perfectionism in classical pianists: an exploration of how it manifests itself and possible coping...

8/10/2019 Perfectionism in Classical Pianists: An Exploration of How It Manifests Itself and Possible Coping Strategies

1/79

PERFECTIONISM IN CLASSICAL PIANISTS: AN EXPLORATION OF

HOW IT MANIFESTS ITSELF AND POSSIBLE COPING STRATEGIES

Adam McMillan

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment

of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Music (Honours),

Queensland Conservatorium of Music,

Griffith University.

2014


2/79

ii

CERTIFICATION

I hereby certify this work is original and has not been previously submitted in whole

or part by me or any other person for any qualification or award in any university. I

further certify that to the best of my knowledge and belief, the dissertation contains no

material previously published or written by another person excerpt where due

reference is made in the dissertation itself to the source of such material.

Name.......................................................

Signed.....................................................

Date.........................................................


3/79

iii

ABSTRACT

This study explores the phenomenon of perfectionism as experienced by classical

pianists, with the aim of understanding how perfectionism can affect their quality of

learning, performance experiences, and wellbeing. In-depth, semi-structured

interviews were conducted with four classical pianists. The interview questions were

informed by a prior investigation into the literature on perfectionism, and an analysis

of the interview data led to the emergence of a number of themes. These include:

perfectionism as striving for musical ideals; avenues in which perfectionism manifests

itself; mental struggles associated with perfectionism; and strategies for coping with

perfectionism. The process of interpreting interview data was supported by an

ongoing journaling process, which allowed me to reflect on ways in which

perfectionism affects my own music-making as a classical pianist. A significant

theme in this study is the potential for perfectionism to be both facilitating and

debilitating for classical pianists. Consequently, an important contribution of this

study is the exploration of how perfectionism can enable musicians to pursue

excellence, when unhealthy aspects of perfectionism are recognized and managed.


4/79

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to sincerely thank Dr Stephen Emmerson, for his invaluable guidance

and support throughout the duration of this project, and the four classical pianists who

agreed to be interviewed, for their willingness to allow me a glimpse of their rich,

inner musical worlds.


5/79

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1

Brief background ....................................................................................................... 1

Research questions ..................................................................................................... 2

Rationale .................................................................................................................... 2

Structure of thesis ...................................................................................................... 3

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................ 4

Historical conceptions of perfectionism .................................................................... 4

Perfectionism and musical demands .......................................................................... 7

General resources ....................................................................................................... 8

Contribution to the literature ...................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY .................................................................... 10

Qualitative Design ................................................................................................... 10

Interview Participants .............................................................................................. 11

Semi-structured Interviewing................................................................................... 11

Data Analysis ........................................................................................................... 11

Reflective Journaling ............................................................................................... 12

Role of Researcher ................................................................................................... 12

Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................. 13

CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS OF INTERVIEWS .................................................. 14

Perceptions of perfectionism .................................................................................... 14

Avenues for perfectionism ....................................................................................... 15

Healthy versus unhealthy ......................................................................................... 16

Moving forward ....................................................................................................... 18

CHAPTER FIVE: REFLECTIVE JOURNALING ..................................................... 22

Reflection on journal entry from 15/July/14 ............................................................ 22

Reflection on journal entry from 13/August/14 ....................................................... 23

Reflection on journal entry from 1/Sept/14 ............................................................. 24

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................. 26

Summary of findings ............................................................................................... 26

Further research ....................................................................................................... 28

Final words............................................................................................................... 28

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 29


6/79

vi

APPENDIX A: PERFECTIONISTIC THOUGHTS MEASURED ON THE FROST

MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERFECTIONISM SCALE (FROST ET AL., 1990, P. 455;

STOEBER & OTTO, 2006, P. 299) ............................................................................ 32

Personal standards .................................................................................................... 32

Organization ............................................................................................................. 32

Concern over mistakes ............................................................................................. 32

Doubts about actions ................................................................................................ 32

Parental expectations ............................................................................................... 32

Parental criticism ..................................................................................................... 32

APPENDIX B: PERFECTIONISTIC THOUGHTS MEASURED ON HEWITT &

FLETTS MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERFECTIONISM SCALE (1991, P. 470) ....... 33

Self-oriented perfectionism:..................................................................................... 33

Other-oriented perfectionism: .................................................................................. 33

Socially prescribed perfectionism: ........................................................................... 33

APPENDIX C: SOME CATEGORIES OF PERFECTIONISTIC THINKING

DESCRIBED IN WHEN PERFECT ISNT GOOD ENOUGH (ANTONY &

SWINSON, 2009, PP. 48-53) ...................................................................................... 34

All-or-nothing thinking ............................................................................................ 34

Filtering .................................................................................................................... 34

Catastrophic thinking ............................................................................................... 34

APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS .............................................................. 35

APPENDIX E: PARTICIPANT 1 INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT............................... 37

APPENDIX F: PARTICIPANT 2 INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT ............................... 46

APPENDIX G: PARTICIPANT 3 INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT .............................. 58

APPENDIX H: PARTICIPANT 4 INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT .............................. 68


7/79

1

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Brief background

The pursuit of perfection presents an interesting set of challenges to the musicians

who seek it; not only does it influence all areas of music-making, from technique to

interpretation, but it can also undermine ones relationship to the music, turning what

can be a joyful and rewarding undertaking into a frustrating and seemingly futile

endeavour. While striving for perfection may or may not be inherently problematic

for all musicians, the effects of that pursuit, at least in my own experience, have

generally been negative, and such perfectionistic ambitions have tended to make my

musical journey unnecessarily arduous and taxing.

Although there are challenges common to most music students in a conservatorium

setting, such as having to master advanced repertoire in short periods of time while

also developing ones playing abilities, my own informal discussions with fellow

music students indicates that not all musicians experience the desire for perfection or

the negative consequences of striving for it. Those who do, however, tend to find such

tendencies often manifest themselves in ways that compound the conventional

challenges of being a music student.

While perfectionism may affect tertiary music students in their attempts to gain

positive evaluations of their playing, a culture of perfectionism could begin much

earlier in life for musicians, as talented children are often pushed to achieve success in

eisteddfods, AMEB exams and their academic schooling.

What is common to many of the aforementioned challenges is their emphasis on

performance goals in which individuals are concerned with gaining favorable

judgements of their competence, as opposed tolearning goals, in which individuals

are concerned with increasing their competence (Dweck & Leggett, 1988, p. 256).

Research has shown that children who are pushed to meet performance goals more so

than learning goals are significantly more likely to exhibit dysfunctional

perfectionism reporting a combination of high concern about mistakes, doubts

about actions, parental expectations, and parental criticism (Ablard & Parker, 1997,

p. 651).


8/79

2

In musicians, perfectionism potentially has positive and negative aspects. Striving for

perfection has been shown to be associated with intrinsic motivation to pursue music

studies, higher effort, and higher achievement (Stoeber & Eismann, 2007, p. 2190).

On the other hand, negative reactionstoimperfection have been associated with

debilitating (rather than facilitating) performance anxiety, emotional fatigue, and

somatic complaints (Mor, Day, & Flett, 1995, p. 219). Given these findings, it became

imperative for me to investigate methods for coping with the negative aspects of

perfectionism, while capitalising on any positive aspects.

As part of this research, I interviewed four classical pianists. The purpose of these

interviews was not to consult a representative sample, but to provide in-depth

perspectives on perfectionism from the point of view of classical pianists. A self-

reflective journaling process from my own perspective as a classical pianist, along

with a review of the relevant literature, provided a means for interpreting the

interview data.

Research questions

In this study, the following research questions are addressed:

1.

How do some classical pianists, including myself, perceive the effect of

perfectionism on the quality of their learning, performance experience, and

wellbeing?

2. What strategies might classical pianists implement in order to cope more

effectively with perfectionism?

Rationale

Past research on musical perfectionism consists largely of quantitative studies from

the field of psychology (Kenny, Davis, & Oates, 2004; Kobori, Yoshie, Kudo, &

Ohtsuki, 2011; Mor et al., 1995; Stoeber & Eismann, 2007). The benefit of a

qualitative inquiry into musical perfectionism, as employed in this study, is that the

experiences of the interviewed pianists may be more richly explored and interpreted.

It is hoped that this type of preliminary study may lead to further more extensive

studies of the phenomenon.


9/79

3

I strongly believe that research on musical perfectionism, both informed by the

established research, and from the point of view of classical pianists, has the potential

to be of significance to conservatory music students who are under high pressure to

meet performance and learning goals simultaneously. Teachers may also benefit from

becoming informed of the potential consequences of perfectionism on the wellbeing

of their students. Lastly, my personal exploration of the nature of perfectionism, the

ways it can manifest in my own playing, and the testing of suggested coping strategies

within the domain of music will not only contribute to my own healthy growth as a

musician, but will provide a resource for fellow musicians who experience similar

challenges.

Structure of thesis

This thesis is organized into six chapters. Chapter two provides a review of the

literature relevant to the present study of musical perfectionism. The available

literature includes research from the field of psychology that provides

conceptualisations of perfectionism, quantitative research into the prevalence of

perfectionism in musicians, and some more accessible resources related to developing

strategies for coping with perfectionism. Chapter three outlines the methodological

framework of the present study. Chapter four provides an analysis of the interview

data obtained from interviews with the four classical pianists. Chapter five provides

some reflections on journal entries that supplemented the process of interpreting the

interview data, from my own insiders perspective as a pianist. Finally, chapter six

contains a summary of findings, implications for further research, and concluding

thoughts on the subject.


10/79

4

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

A number of benefits are to be gained from exploring the literature on perfectionism,

and specifically on its manifestations in musicians. It will provide an understanding of

how the particular demands of being a musician are influenced by perfectionism. This

includes both the potential benefits and difficulties caused by perfectionistic

tendencies. With regard to the adverse consequences of perfectionism on musicians

lives, reviewing the literature will help provide an understanding of what solutions

and coping strategies are available.

To understand the role that perfectionism plays for the classical pianists interviewed

in this study, it is important first to understand what perfectionism is, and how

research on the subject has progressed historically.

Historical conceptions of perfectionism

Most general definitions of perfectionism within the field of psychology take

something close to the following form: Perfectionism is characterised by striving for

flawlessness and setting of excessively high standards for performance accompanied

by tendencies for overly critical evaluations of ones behaviour (Stoeber & Eismann,

2007, p. 2183).

Within the field of psychology, it has been difficult for researchers to agree on a

definitive conception of perfectionism. An early study in 1978 by Hamachek

postulated that there were two forms of perfectionists: normal perfectionists and

neurotic perfectionists. To a large degree, this basic understanding has been echoed

throughout the literature in later years, although some researchers asserted that

perfectionism could only be dysfunctional (Burns, 1980; Pacht, 1984).

In the 1990s, two separate teams of researchers proposed that perfectionism was, in

fact, multi-dimensional in nature, and identified a number of characteristics that

contribute to it.

Frost, Marten, Lahart, and Rosenblate (1990) identified six dimensions of

perfectionism: personal standards, organization, concern over mistakes, doubts about


11/79


12/79

6

perfectionism can be positive and further supporting Hamacheks original supposition

regarding normal and neurotic perfectionism (1978).

Since Frost et al.s study in 1993, there have been a number of further studies that

identify positive characteristics of perfectionism (Chang, Watkins, & Banks, 2004;

Parker & Stumpf, 1995; Rice, Lopez, & Vergara 2005, Stumpf & Parker, 2000;

Suddarth & Slaney, 2001), contrasting with earlier research asserting that

perfectionism could only be dysfunctional. Stoeber & Otto (2006) summarise the

emergent view of perfectionism as potentially positive, with relation to Hamacheks

early conception of perfectionists as normal or neurotic:

Normal perfectionists are individuals who show high levels of perfectionistic

strivings, but are not overly distressed by the issues that are combined in thedimension of perfectionistic concerns... In contrast, neurotic perfectionists showhigh levels of perfectionistic strivings and are overly distressed by the issuescombined in the dimension of perfectionistic concerns Perfectionistic strivingsin themselves are not only normal, but may be positiveif only perfectionistscould focus on doing their best rather than worrying about mistakes, enjoystriving for perfection rather than being afraid of falling short of it, andconcentrate on what has been achieved rather than pondering the discrepancy

between what has been achieved and what might have been achieved ifeverything had worked out perfectly. In this form, perfectionism would be a

perfectly positive disposition. (p. 316)

In 2002, Shafran, Cooper, and Fairburn defined perfectionism in a new way,

proposing clinical perfectionism, a cognitive-behavioural conceptualisation of

perfectionism. This research suggested that clinical perfectionism is maintained by

the setting of dichotomous standards, evaluating the striving and attainment of

performance in a biased way, self-criticism if the standards are not met in the salient

domain and, if standards are met, reappraising them as insufficiently demanding (p.

787). The implication of this model was that cognitive behavioural therapy techniques

could be used to help patients identify and change unhelpful thought patterns e.g. if

the house is not totally tidy, it is an absolute mess (Shafran et. al, 2002). A later

study (Glover, Brown, Fairburn, & Shafran, 2007), confirmed that such an approach

had clinical utility, and was able to assist patients in decreasing perfectionistic

concerns. What this proved was that although perfectionism was traditionally viewed

as a stable personality trait, it could instead, to a degree, be approached as a

construct amenable to treatment (Glover et al., 2007, p. 86).


13/79

7

Perfectionism and musical demands

Research related to perfectionism in musicians is generally focussed on understanding

the prevalence of the phenomenon, and on consequences specific to musicians. From

their study of perfectionism in opera chorus artists, Kenny et al. (2004) provide a

summary of the challenging demands placed on musicians:

Music performance requires a high level of skill in a diverse range of skill areasincluding fine motor dexterity and co-ordination, attention and memory,aesthetic, and interpretative skills. To achieve prominence requires the attainmentof near perfection demanding years of training, solitary practice, and constant,intense self-evaluation (p. 760).

A number of studies provide evidence of the potential problems of perfectionism for

musicians. Kenny et al. found perfectionism to be associated with anxiety andspecifically music performance anxiety (2004, p. 772). Similarly, Kobori et al.

provided the following findings: Concern over mistakes had negative characteristics;

its relationship with performance anxiety was consistent and greater than those of any

other variable. Therefore, preoccupation with mistakes and equating mistakes with

failure would be dysfunctional for musicians (2011, p. 678). Stoeber & Eismann also

found a relationship between negative reactions to imperfection and higher distress in

musicians (2007, p. 2182).

Despite these findings that provide evidence of the potentially negative consequences

of perfectionism for musicians, there are many studies that demonstrate that

perfectionism can be positive and constructive. Stoeber & Eismanns research into

perfectionism in musicians found striving for perfection to be associated with positive

characteristics such as intrinsic motivation, higher effort, and higher achievement

(2007, p. 2182). Kobori et al. provide a similar finding, putting forward the notion

that the pursuit of perfection can be functional in the practice room, allowing

musicians to polish their playing in order to confidently deliver performances (2011,

p. 678).

Although these findings suggest that striving for perfection is constructive in the

practice room, performers may benefit more from the ability to accept imperfections

and let go of mistakes (Dews & Williams, 1989, p. 46). Pianist Artur Rubinstein had

this to say on the subject:


14/79

8

Never mind if I miss one or two notes. The big line is the thing, and it seems toconvey the right thing to the audience. Otherwise I would have been pushed fromthe concert podiums years ago. The public wouldnt stand for it. I think I am thechampion of playing wrong notes, but I dont care. And the public doesnt seemto care much (as cited in Elder, 1982, p. 3).

In a similar vein, research has shown that primarily pursuing performance goals, as

opposed to learning goals, tends to promote dysfunctional perfectionism (Ablard &

Parker, 1997, p. 651). As mentioned earlier, learning goals are concerned with

increasing competence, as opposed to performance goals, which are concerned with

gaining favourable judgments of competence (Dweck & Leggett, 1988, p. 256). It has

been found to be healthier to focus on learning goals, and that a problem-solving

focused approach in the practice room may lead to more adaptive perfectionism

(Lehmann, Sloboda, & Woody, 2007, p. 678; Mor et al., 1995, p. 221; Rice &

Lapsley, 2001, p. 166).

A number of studies have investigated approaches for dealing with the maladaptive

aspects of perfectionism. From a cognitive-behavioural standpoint, studies such as

Kendrick, Craig, Lawson, and Davidson (1982, p. 356), and Mor et al. (1995, p. 221)

show that mental biases such as dichotomous thinking and selective attention to

failure may be challenged, and replaced with task-oriented and positive thoughts.

Pleva & Wade found a reduction in symptoms could be achieved by following

cognitive-behavioural strategies in a similar way, and promotes the book When

Perfect Isnt Good Enough (Antony & Swinson, 1998/2009) as an effective and

accessible self-help guide to reducing perfectionistic tendencies (2007, p. 860).

In summary, the psychology literature suggests that perfectionism is a complex

psychological construct, with both positive and negative attributes. Striving for

excellence is regarded as a positive characteristic of perfectionism, and can work

strongly in favour of perfectionistic individuals, but may carry with it a self-punishing

attitude, and an excessive and counterproductive fear of making mistakes.

General resources

While much of the literature discussed so far is of a technical nature, there are several

more accessible resources available to musicians who want to understand how


15/79

9

perfectionism could affect their life and their music-making. As mentioned above, the

book When Perfect Isnt Good Enough (Antony & Swinson, 1998/2009) has been

promoted by researchers as an effective self-help guide for coping with perfectionism

(Pleva & Wade, 2007, p. 860). In particular, Chapter 3 (Perfectionism and

Thoughts) provides descriptions of a number of different types of perfectionistic

thoughts, all of which can contribute to emotional distress. Categories of

perfectionistic thoughts include all-or-nothing thinking, filtering, catastrophic

thinking, and a number of others. For examples of some of the categories described,

see Appendix C. The chapter assists the reader in identifying common types of

perfectionistic thoughts, and formulating new, healthier thoughts.

Other resources include Feeling Good by David D. Burns (2009), which provides

extensive, practical information on the process of identifying unhealthy thoughts and

replacing them with constructive ones, and The Perfect Wrong Note: Learning to

Trust Your Musical Self by pianist and pedagogue William Westney, which provides

a psychologically and physically healthy basis for piano practice.

Contribution to the literature

Having reviewed the literature relevant to the present investigation of musical

perfectionism, it is important to highlight the contribution made in this dissertation.

This study does not seek to contribute to perfectionism from a scientific perspective,

but rather from the particular perspectives of pianists (including myself) who

experience the phenomenon of perfectionism in their musical pursuits.

Aiming to understand pianists experiences of perfectionism, including positive and

negative aspects, provides a resource for pianists and musicians to better recognize

and deal with their own perfectionistic tendencies. While the available literature

provides information on the concept and psychology of perfectionism, this

dissertation is orientated towards understanding the relevance and application of that

research to musical perfectionism.


16/79

10

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

The following research questions are addressed in this thesis:

1. How do some classical pianists, including myself, perceive the effect of

perfectionism on the quality of their learning, performance experience, and

wellbeing?

2. What strategies might classical pianists implement in order to cope more

effectively with perfectionism?

The qualitative design of this study is built upon a review of the relevant literature on

perfectionism, interviews with four classical pianists regarding their perceptions of

perfectionism, analysis of these interviews, and a reflective journaling process. As a

classical pianist myself, I am approaching this research as an insider, allowing me to

draw on my own experiences in the reflective journals. Triangulating my findings

with that of the interview responses and with the relevant literature enhances the

validity of findings in this thesis.

Qualitative Design

This research employs a qualitative, mixed-method approach, using in-depth, semi-

structured interviews as a primary mode of data collection. The scope of the project

permitted only four participants to be interviewed, but allowed for thorough analysis

and cross-comparison of each case, and for the research to elucidate features of a

larger class of (similar) phenomena, by developing and evaluating theoretical

explanations (Porta & Keating, 2008, p. 226). Qualitative interviewing provides the

possibility of understanding the unique viewpoints of participants (Burns, 2000, p.

11).

In contrast to prior studies in which musical perfectionism has been measured

quantitatively, this phenomenological investigation examines musical perfectionism

by gaining an understanding of how it is experienced by each interview participant,

and what meaning is drawn from these experiences. As mentioned above, the findings

derived from the interviews were later triangulated with constructs from the literature

and my own personal experience as captured through journaling.


17/79

11

One qualitative study of performance anxiety in professional performers implements a

similar framework, providing an analysis of the in-depth interviews conducted with

participants, categorising the various strategies participants use to cope with

performance anxiety (Roland, 1994).

Interview Participants

Acknowledging my role in this research as a classical pianist who is interested in

gaining insight into how perfectionism might affect my practice and performance,

limiting the scope of selected interview participants to classical pianists meant that I

was well equipped to interpret interview data. Participants were chosen to represent a

range in gender and age, and range from the semi-professional performing student to

the veteran performer. The purpose of selecting pianists from a wide range of

professional statuses was to allow the phenomenon of musical perfectionism to be

examined from a variety of perspectives and worldviews. Focusing on the perceptions

of just four pianists allowed for a rich description of each perspective.

Semi-structured Interviewing

Semi-structured interviews, as implemented into the qualitative design of this

research, allowed the interview questions to be navigated in a flexible way, and for

the researcher to be responsive to the unique worldview and insights of the participant

as they emerged from the discussion (Merriam, 2009, p. 90). Interview questions were

derived from an initial process of research on perfectionism, and self-reflection. The

interview questions I prepared are provided in Appendix D, although as the interviews

were semi-structured they were not presented each time with the exact wording or

same order. Each interview lasted approximately 30-45 minutes, and was recorded in

audio format, allowing full transcripts to be written following each interview (see

Appendices E through H).

Data Analysis

After the interviews were completed and each interview was transcribed, the first step

in analysing and interpreting the data was to reduce the text by marking passages that

stood out as interesting or significant (Wolcott, 1994; Seidman, 1998, p. 120). As

observed by Seidman (1998, p. 119), doing so requires an open-minded approach,

allowing salient information to emerge from the text. Following this initial step,


18/79

12

marked passages were sorted into categories, and emerging connections between

categories led to a number of themes (Seidman, 1998, p. 127).

After completing this analysis, it was necessary to reflect on what was gained from

the process, what was understood about musical perfectionism that was not

understood prior to interviewing, consistencies and inconsistencies among the

interviews and the literature, and what meaning I had been able to draw from the

investigation (Seidman, 1998, p. 130). As I compared new ideas and insights with my

own perceptions, and put those ideas into practice, I was also able to reflect on how

my own perceptions had changed or broadened.

Reflective Journaling

This research makes use of self-reflective journaling as a supplementary tool in the

inductive investigation of musical perfectionism. The advantage of incorporating

reflective journaling into the research is that it assists in the process of drawing

meaning from themes codified from interview data, and aids in identifying

implications of the themes for my own and others musical development. Rather

than force-fitting the words of participants into theories derived from other sources

(Seidman, 1998, p. 130), spending time engaged in self-reflective journaling assists in

searching for new avenues and theories for further research.

While the journal entries were unstructured in format, the content provided a further

pool of data enabling me to test my own experiences against those described by the

interviewed pianists. In chapter five, some entries are reflected upon with the intent of

addressing the questions What?, So what?, andNow what? (Rolfe, Freshwater, &

Jasper, 2001). This meant writing about actions, consequences, responses, feelings

and problems to give a context; examining what I have learnt from the situation, and

relating new insights to any key themes from the interviews; and identifying the

impact these ideas could have on my practice or thinking, and what can be improved

in the future (Williams & Woolliams, 2012, p. 80).

Role of Researcher

As the primary instrument of data collection and analysis (Merriam, 2009, p. 14), I

was able to conduct theoretically informed interviews, interpret interview data, and


19/79

13

support this process with reflective journaling. Being a classical pianist myself, it was

possible for me, as the researcher, to pursue an understanding of the phenomenon of

musical perfectionism from a similar perspective to that of the participants. In

addition to supporting the analysis of interview data, my background as a classical

pianist allowed me to pursue deeper insights into perfectionisms effects on my own

practice, and how it influences the mindsets that I and others adopt in the practice

room.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval for this research was granted by Griffith University and ethical

considerations for this research were limited to obtaining consent for interviews and

recordings from participants. As discussion of the psychological construct of musical

perfectionism potentially involves the divulgence of particularly personal reflections

on the subject from participants, anonymity of the participants was maintained, and

any identifying personal information obscured.


20/79

14

CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS OF INTERVIEWS

The responses obtained from the interviews conducted with the four classical pianists

provide insight into each pianists understanding of what perfectionism is for them.

Emerging from each inquiry are unique perspectives that share common subjects of:

perfectionism as striving for musical ideals, avenues in which perfectionism

manifests, the extent to which perfectionism involves mental struggles, handling these

struggles, and despite it all, what pianists do to keep getting better.

In this chapter, an analysis of the interview data will be presented; moving through

the subjects outlined above and connecting common themes between the responses.

For transcripts of each of the four interviews, refer to Appendices E through H. Table

1 provides brief information on the background and experience of participants.

Table 1 Participant information outline

Participant 1 Male; postgraduate student

Participant 2 Female; performer and doctoral student

Participant 3 Male; over two decades of experience performing and teaching

Participant 4 Female; over three decades of experience performing and

teaching

Perceptions of perfectionism

All of the pianists shared the view that the foundation of perfectionism is in striving

for very high standards in various aspects of piano playing. Although there was some

minor variation in whether the pianists believed the result being strived for is

ultimately achievable, it was nevertheless agreed upon that the daily act of striving for

perfection is essential to being a good pianist. Participant 4 shared her belief of

perfectionism as necessary in the following way: I think if youre not striving for

perfection or a perfect performance then youre probably not going to be as fastidious

for accuracy, and youll be quite happy with just a 90% performance.

Participant 3 described perfection as an ideal that is pursued, but an ultimately

unreachable destination:


21/79

15

When I think of perfectionism in piano playing, I think of Plato, and the idea ofabsolute forms and the Platonic ideal form of a piece of music, and the idea thatevery piece of music exists somewhere out there in its perfect form, and everyoneis trying to recreate that, but inevitably failing, but trying nevertheless.

As well as sharing the view of perfectionism as striving for music in its ideal form,

Participant 2 also suggested that perfectionism could be a kind of talent which she

described as an ear for detail and having an ideal thats beyond what other people

can hear.

Although the theme of perfectionism as striving to achieve an ideal form was shared

among the pianists, for two of the four pianists it was more apparent that this striving

was inseparably partnered with a degree of psychological struggle. The other two

pianists shared a similar understanding of how perfectionism can become unhealthy,

but seemed to have less to relate to personally in this regard. The psychological

struggle experienced by Participants 1 and 4 primarily related to having difficulties

accepting imperfection. Participant 4 put it this way:

We can be too hard on ourselves, and that can interrupt spontaneity, it caninterrupt the sense of freedom in a performance, and so that you dont actually

play your best, because youre nervous about not playing perfect.

Participant 1 was able to suggest a definition of perfectionism that takes into account

the potential for perfectionism to become obsessive:

Perfectionism is aiming to make everything perfect, and I think it would implyaiming to make things perfect to the point of obsession, or to the point where thataim becomes unhealthy.

Avenues for perfectionism

In collectively understanding perfectionism as striving for ideals, it emerged from theinterviews that there are various avenues within music for such striving to take place.

These avenues include technique, interpretation, concentration, and thinking. In both

practice and performance, pianists identified these various avenues of perfectionistic

pursuit to varying degrees. The pursuit of interpretive clarity was identified as

potentially the most important area in which to strive for perfection. It was observed

by most of the pianists that in such a pursuit, it is inevitable that every pianist will

produce something different. Participant 1 identified the pursuit of interpretive


22/79

16

perfection as important in his performing, and noted that this can potentially involve

disappointment:

Perfectionism can take many forms often in performance what I strugglewith is not so much things like note-perfection, but I might have an idea a more

musical concept that I want to put across, or a whole lot of musical concepts forthe whole piece and then I feel really disappointed when some of my musicalideas dont come across.

As well as identifying this kind of perfectionistic pursuit, Participant 2 identified the

general vibe of the performance, and sheer technical execution as avenues for

perfectionism:

If its a live performance, involved in that would be the overall feel of theperformance as well, the vibe that youd have while doing it you might be able

to play something perfectly, but if you think it didnt really have the vibe, or itdidnt get the right reaction, then you wouldnt feel it was perfect. Its acombination of all those things. But I mean, essentially, most of the time itsabout our execution.

The pursuit of perfect concentration was a theme that came up primarily in interviews

with Participants 1 and 3. Participant 1, who identified with mental struggles as

associated with perfectionism, perceived striving to concentrate well in the practice

room as counter-productive:

Id play a phrase for example, and Id think I missed a note because I wasntconcentrating well. And then thats how that obsessive-compulsive practiceactually happens because then you think Ill go and play it again and Illconcentrate, and you dont; you keep going over it and over it and over it.

In contrast, Participant 3 strives in his performances for the ability to listen to every

note, or every sound that I make in a performance, and not to lose concentration for a

single second, and such a pursuit is for him a good thing to aim for in terms of

perfectionism.

Healthy versus unhealthy

As has been stated above, although the pursuit of perfection may be common among

pianists, there is a potential for this pursuit to be intertwined with a sense of internal

struggle. Participant 4 describes this aspect of perfectionism:

Theres that psychological battle and that psychological balancing act, betweenbeing happy with something thats not perfect, in order to have a bit ofspontaneity, and in order to be, you know, not be suicidal at the end ofsomething, and that hard and critical on yourself.


23/79

17

Participant 3, who seemed to identify less with such struggles, shared a particularly

insightful perspective into how perfectionism can be unhealthy:

I think another kind of dual perspective on it is that, I think its fair to say, thatits a bad thing if its a perfectionism that is perceived by the pianist as reflectingon them. Its agood kind of perfectionism if its perceived by the pianist as beingconcerned with the music.

From his point of view, he also saw a danger in perceiving perfection as achievable:

You are probably setting yourself up for a sense of failure if you think that your

job will ever be finished, I think.

Participant 2 recognized a potential for pianists to be unhappy if their happiness is

based upon achieving the level of perfection they desire:

So many of these guys at the top are not happy, and I think a lot that has to dowith that is that they can hear what they want to do and it takes so much workto achieve that, and they often dont get there, they dont enjoy themselves.

Another potential downfall for perfectionists described by Participant 2 occurs when

perfectionists might discount all of their positive achievements, and only focus on

their mistakes. This is an example of a perfectionistic thought described in When

Perfect Isnt Good Enough (Antony & Swinson, 2009), calledfiltering(see

Appendix C).

A danger identified by Participant 1 is in teaching that promotes the belief that

perfection is achievable and must be reached:

I was once told by a teacher that my Scarlatti must be perfection, and thatparticular comment did not help to foster a particularly healthy approach in my

playing, because I already wanted it to be a high level of perfection, I was alreadyputting quite a lot of pressure on myself, and then I have a teacher puttingadditional pressure on me, and that was very unhealthy for me.

As was identified in the literature, another influence on perfectionism can be

parenting styles (Ablard & Parker, 1997, p. 651). Participant 4 believed that parents

excessive criticism of mistakes could be detrimental to young people, drawing

attention to the kind of parents who are over-pushing their kids, giving their kids a

false sense of reality as well theyve gotta be the best and theyve gotta win. Its

pretty sad.


24/79

18

All of the pianists had contributions to make in terms of how they practice, and how

perfectionism influences their work. For Participant 3, there is a fine line between

obsessive practice that is healthy and that which is not. From his view it is clear that

when perfectionism is not manifesting in unhealthy ways, it provides the drive and

joy that allows one to continue pursuing new musical heights:

Theres probably a difference between healthy obsessive practice, andunhealthy obsessive practice, and its a very fine line, and its hard to say whichis which. I think that healthy obsessive practice is essentially a kind of joyousthing, its like kind of hard work where you get so involved with the hard workthat it becomes a kind of deep fun. And youre actually improving things throughthe process.

Each of the pianists made observations about how perfectionism manifests in the

classical music industry in the current age. Participants all observed that there is

perhaps less of a focus on individuality, and more of a focus on technical perfection,

particularly in competition circuits and in the classical recording industry. Participant

3 believed that competitions often prescribe a narrow template for pianists to adhere

to, and that competition performances are often characterized by inoffensive

interpretive choices, questionable musical values, and emphasis on show-pony

type repertoire. Despite this observation, Participant 3 believed that competitions

still provide benefits to developing pianists, by providing a kind of extrinsic

motivation that can help them polish their playing to new levels. This suggests that

competitions may be most beneficial for pianists when they focus on learning goals

(increasing their competence) rather thanperformance goals (gaining approval of

their abilities) (Dweck & Leggett, 1988, p. 256).

In reflecting on the classical piano world, Participant 2 discussed a kind of

dichotomous perfectionism that has tended to pervade the industry, which in her

words says youre a failure if you dont become a concert pianist. She believed that

perhaps the industry is gradually moving away from this belief.

Moving forward

For Participants 1 and 4, who identified more personally with the mental struggles

associated with perfectionism, it was clear that coping strategies had been developed

to help them counteract their distress. These strategies usually involved the cultivation


25/79

19

of healthy thought patterns, particularly as related to performance. A shared theme in

the way they employed self-talk was that they both continued to remind themselves of

the pursuit of perfection as a life-long process. Realizing that they couldnt beperfect

or achieveperfection, but that it was healthy and rewarding to continually strive for

perfection in their work, allowed them to feel more at ease with their imperfections.

Participant 4 summarizes this theme:

I also try to tell myself before a performance whats the worst that canhappen? Its not a life-threatening illness that Im going through here, its just,Im playing a concert and Im not perfect. So once you decide that youre not

perfect and you decide to stop trying to be perfect in performance, I think thatyou can enjoy life better as a musician, rather than beating yourself over the headevery time something goes wrong.

Both Participants 1 and 4 also found it easier to accept imperfection when they were

performing for their own internal satisfaction, rather than to try and meet perceived

external pressures. When asked if he perceives a feeling of external pressure from the

audience, Participant 1 responded:

I think that almost everyone does, and its very difficult to overcome that I think.Ideally, the more you focus on the music, and the more you learn to play foryourself, then the less youd feel concerned with that.

Participants 1 and 4 also believed in the importance of maintaining a balanced life that

is not dependent on the success of pianistic pursuits. In Participant 1s words:

If youre deriving your fulfilment in life from your own perfectionistic attitudetowards piano playing, then youre not going to be a fulfilled person, inevitably,

because youll never meet your standards. I think its important to have otheractivities that arent as pressured as piano playing.

Participant 4 similarly thought that it would be really healthy not to put all your eggs

in one basket because you are more than just your playing.

Among all responses, it emerged that quality of practice was seen to be the foundation

on which pianists musical progress is based. It was agreed upon that practice and

performance mentalities must be kept separate, and that perfectionistic striving is

essential in the practice room, but must be let go of when on stage. On this note,

Participant 2 reflected on past teaching she had received in which, towards the

performance, the teacher gave permission for her to forget about mistakes, and just


26/79

20

focus on capturing the vibe of the piece. Participant 2 believed this to be a helpful

way to prepare for performances.

Participant 3 claimed to approach performance with the aim of sustaining an intense,

meditative focus on the sound he produces:

Its not saying that youre going to deliver the perfect version of that piece, itssaying that basically, your awareness and your concentration will be focused onlistening for the whole performance.

He underlined the distinction that this focus is not judgemental, and that whether good

or bad, all thoughts are merely distractions; if a positive or negative judgment occurs

in his mind, he simply shifts his attention back to the sound. Though he views the

practice room as being the place where one can primarily work on individual skills,

including musical, technical, and memorization abilities, he believes that intense

concentration is a skill that needs to be practiced in the later stages of a pieces

development.

Participants all shared the view that the practice room is the place to take skills apart

and hone them. A common theme among pianists was that repetition of passages

without a clear goal could be considered unhealthy and counterproductive, whereas a

more healthy approach involves adopting a problem-solving oriented attitude. This

latter approach has been shown in the literature to lead to more adaptive perfectionism

(Lehmann et al., 2007, p. 678; Mor et al., 1995, p. 221; Rice & Lapsley, 2001, p.

166). Participant 1 identified that there are many different ways to approach a

problem, and that there isnt necessarily one correct way to go about it. For him, he

found it important to recognize that attempting to practice perfectly was a futile

endeavour, and that it was healthier to see the process of getting better at practicing as

a life-long goal:

Its not something you can learn overnight. It takes maturity. Its a skill, itreally is. I feel like Ive come a long way with it, and I feel like I have a very longway to go, but I think its a life-long thing I dont think that anyone just wakesup one day and can practice perfectly.

In somewhat of a contrast to Participants 1 and 4, Participant 2 views perfectionism as

not something to fight or resist, but as something to have workforyou:


27/79

21

You need those standards its just, getting them to work for you. Its not gettingrid of them. Its like performance anxiety, you dont want to get rid of it, its justgetting it to work for you Not even thinking about this as a negative aspect treating it like its your friend, you know. And just saying, well these are thethings I have to do so its happy, otherwise, you know if you treat anything badly

its going to come back at you.

This, perhaps, is the key to understanding the role of perfectionism in the pursuit of

pianistic excellence that perfectionism neednt always be viewed as negative and

that having the desire to aim for perfection allows pianists to continually grow as

musicians. Participants agreed that realising such a pursuit is an endless process helps

to free them from feeling that achieving less than perfection means failure.


28/79

22

CHAPTER FIVE: REFLECTIVE JOURNALING

Throughout the process of compiling this thesis, I made use of reflective journaling as

a means of seeking to understand what I have learnt about perfectionism from the

literature, and from the perspectives of the classical pianists who were interviewed.

Being a classical pianist myself, I was able to develop an understanding of the subject

from an insiders perspective, triangulating my experiences and insights with those of

the pianists who were interviewed.

This chapter provides structured reflections on some of my journal entries, in the

format described in the methodology chapter. This format of What?, So what?, and

Now what?involves writing about a new experience regarding perfectionism, drawing

meaning from the experience, and identifying the impact of new insights on future

music-making and personal experiences (Rolfe et al., 2001; Williams & Woolliams,

2012, p. 80).

Reflection on journal entry from 15/July/14

What?

This entry relates to my attitudes towards studio recording. My partner had suggested

to me that I should definitely consider preparing some of my current repertoire for

recording at the end of the year. The notion behind this was that polishing my

repertoire for recording would help me prepare for entering competitions in the near

future, and would be a nice record of where Im at with my playing.

My immediate reaction was no way. I asserted that my playing definitely wouldnt be

good enough for a recording, as there were bound to be imperfections. However, as

soon as the reply had left my mouth, I recognised the dysfunction in my attitude. My

response essentially was:If the recording is not going to be perfect, I may as well not

bother. Having read When Perfect Isnt Good Enough (Antony & Swinson, 2009) as

part of my research, I was able to recognize that this was a classic example of all-or-

nothing (dichotomous) thinking. This is the kind of thought that says if its not

perfect, its a failure.


29/79

23

So what?

I decided that it would be helpful to write a new thought, one that would be a

healthier response. This process was informed by Antony & Swinsons resource

(2009, pp. 48-49) mentioned above. In my journal, I came up with:

Making a recording of my current repertoire could provide a valuable experiencefor growth. It would give me a chance to really polish my pieces. I would bedoing it for the intrinsic reward of working hard on playing music I love to a highlevel, rather than for the extrinsic reward of having people like my playing.

I feel that over time, going through this process will help me reinforce more healthy

responses to situations in which my perfectionism could potentially present itself.

Now what?

Addressing other dysfunctional attitudes in this way will potentially open future

creative possibilities. This kind of perfectionism can be very restrictive, and usually

means missing out on worthwhile musical endeavours for fear of imperfections and

judgment. I aim to continue to use the skills with which this research has equipped me

to remove perfectionistic boundaries in my musical and personal growth.

Reflection on journal entry from 13/August/14

What?

This entry relates to part of the interview conducted with Participant 2. I brought up

the idea of dealing with the negative aspects of perfectionism while maintaining

the positives, to which Participant 2 responded:

Yeah, but not even thinking about this as a negative aspect treating it like itsyour friend, you know. And just saying, well these are the things I have to do so

its happy, otherwise, you know, if you treat anything badly its going to comeback at you.

I was probably angling to get Participant 2 to tell me about their perceptions of the

negative aspects of perfectionism in their music-making, but the response made me

realise that they saw things from a perspective that didnt necessarily cast

perfectionism as negative.


30/79

24

So what?

I realized that although it is helpful to understand my perfectionistic tendencies, I

dont necessarily need to try tofixmy perfectionism. Rather, I can learn to coexist

with it, so that changing my mindsets doesnt just become another thing to be

perfectionistic about. Simply being aware that I have perfectionistic thoughts and

tendencies and that they colour my experience in a certain way may be enough in

itself for the more unpleasant thoughts to lose emotional traction. As I reflected, to

simply realize that your perfectionistic thoughts are all that is causing you to create a

reality where you feel that the world needs you to be perfect, to realize this is perhaps

enough.

Now what?

What I will hopefully be able to bring into the future from this reflection is the ability

to accept my perfectionistic tendencies, and personality traits, all the while having a

clearer understanding of when striving for perfection in my music making is counter-

productive.

Reflection on journal entry from 1/Sept/14

What?

This entry relates to part of the interview conducted with Participant 3. During the

interview process, I was aiming to find out what participants believe are the healthy

and unhealthy aspects of perfectionism, and this point made by Participant 3 struck

me as particularly insightful:

I think another kind of dual perspective on it is that I think its fair to say that its

a bad thing if its a perfectionism that is perceived by the pianist as reflecting onthem. Its agoodkind of perfectionism if its perceived by the pianist as beingconcerned with the music.

So what?

I took several key points away from reflecting on his perspective. First of all, it is

clear that perfectionistic tendencies will likely facilitate musicians in achieving new

levels of musical ability. However, the pursuit of trying to beperfect as a pianist is

definitely more dangerous. This kind of pursuit essentially is about trying to escape

negative judgments from our listeners and critics by being nothing but perfect. One


31/79

25

eventually realizes that this pursuit is both exhausting, and futile. Bren Brown

alludes to this problem in her book The Gifts of Imperfection (2010):

Perfectionism is a self destructive and addictive belief system that fuels this primary

thought: If I look perfect, and do everything perfectly, I can avoid or minimize the

painful feelings of shame, judgment, and blame (p. 57).

Now what?

Having gained this insight from reflecting on Participant 3s perspective, I can bring a

new level of mindfulness into the future of when my perfectionism is facilitating

musical growth, and when it is simply an attempt to protect myself from negative

judgment from others. If I have learnt nothing else, it is that our journey as pianists,

and musicians, is an endless pursuit, meaning that there is endless joy to be had, and

that the best way to enjoy this journey is to let go of trying to please others.


32/79

26

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS

Drawing together discoveries made from reviewing the literature, interviewing

classical pianists, and reflecting personally on the subject as a classical pianist myself,

lead to a number of overall findings about how perfectionism can affect classical

pianists. The following section relates these findings back to the original research

questions.

Summary of findings

Research question 1:How do some classical pianists, including myself, perceive the

effect of perfectionism on the quality of their learning, performance experience, and

wellbeing?

The classical pianists interviewed identified a number of characteristics of

perfectionism, and several avenues in which it could manifest itself in their work.

Perfectionism was related to striving for high standards in playing, an ear for detail,

obsessiveness, and a degree of psychological struggle associated with negative

reactions to imperfection, which may adversely affect performance. It was thought

that perfectionism could arise in various musical areas such as technique,

interpretation, concentration, thinking, and practice habits. As a classical pianist, I

was able to relate these perspectives to my own experiences with perfectionism.

Interview participants all contributed ideas about when perfectionism may be

functional and when it may be dysfunctional. Unhealthy aspects of perfectionism

were seen as stemming from certain mindsets and thought patterns. These included

all-or-nothing type thoughts, where anything less than perfect is a failure, and the

tendency to relate self-esteem to the perceived degree of musical perfection.

Perfectionism was also seen to be dysfunctional when it involves excessive concern

of how the listener judges the pianist. These ideas shared commonalities with my own

reflections on perfectionism, namely, having been able to observe tendencies for

thinking in an all-or-nothing way and for being overly concerned about how my

playing is judged by others.


33/79

27

In order to move in a healthier direction, it was believed to be better to perform for

ones own intrinsic satisfaction, rather than as an attempt to gain external approval. It

was viewed that perfectionism might be useful when it involves striving for standards

of excellence in the practice room, and in this regard, one participant even considered

it as a kind of talent. Important to participants was the ability to separate this

mentality of striving for high standards in the practice room to being able to let go on

stage. These perceptions relate well to concepts discussed in the literature, with many

researchers identifying similar positive and negative ways in which perfectionism can

manifest. Several of the interviewed pianists described how an excessive concern for

mistakes could potentially derail their performance confidence. This reflects findings

in the literature that relate perfectionism to debilitating (rather than facilitating)

performance anxiety (Mor et al., 1995, p. 219).

Research question 2: What strategies might classical pianists implement in order to

cope more effectively with perfectionism?

Resources such as When Perfect Isnt Good Enough (Antony & Swinson, 2009)

provide a means for identifying perfectionistic thoughts that are dysfunctional, and

ways of replacing these thoughts with healthier ones. This was an approach employed

by several of the interviewed pianists, who engaged in healthy self-talk as a way of

counteracting distress related to perfectionism. There were shared mindsets adopted

by the pianists that they regarded as allowing them to strive for high standards in a

healthy way. The pianists found it helpful to focus on playing for their own intrinsic

satisfaction, rather than being concerned primarily with external judgement. It was

important for them to be able to approach practice and performance with different

mindsets, focusing on problem-solving in the practice room, and letting go when on

stage. Pianists agreed that the pursuit of perfection was an endless journey, and that

acknowledging this helped them to accept their imperfections. This particular attitude

has helped me in accepting the learning process as a life-long pursuit, one that is most

joyful when I let go of trying to avoid imperfection. This also relates to the concept of

learninggoals versusperformance goals, the former describing such an attitude, and

the latter having an association with dysfunctional perfectionism (Dweck & Leggett,

1988, p. 256; Ablard & Parker, 1997, p. 651). Participant 2 shared her perspective of

perfectionism as something not to be treated negatively or fought, but as something


34/79


35/79

29

REFERENCES

Ablard, K., & Parker, W. D. (1997). Parents achievement goals and perfectionism intheir academically talented children.Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20(6),

651-667. Retrieved May 18, 2014, from Springer database.

Antony, M. M., & Swinson, R. P. (2009). When perfect isnt good enough: Strategiesfor coping with perfectionism(2nd ed.). Oakland, CA: New HarbingerPublications, Inc.

Burns, D. D. (1980). The perfectionists script for self-defeat.Psychology today,14(6), 34-52.

Burns, D. D. (2009).Feeling good: The new mood therapy (2nd ed.).New York:Harper Collins.

Chang, E. C., Watkins, A. F., & Banks, K. H. (2004). How adaptive and maladaptiveperfectionism relate to positive and negative psychological functioning: Testinga stress-mediation model in black and white female college students. Journal ofCounseling Psychology, 51,93102. Retrieved October 27, 2014, from Oviddatabase.

Dews, C. L., & Williams, M. S. (1989). Student musicians personality styles,stresses, and coping patterns.Psychology of Music, 17(1), 37-47. Retrieved May31, 2014, from Sage database.

Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation andpersonality.Psychological Review, 95(2), 256-273. Retrieved June 7, 2014,from Ovid database.

Elder, D. (1982).Pianists at play: Interviews, master lessons, and technical regimes.Evanston, IL: Instrumentalist Co.

Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts:Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology.Journalof Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470. Retrieved April 29, 2014,

from ScienceDirect database.

Frost, R., Heimberg, R., Holt, C., Mattia, J., & Neubauer, A. (1993). A comparison oftwo measures of perfectionism.Personality and Individual Differences, 14(1),119-126. Retrieved May 22, 2014, from ScienceDirect database.

Frost R., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions ofperfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14(5), 449-468. RetrievedApril 29, 2014, from Springer database.

Glover, D. S., Brown, G. P., Fairburn, C. G., & Shafran, R. (2007). A preliminary

evaluation of cognitive-behaviour therapy for clinical perfectionism: A case


36/79

30

series.British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 46(1), 85-94. Retrieved July 4,2014, from CINAHL database.

Hamachek, D. E. (1978). Psychodynamics of normal and neurotic perfectionism.Psychology, 15, 27-33. Retrieved April 29, 2014, from PsycNET database.

Kendrick, M. J., Craig, K. D., Lawson, D. M., & Davidson, P. O. (1982). Cognitiveand behavioral therapy for musical-performance anxiety.Journal of Consultingand Clinical Psychology, 50(3), 353-362. Retrieved April 10, 2014, from Oviddatabase.

Kenny, D. T., Davis, P., & Oates, J. (2004). Music performance anxiety andoccupational stress amongst opera chorus artists and their relationship with stateand trait anxiety and perfectionism.Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18(6), 757-777. Retrieved April 29, 2014, from ScienceDirect database.

Kobori, O., Yoshie, M., Kudo, K., & Ohtsuki, T. (2011). Traits and cognitions ofperfectionism and their relation with coping style, effort, achievement, andperformance anxiety in Japanese musicians.Journal of Anxiety Disorders,25(5), 674-479. Retrieved April 29, 2014, from ScienceDirect database.

Lehmann, A. C., Sloboda, J. A., & Woody, R. H. (2007).Psychology for musicians:Understanding and acquiring the skills. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Mor, S., Day, H. I., & Flett, G. L. (1995). Perfectionism, control, and components ofperformance anxiety in professional artists. Cognitive Therapy and Research,19(2), 207-225. Retrieved May 18, 2014, from Springer database.

Pacht, A. R. (1984). Reflections on perfection.American Psychologist, 39, 386390.

Parker, W. D., & Stumpf, H. (1995). An examination of the MultidimensionalPerfectionism Scale with a sample of academically talented children.Journal of

Psychoeducational Assessment, 13,372383. Retrieved October 27, 2014, fromSage database.

Pleva, J., & Wade, T. D. (2007). Guided self-help versus pure self-help forperfectionism: A randomised controlled trial.Behaviour Research and Therapy,45(5), 849-861. Retrieved July 4, 2014, from ScienceDirect database.

Porta, D. D., & Keating, M. (Eds.). (2008).Approaches and methodologies in thesocial sciences.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rice, K. G., Lapsley, D. K. (2001). Perfectionism, coping, and emotional adjustment.Journal of College Student Development, 42(2), 157-168. Retrieved July 4,2014, from ProQuest database.


37/79

31

Rice, K. G., Lopez, F. G., & Vergara, D. (2005). Parental/social influences onperfectionism and adult attachment orientations.Journal of Social and ClinicalPsychology, 24,580605. Retrieved October 27, 2014, from ProQuest database.

Roland, D. (1994). How professional performers manage performance anxiety.

Research in Music Education, 2(1), 25-35. Retrieved April 10, 2014, from Sagedatabase.

Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D., & Jasper, M. (2001). Critical reflection for nursing and thehelping professions: A users guide. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.

Seidman, I. (1998).Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers ineducation and the social sciences(2nd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.

Shafran, R., Cooper, Z., & Fairburn, C. G. (2002). Clinical perfectionism: Acognitivebehavioural analysis.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(7), 773-

791. Retrieved July 4, 2014, from ScienceDirect database.

Stoeber, J., & Eismann, U. (2007). Perfectionism in young musicians: Relations withmotivation, effort, achievement, and distress.Personality and Individual

Differences, 43(8), 2182-2192. Retrieved April 29, 2014, from ScienceDirectdatabase.

Stoeber, J., & Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches,evidence, challenges.Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 295-319. Retrieved May 22, 2014, from Sage database.

Stumpf, H., & Parker, W. D. (2000). A hierarchical structural analysis ofperfectionism and its relation to other personality characteristics.Personalityand Individual Differences, 28,837852.

Suddarth, B. H., & Slaney, R. B. (2001). An investigation of the dimensions ofperfectionism in college students.Measurement and Evaluation in Counselingand Development, 34,157165.

Westney, W. (2003). The perfect wrong note: Learning to trust your musical self.Pompton Plains, N.J.: Amadeus Press.

Williams, K., & Woolliams, M. (2012).Reflective writing. Hampshire: PalgraveMacmillan.


38/79

32

APPENDIX A: Perfectionistic thoughts measured on the Frost Multidimensional

Perfectionism Scale (Frost et al., 1990, p. 455; Stoeber & Otto, 2006, p. 299)

Personal standards

I have extremely high goals

I expect higher performance in my daily tasks than most people

It is important to me that I be thoroughly competent in everything I do

Organization

Organization is very important to me

I am an organized person

I try to be a neat person

Concern over mistakes

People will probably think less of me, if I make a mistake

If I do not do well all the time, people will not respect me

If I fail partly, it is as bad as being a complete failure

Doubts about actions

I usually have doubts about the simple everyday things that I do

I tend to get behind in my work because I repeat things over and over

Even when I do something very carefully, I often feel that it is not quite

right

Parental expectations

My parents wanted me to be the best at everything

My parents set very high standards for me

Only outstanding performance is good enough in my family

Parental criticism

As a child, I was punished for doing things less than perfect

My parents never tried to understand my mistakes

I never felt like I could meet my parents standards


39/79

33

APPENDIX B: Perfectionistic thoughts measured on Hewitt & Fletts

Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (1991, p. 470)

Self-oriented perfectionism:

It makes me uneasy to see an error in my work

One of my goals is to be perfect in everything I do

I must always be successful at school or work

Other-oriented perfectionism:

If I ask someone to do something, I expect it to be done flawlessly

I cant be bothered with people who wont strive to better themselves

Socially prescribed perfectionism:

The people around me expect me to succeed at everything I do

Anything I do that is less than excellent will be seen as poor work by those

around me

My family expects me to be perfect


40/79

34

APPENDIX C: Some categories of perfectionistic thinking described in When

Perfect Isnt Good Enough (Antony & Swinson, 2009, pp. 48-53)

All-or-nothing thinking

Example statements:

Anything less than sticking to my diet perfectly is a failure. If I eat one

cookie, I may as well have eaten ten cookies

I always need to look perfect in front of other people

If I dont get an A+ in this course, I dont deserve to be in this program

Filtering

Example scenario:

Ella receives a two-page performance evaluation at work that is very positive

overall, emphasizing that she is among the most valued employees in the

company. However, she feels angry and hurt over one criticism suggesting

that she try to participate more in meetings

Catastrophic thinking

Example statements:

I couldnt handle making a mistake in front of the class

It would be absolutely terrible if I missed a deadline

If this deal doesnt go through, I dont know how I will manage


41/79

35

APPENDIX D: Interview questions

In the interviews, participants were asked the following questions, although the semi-

structured style of the interviews meant that questions were often asked in a varied

order, or with different wording.

How would you define perfectionism?

How important an issue do you believe perfectionism is for classical pianists?

Do you have any experiences with perfectionism personally?

How do you think perfectionism could affect a musicians work in the practice

room?

How do you think perfectionism could affect a musicians experience of

performing?

How do you think perfectionism could affect a musicians wellbeing in

general?

Do you think there are ways that perfectionism could affect classical pianists

specifically? (Do they face any unique challenges?)

Have you heard of the concept of learning goalsversusperformance goals?

(Performance goals: in which individuals are concerned with gaining

favorable judgments of their competence, as opposed tolearning goals, in

which individuals are concerned with increasing their competence)

If so, how do you think this could factor into perfectionism in musicians?

What role do you think parents and teachers of students might play in

fostering either of these types of goals?

As we know, building a successful career as a musician requires us to develop

our playing to a very high level. Do you think the competitiveness in this field

to be able to make money as a performer could factor in perfectionism?

Some studies have shown that musicians often derive their self-esteem solely

from the quality of their music making, rather than evaluating themselves

based on a balanced range of areas. Do you think this could lead to problems

with perfectionism?

With the current technology that allows us to edit recordings to note-

perfectness, do you think such recordings might set unreasonable standards for


42/79

36

musicians trying to reproduce similar levels of accuracy in a live performance

setting?

Are there any strategies you think classical pianists could implement in order

to cope with perfectionism and work more effectively?


43/79

37

APPENDIX E: Participant 1 interview transcript

What do you think perfectionism is?

Perfectionism is aiming to make everything perfect, and I think it would imply aiming

to make things perfect to the point of obsession, or to the point where that aimbecomes unhealthy.

Right, so thered be a difference between an unhealthy kind of perfectionism, andmore healthy conscientiousness?

Yeah, I think so, because I think that to an extent we all have to aim for perfection, orat least when were practicing and were working we have to refine what were doingall the time. But then, when we become to fixated by the goal it becomes unhealthy.

So its going to the extremes?

Yeah, going to the extreme is unhealthy. And I think its important to make a divisionbetween our approach to practice and our approach to performance. Because I think inthe practice room one has to aim for perfection and one has to stop and correct thingsas they go wrong, but when the performance happens one has to let go of all of thatand learn to actually move past the mistakes that happen. Because quite often,

psychologically, when something goes wrong in a performance, the thing that goeswrong triggers something else that goes wrong because we dont let go of it properly.And I think thats why to an extent, in the practice room, we have to have a range ofstrategies at our disposal because there are times when we might want to build anaspect of the performance into the practice room experience we might want to playsomething through from start to finish, not stopping, whatever happens, so that weremore prepared for that performance situation.

Yeah, so it would help you to be less neurotic when youre on stage

Yeah and I think thats really important.

Are there any particular aspects of piano playing that you think perfectionism would

affect?

Well, the obvious thing is that its tempting to expect that things are going to be noteperfect, which it almost never can be in reality because were all human; were goingto make a mistake at one point or another. And perfectionism can take many forms often in performance what I struggle with is not so much things like note-perfection,

but I might have an idea a more musical concept that I want to put across, or awhole lot of musical concepts for the whole piece and then I feel really disappointedwhen some of my musical ideas dont come across. That can be an issue of

perfectionism for me. Its not just accuracy, its that not everything I wanted to putacross has come across. And so I think then whats important for me to realize inlooking back on the performance and reflecting on it is that, in terms of things that Imight not be happy with in the performance, theres things such as a wrong note

which might be an obvious mistake, and one that the audience might notice, andtheres also things like missing a note that nobody in the audience might hear. And


44/79

38

then there are those goals that I have, more musical goals, that the audience isntaware of and something might come out differently to how I expect but the audiencedoesnt actually feel that because they dont come into the performance with a pre-conception they dont know what it is Imexpecting, that Im intending, for eachmoment. Theyre more open-minded; they dont have a preconceived concept of the

performance.

So you think having particular mental strategies for dealing with it is important, and

telling yourself certain things

Absolutely. I think there has to be that decision I find for me, this is something thatIve struggled with for years that I have to decide when Im going to do a

performance I have to tell myself that its okay if I make a mistake and that it doesnthave to be perfect, if a mistake happens, Im going to mov

perfectionism in classical pianists: an exploration of how it manifests itself and possible coping...

Documents