PerceptionPerception

Is a complicated interaction of selection, Is a complicated interaction of selection, organization and interpretation.organization and interpretation.

Perception largely depends upon sense for raw Perception largely depends upon sense for raw data. The cognitive process filters, modifies or data. The cognitive process filters, modifies or completely changes the data.completely changes the data.

Nature & Importance of PerceptionNature & Importance of Perception

Perception is a Perception is a uniqueunique interpretation of the interpretation of the situation, not an situation, not an exactexact recording of it. recording of it.

Recognition of difference between the Recognition of difference between the perceptual worldperceptual world and the and the real worldreal world is vital. is vital.

Perception ProcessPerception Process

Cognitions are basically bits of informationCognitions are basically bits of information Cognitive process involve the ways in which Cognitive process involve the ways in which

people process the informationpeople process the information People’s individual differences and unique-People’s individual differences and unique-

ness are largely the result of cognitive processness are largely the result of cognitive process

Perceptual SelectivityPerceptual Selectivity

IntensityIntensityThe more intense the external stimulus, the more likely The more intense the external stimulus, the more likely it is to be perceivedit is to be perceived SizeSizeLarger the size of object, the more likely it will be Larger the size of object, the more likely it will be perceived.perceived. ContrastContrastObjects which stand out against the background or Objects which stand out against the background or which are not what people are expecting will receive which are not what people are expecting will receive their noticetheir notice

RepetitionRepetition

Repeated stimulus is more attention getting than Repeated stimulus is more attention getting than a single one.a single one.MotionMotion

People will pay more attention to moving objects People will pay more attention to moving objects in their field of view than they will to stationary in their field of view than they will to stationary objects.objects.NoveltyNovelty

A navel or unfamiliar objects can serve as A navel or unfamiliar objects can serve as attention getterattention getter

Perceptual OrganizationPerceptual Organization

What takes place in the perceptual process once What takes place in the perceptual process once the information from any situation or object is the information from any situation or object is received.received.

Perceptional process organizes the incoming Perceptional process organizes the incoming information into a meaningful whole.information into a meaningful whole.

Figure - GroundFigure - Ground

The perceived objects stand out as different and The perceived objects stand out as different and separable from their general back ground.separable from their general back ground.

Perceptual GroupingPerceptual Grouping

The process of grouping several different stimuli The process of grouping several different stimuli together into a recognizable pattern.together into a recognizable pattern.

Perceptual GroupingPerceptual Grouping

The process of grouping several different stimuli The process of grouping several different stimuli together into a recognizable pattern.together into a recognizable pattern.ClosureClosure :: Perceiving whole when one Perceiving whole when one

does not exist.does not exist.ContinuityContinuity :: Tendency to perceive Tendency to perceive

continuous lines or patterns.continuous lines or patterns.ProximityProximity :: Group of stimuli that are Group of stimuli that are

close together are perceived as a close together are perceived as a whole pattern of parts belonging whole pattern of parts belonging

together.together.SimilaritySimilarity :: Similar stimuli are perceived as Similar stimuli are perceived as

belonging to a common group.belonging to a common group.

Perceptual ConstancyPerceptual Constancy

Individuals demonstrate constancy of perception Individuals demonstrate constancy of perception in a tremendously variable and highly complex in a tremendously variable and highly complex world.world.

Perceptual ContextPerceptual Context

All perceptions are based on context of situation.All perceptions are based on context of situation.

The organizational culture and structure provide The organizational culture and structure provide primary context in which managers and workers primary context in which managers and workers do their perceiving.do their perceiving.

Perceptual DefencePerceptual Defence

Blocking or refusing to recognize stimuli or Blocking or refusing to recognize stimuli or situational events in a particular context that are situational events in a particular context that are unacceptable or threateningunacceptable or threatening

DenialDenial Modification and distortionModification and distortion Recognition, but refusal to changeRecognition, but refusal to change Change in perceptionChange in perception

Social PerceptionSocial Perception

Social perception is directly concerned with how Social perception is directly concerned with how one individual perceives other individualsone individual perceives other individuals

How we get to know others.How we get to know others.

Factors influencing how a person Factors influencing how a person perceives others.perceives others.

Knowing one self makes it easier to see other Knowing one self makes it easier to see other accurately.accurately.

One’s own characteristics effect the One’s own characteristics effect the characteristics one is likely to see in others.characteristics one is likely to see in others.

People who accept themselves are more People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favorable aspects of likely to be able to see favorable aspects of other people.other people.

Accuracy in perceiving is not a single skill.Accuracy in perceiving is not a single skill.

Characteristics of person being Characteristics of person being perceived that influence perceptionperceived that influence perception

Status of person will greatly influence other’s Status of person will greatly influence other’s perception of the person.perception of the person.

Role of person will have similar affects on Role of person will have similar affects on perception.perception.

Visible traits will also greatly influence Visible traits will also greatly influence perception.perception.

Tall, fat, bald, fair color, attractiveness.Tall, fat, bald, fair color, attractiveness.

Psychological Factors in PerceptionPsychological Factors in Perception

Attribution.Attribution.How people explain the cause of another’s or their How people explain the cause of another’s or their

own behavior.own behavior. Dispositional AttributionDispositional Attribution Situational AttributionSituational Attribution

StereotypingStereotypingTendency to perceive another person as belonging to a Tendency to perceive another person as belonging to a

single class or category.single class or category. Halo Effect.Halo Effect.

Under the halo effect, the person is perceived on the Under the halo effect, the person is perceived on the basis of one trait. (whatever that trait is, it over rides all other basis of one trait. (whatever that trait is, it over rides all other traits in forming perception)traits in forming perception)

Impression ManagementImpression Management

The process by which people attempt to manage or The process by which people attempt to manage or control the perceptions others form of them.control the perceptions others form of them.

People tend to present themselves so as to impress other People tend to present themselves so as to impress other in a socially desirable way.in a socially desirable way. Impression motivationImpression motivation

As goal that motivates a person to impress others.As goal that motivates a person to impress others. Impression constructionImpression construction

the specific type of impression people want to the specific type of impression people want to make and how they go about doing it.make and how they go about doing it.

PERSONALITYPERSONALITY

The stable set of psychological The stable set of psychological characteristics that influences the way an characteristics that influences the way an individual interacts with his or her individual interacts with his or her environmentenvironment..

PersonalityPersonality

How people affect others and how they How people affect others and how they understand and view themselves, as well as understand and view themselves, as well as their pattern of inner and outer measurable their pattern of inner and outer measurable traits and the person – situation interaction.traits and the person – situation interaction.

Personality TraitsPersonality Traits

Extraversion Extraversion Emotional StabilityEmotional Stability AgreeablenessAgreeableness ConscientiousnessConscientiousness Openness to experienceOpenness to experience

ExtraversionExtraversion

Sociable, Talktive, AssertiveSociable, Talktive, Assertive

The extent to which a person is outgoing The extent to which a person is outgoing versus shy. High extraverts enjoy social versus shy. High extraverts enjoy social situations, while those low on this situations, while those low on this dimension (introverts) avoid them. dimension (introverts) avoid them.

Emotional StabilityEmotional Stability

Relaxed, Secure, StableRelaxed, Secure, Stable

The degree to which a person has The degree to which a person has appropriate emotional control. People appropriate emotional control. People with high emotional stability are self with high emotional stability are self confident and have high self-esteem. confident and have high self-esteem. Those with lower emotional stability tend Those with lower emotional stability tend to have negative standpoint, be tense and to have negative standpoint, be tense and nervous and feel insecure.nervous and feel insecure.

AgreeablenessAgreeableness

Good natured, Cooperative, TrustingGood natured, Cooperative, Trusting

The extent to which a person is friendly and The extent to which a person is friendly and approachable. Agreeable people are warm approachable. Agreeable people are warm and considerate. Less agreeable people tend and considerate. Less agreeable people tend to be cold and aloof.to be cold and aloof.

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

Responsible, Dependable, Persistent, Responsible, Dependable, Persistent, Achievement - orientedAchievement - oriented

The degree to which a person is responsible The degree to which a person is responsible and achievement-oriented. Conscientious and achievement-oriented. Conscientious people are dependable and positively people are dependable and positively motivated. Less conscientious people are motivated. Less conscientious people are unreliable.unreliable.

Openness to ExperienceOpenness to Experience

Imaginative, artistically sensitive, Imaginative, artistically sensitive, IntellectualIntellectual

The extent to which a person thinks The extent to which a person thinks flexibly and is receptive to new ideas. flexibly and is receptive to new ideas. Open people tend toward creativity and Open people tend toward creativity and innovation. Less open people favour the innovation. Less open people favour the status quo.status quo.

The self – ConceptThe self – Concept

People`s attempts to understand themselves People`s attempts to understand themselves are called self–concept.are called self–concept.

The self – esteemThe self – esteemPeople`s self concept about their self–People`s self concept about their self–perceived competence and self–image is called perceived competence and self–image is called self-esteemself-esteem

The self – efficacyThe self – efficacy

People`s self concept about themselves as to People`s self concept about themselves as to how they can cope with situation as they arisehow they can cope with situation as they arise

Person – Situation InteractionPerson – Situation Interaction

Personality dimensions are flexiblePersonality dimensions are flexible People are not static, acting the same in People are not static, acting the same in

all situationsall situations Every day situations change peopleEvery day situations change people

Development of PersonalityDevelopment of Personality Adult Life StagesAdult Life Stages Entering adult worldEntering adult world (ages 22 – 28)(ages 22 – 28) Settling downSettling down (ages 33 – 40)(ages 33 – 40) Entering middle adulthoodEntering middle adulthood (ages 45 – 50)(ages 45 – 50) End of middle adulthoodEnd of middle adulthood (ages 55 – 60)(ages 55 – 60)

Transition PeriodsTransition PeriodsAge 30 transitionAge 30 transition (ages 28 – 33) (ages 28 – 33)Mid-life transitionMid-life transition (ages 40 – 45) (ages 40 – 45)Age 50 transitionAge 50 transition (ages 50 – 55) (ages 50 – 55)Late adult transitionLate adult transition (ages 60 – 65) (ages 60 – 65)

Immaturity – Maturity ScaleImmaturity – Maturity Scale

ImmaturityImmaturityPassivityPassivityDependenceDependenceFew ways of behavingFew ways of behavingShallow interestsShallow interestsShort time perspectiveShort time perspectiveSubordinate positionSubordinate positionLack of self - awarenessLack of self - awareness

MaturityMaturityActivityActivityIndependenceIndependenceDiverse behaviorDiverse behaviorDeep interests Deep interests Long time perspectiveLong time perspectiveSuperordinate positionSuperordinate positionSelf awareness & controlSelf awareness & control

Human personality (rather than going through precise stages) progresses along a scale from immaturity as as infant to maturity as an adult.

Socialization ProcessSocialization Process

The continuous impact from the social The continuous impact from the social environment on an individual`s personality environment on an individual`s personality is called socialization process.is called socialization process.Socialization process starts with the initial Socialization process starts with the initial contact between a mother and her new contact between a mother and her new infant.infant.

Organizational Socialization Organizational Socialization Org. socialization starts when a person joins an Org. socialization starts when a person joins an organization as an employee.organization as an employee.

Main characteristics of Org. SocializationMain characteristics of Org. Socialization Change of attitude, values & behaviorsChange of attitude, values & behaviors Adjustment to new job, workgroup, Org.- Adjustment to new job, workgroup, Org.-

practicespractices Mutual influence between new and old Mutual influence between new and old

employees and their managers.employees and their managers. Criticality of early socialization period.Criticality of early socialization period.

Special Techniques for socializing : Special Techniques for socializing : new employeesnew employees

Provide a challenging first job.Provide a challenging first job. Provide relevant training.Provide relevant training. Provide timely and consistent feed back.Provide timely and consistent feed back. Appoint a good first supervisor to be Appoint a good first supervisor to be

incharge of socialization.incharge of socialization. A relaxed orientation program.A relaxed orientation program. Place new employees with workgroups with Place new employees with workgroups with

high morale.high morale.

AttitudeAttitude

Personality is thought of a whole person, Personality is thought of a whole person, while attitude is part of personality while attitude is part of personality (attitude may make up the personality)(attitude may make up the personality)

Attitude is a persistent tendency to feel Attitude is a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a particular way towards and behave in a particular way towards some objectsome object

Characteristics of AttitudeCharacteristics of Attitude PersistencePersistence

Attitude tend to persist unless something is Attitude tend to persist unless something is done to change them.done to change them.

SeveritySeverityAttitude can fall any where on a scale from Attitude can fall any where on a scale from very favorable to very unfavorablevery favorable to very unfavorable

DirectionDirectionAttitudes can be directed toward some object Attitudes can be directed toward some object or person about which a person has feelingsor person about which a person has feelings

Components of AttitudesComponents of Attitudes EmotionalEmotional InformationalInformational BehavioralBehavioral Emotional componentEmotional component involves person`s feeling about involves person`s feeling about

an object.an object.

Positive, Neutral, NegativePositive, Neutral, Negative Informational componentInformational component consists of the beliefs and consists of the beliefs and

information a person has about an object.information a person has about an object. Behavioral componentBehavioral component consists of a person`s tendencies consists of a person`s tendencies

to behave in a perticular way toward an object.to behave in a perticular way toward an object.

Functions of AttitudesFunctions of Attitudes Adjustment functionAdjustment function

Attitudes often help people adjust to their work Attitudes often help people adjust to their work environment.environment.

Ego – Defensive functionEgo – Defensive functionAttitudes help people to defend their self – images.Attitudes help people to defend their self – images.

Value – expressive functionValue – expressive functionAttitudes provide people with a basis for expressing Attitudes provide people with a basis for expressing

their values.their values. Knowledge functionKnowledge function

Attitudes help supply standards and frames of Attitudes help supply standards and frames of reference that allow people to organize and explain world reference that allow people to organize and explain world around them.around them.

Changing AttitudesChanging Attitudes

Attitudes can be changed. Some times it is Attitudes can be changed. Some times it is in the best interest of organization, in the best interest of organization, management and employees.management and employees.

Providing new informationProviding new information Use of fearUse of fear Resolving discrepanciesResolving discrepancies Influence of friends & peersInfluence of friends & peers Co- opting approachCo- opting approach

Barriers to changing AttitudeBarriers to changing Attitude

Prior comitments / unwillingness to Prior comitments / unwillingness to changechange

Insufficient informationInsufficient information Not resolving discrepanciesNot resolving discrepancies

JOB SATISFACTIONJOB SATISFACTION It is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from It is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one`s job or job experience.the appraisal of one`s job or job experience.

Dimentions of job satisfactionDimentions of job satisfaction Emotional responseEmotional response Outcomes meeting or exceeding expectations Outcomes meeting or exceeding expectations AttitudesAttitudesFactors affecting job satisfactionFactors affecting job satisfaction Work itself Work itself PayPay PromotionsPromotions SupervisionSupervision Working conditionsWorking conditions WorkgroupWorkgroup

Outcomes of Job SatisfactionOutcomes of Job Satisfaction

Satisfaction & productivitySatisfaction & productivity TurnoverTurnover AbsenteeismAbsenteeism Behavior, attitudeBehavior, attitude

Enhancing job satisfactionEnhancing job satisfaction

Making jobs more enjoyableMaking jobs more enjoyable Having fair pay, benefits and promotion Having fair pay, benefits and promotion

opportunities.opportunities. Matching people`s skill & interests with Matching people`s skill & interests with

jobs.jobs. Designing jobs more exciting & Designing jobs more exciting &

satisfying.satisfying.

ORGANIZATION COMMITMENTORGANIZATION COMMITMENT

A strong desire to remain a member of a A strong desire to remain a member of a particular organizationparticular organization

A willingness to exert high levels of A willingness to exert high levels of effort on behalf of the organizationeffort on behalf of the organization

A definite belief in, and acceptance of, A definite belief in, and acceptance of, the values and goal of the organizationthe values and goal of the organization

DIMENSION OF COMMITMENTDIMENSION OF COMMITMENT

Effective commitmentEffective commitmentIt involves employee`s emotional attachment to, It involves employee`s emotional attachment to, identification with, and involment in the organizationidentification with, and involment in the organization

Continuance CommitmentContinuance CommitmentInvolves commitment based on the costs that the Involves commitment based on the costs that the employee associates with leaving the organization.employee associates with leaving the organization.

Normative commitmentNormative commitmentInvolves the employee`s feeling of obligation to stay with Involves the employee`s feeling of obligation to stay with the organizationthe organization

Outcomes of Org. CommitmentOutcomes of Org. Commitment

High performanceHigh performance Low turnoverLow turnover Low absenteeismLow absenteeism Warm, supportive organization climateWarm, supportive organization climate Fulfillment of dimensions of commitment.Fulfillment of dimensions of commitment. Continuance of positive attitude, morale and Continuance of positive attitude, morale and

benefits.benefits.