Perception, Memory & Learning

Professor S.J. Grant

Spring 2007

BUYER BEHAVIOR, MARKETING 3250

Perception A model of memory

What are the types of memory?Organization of memoryHow memory works

• Storage• Retrieval

Learning

Outline

Hemispheric lateralization

Perception

When do we perceive stimuli?Absolute and differential

thresholds• Just noticeable difference• Weber’s law

Selective – cocktail party Subliminal perception

• Does subliminal perception affect consumer behavior?

Perception

Perception

Does subliminal messaging make people buy? 1956 N.J. movie theater flashed

subliminal messages, “Hungry? Eat popcorn. Drink Coca-Cola.”

• Increased popcorn sales 58% and Coca-Cola sales 18%, but results were not replicated

Erotic stimuli and sexual symbols in ads purported to increase receptivity to suggestions in the ad

A Model of Memory

Perceived information is encodedExplicitImplicit

Then stored in memoryShort-term storeLong-term store

Retrieval involves calling up stored bits from memory

A Model of Memory

StimulusShort-TermMemory

Long-TermMemory

RetrievalConsolidation

Recall

A Model of Memory

Sensory Short-term Long-term

SensoryEchoicIconicCharacteristics of sensory

memory

A Model of Memory

Short-term memory (STM)Imagery processingDiscursive processingCharacteristics of short-term

memory• Short-term memory is limited (7±2)• Short-term memory is short-lived

A Model of Memory

Long-term memory (LTM)Autobiographical (episodic) memorySemantic memoryCharacteristics of long-term memory

• Stable memory of events of more distant past• Unlimited capacity• Organized by nodes

A Model of Memory

A Model of Memory

Converting short-term memories to long-term store is physically located in the hippocampus

Elaboration, or rehearsal, of information increases consolidation

Recall from long-term storage is a function of recency and availability Availability is aided if memory is organized into

a well-defined associative network of nodes• Categories• Hierarchies

A Model of Memory

Beverages

Carbonated Non-carbonated

MixersColas Juices Water

Pepsi Coke EvianPolandSpring

A Semantic (or Associative) Network

Chunking Rehearsal Recirculation Elaboration

Y=mx+bY=mx+bY=mx+bY=mx+b

How Memory Is Enhanced

Semantic network Trace strength

• Accessibility Spreading of activation

• Priming Retrieval failures

• Decay• Interference• Primacy and recency effects

Retrieval errors

What Is Retrieval?

Explicit memoryRecognitionRecallJudgments

Implicit memoryJudgments

What Are the Types of Retrieval?

Retrieval

Perceptual• “His name started with a ‘J’ . . .”

Conceptual• “A brand of personal computers that

competes with IBM . . .”

Characteristics of the stimulusSaliencePrototypicalityRedundant cuesThe medium in which the

stimulus is processed

How Retrieval Is Enhanced

What the stimulus is linked toRetrieval cuesWhere do retrieval cues come from?The brand name as a retrieval cueOther retrieval cuesConsumer implications

• Consideration set

How Retrieval Is Enhanced

How a stimulus is processed in short-term memoryDual coding

Consumer characteristics affecting retrievalNetwork of associationsExpertise Mood

How Retrieval Is Enhanced

Exposure

Attention

Interpretation

Memory

Information Processing Selective

ExposureRandom Deliberate

AttentionLow- High-

involvement involvement

InterpretationLow- High-

involvement involvement

Short-term Memory Long-term

Active problem Stored experiences, solving values, decisions,

rules, feelings

Purchase and consumption decisions

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A Model of Learning

Professor S.J. Grant

Spring 2007

Information Processing& Implications

BUYER BEHAVIOR, MARKETING 3250

A model of information processingRole of attention, or cognitive

resources The structure of knowledge

How the structure of knowledge leads to understanding and persuasion

Implications for positioning

Outline

Awareness

Knowledge

Preference

Loyalty

Relevance

Differentiation

Attention

OldParadigm

NewParadigm

A Model of Information Processing

Attention

Relevance

Differentiation

Memory

Information Processing Selective

Relevance

Determining relevance is based on existing knowledge structuresInterpretation is subject to prior

learning• Schemas and associations• Categorization• Images• Scripts

Taxonomic Category Structure

Categories and their structurePrototypicalityCorrelated associationsHierarchical structure

• Superordinate level• Basic level• Subordinate level

Knowledge Structure

Positioning

New brands or products must establish in consumers’ mindsTargetFrame of reference (or category

membership)Point of difference

Target Audience

Must be broad enough to support a meaningful business, but sufficiently discriminating to guide communication and strategy. This is where segmentation strategies are relevant.

Reason to Believe

The category of competing offerings – substitutes – against which the customer should evaluate the relative merits of the brand.

The brand’s competitive, differentiated reason for being – ideally an emotional benefit that uniquely identifies the brand. This is where the elevated value proposition is expressed/how elevated value is delivered.

Differentiated Benefit

Frame of Reference

Implications for Positioning

Product Positioning

For busy, health-conscious adults

Prepared, ready-to-eat packaged foods

Lower fat content, reduced calories

Target

Frame of reference

Point of difference

Product Positioning

For adults at risk of heart disease

Any aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) such as Bayer, Anacin, Bufferin, Excedrin

Safe and gentle

Target

Frame of reference

Point of difference

Product Positioning

For active adults seeking to be at the top of their game

Bottled water

Enhanced to boost performance due to natural vitamins, nutrients

Target

Frame of reference

Point of difference

Positioning

For leisure travelers seeking pampering

Resorts, spas, vacation getaways

Luxurious furnishings, upscale experience

For business travelers who need to be productive

Hotels catering to business travelers (Hyatt, Hilton)

Excellent service, attention to detail

Target

Frame of reference

Point of difference

Position 1 Position 2

Positioning

For upscale convertible lovers

Other luxury convertibles (BMW, Mercedes, Lexus)

Volvo’s reputation for safety first, rollover protection

For drivers who value Volvo’s safety heritage

Safety-oriented vehicles (station wagons)

A turbocharged convertible with 10-speaker sound

Target

Frame of reference

Point of difference

Position 2Position 1

Positioning

For customers who buy frozen pizza

Other frozen pizzas

Better quality

Rising crust

For customers who prefer delivery pizza

Delivery pizza

Better value

Lower price than delivery

Target

Frame of reference

Point of difference

Reason tobelieve

Position 2Position 1

Positioning Problems

Positioning on conflicting claims High quality but low cost Good tasting but low calorie Sweet but nutritious Fast acting but long lasting

Sustaining a benefit over time Benefit relevance may change over decades How to express benefit in modern ways

Entry of me-too brands Usually strengthens incumbent