Factors such as status, intentions and consequences.Factors such as status, intentions and consequences.

c) c) Stereotyping :Stereotyping : It is the process of judging someone on It is the process of judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that perception belongs to. It provides us a short cut that perception belongs to. It provides us a short cut to predicting behavior.to predicting behavior.

d) d) Halo Effect :Halo Effect : It refers to the tendency of forming a It refers to the tendency of forming a general impression about an individual on the basis of general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic. Need not always be positive a single characteristic. Need not always be positive characteristics.characteristics.

An individual may be down rated based on the An individual may be down rated based on the negative evaluation of his or her negative evaluation of his or her behaviors .This process is called rusty halo or behaviors .This process is called rusty halo or horns effect.horns effect.

e) e) Perceptual ContextPerceptual Context :The context in which an :The context in which an object is placed perception.object is placed perception.

f) f) Perceptual Defense: Perceptual Defense: an individual is likely to put an individual is likely to put a defence when confronted with conflicting, a defence when confronted with conflicting, unacceptable or threatening stimuli.unacceptable or threatening stimuli.

Three types of defense :Three types of defense :

1. Out right denial.1. Out right denial.

2. Modification mechanism: associating 2. Modification mechanism: associating intelligence with some other trait.intelligence with some other trait.

3. Refusal to change mechanism. 3. Refusal to change mechanism.

4. Change in perception mechanism. 4. Change in perception mechanism.

g) g) Implicit personality theoryImplicit personality theory :Extrovert means :Extrovert means talkative.talkative.

h) h) Projection :Projection :one who is dishonest may be one who is dishonest may be suspicious of others.suspicious of others.

4. 4. Process of Checking: Process of Checking: Checking by introspection Checking by introspection

Checking about the intrepretation with the Checking about the intrepretation with the others.others.

5. 5. Process of Reacting : Process of Reacting : Shall indulge in some action in relation to Shall indulge in some action in relation to

hishis

perception.perception.

Factors Influencing PerceptionFactors Influencing Perception

Characteristics of the perceiver. Characteristics of the perceiver. Characteristics of the perceived.Characteristics of the perceived. Characteristics of the Situation.Characteristics of the Situation.

Foundations of Individual BehaviourFoundations of Individual Behaviour

Environmental factorsEconomic

Social norms and cultural valuesPolitical

Personal FactorsAge, Gender ,Education, AbilitiesMarital status, No of Dependants

Orgn System & ResourcesPhysical Facilities

Orgn structure an designLeadership & Reward system

PsychologicalPersonality, Perception

Attitudes, Values, Learning

Performanace

Individual Development

Link B/W Perception and Individual Link B/W Perception and Individual Decision MakingDecision Making

Rational Decision Making ProcessRational Decision Making Process: Value : Value maximising choices within specified maximising choices within specified constraints.constraints.

Rational Decision Making Model: Rational Decision Making Model: 1. Define the problem1. Define the problem

2. Identify the decision criteria2. Identify the decision criteria

3.Allocate weights to the criteria.3.Allocate weights to the criteria.

4.Develop the alternatives.4.Develop the alternatives.

5.Evaluate the alternatives.5.Evaluate the alternatives.

6.Select the alternative. 6.Select the alternative.

Assumptions of the modelAssumptions of the model

Problem ClarityProblem Clarity Known optionsKnown options Clear preferencesClear preferences Constant PreferencesConstant Preferences No time or cost constraints.No time or cost constraints. Maximum Payoffs.Maximum Payoffs.