Robbie Chan 11 Dec 2014

Performing the Dances of J.S. Bach’s Lute Suite no.3, BWV 995

What makes a piece of music a dance? The apparent response would be an incessant

recurring rhythmic motif. However, the meter, rhythmic structure, form, harmonic progression,

phrase structure, and texture, are also essential elements that lends a dance its particular

character. In addition, conventions of performance that may not be derived from notation, are

also vital to the identity of a dance. For the performer who wishes to perform dance music,

knowledge of the characteristic elements will help him convey the music in an idiomatic manner

and realize the work’s potential.

The works of Johann Sebastian Bach provide a good basis of study for dances. He

composed many dances in a great variety, while still maintaining each dance’s stylistic features,

as if to explore and push the limits of each individual dance form. He has also incorporated

dance rhythms into many of his non-dance pieces, such as his cantatas and chorales, as a way of

borrowing the affect of a dance.

Although Bach never travelled outside of Germanic lands during his lifetime, he

absorbed the musical styles and compositional practices of other geographical centers in his

music. It was natural for Bach to have crossed paths with the musical traditions of Italy and

France as the social traditions of those cultural centers were ubiquitous and deeply rooted in his

daily life. French court dances were regularly performed in German courts. The practices of

Italian violinists and vocalists, which inspired new expressive approaches to melodic writing,

were common place in the musical circles that Bach traveled in. And the French lute tradition

was firmly established in German musical centers by German lutenists who studied with the

French masters (Ledbetter 46).

As Bach adapted many of these styles in his music, distinguishing between the French

and Italian gestures poses a challenge. While some individual pieces by Bach may be identified

as predominantly Italian, French, or German in idiom, there are also many instances where the

distinction is unclear especially when the styles are mixed or used sporadically. It is in such

instances of ambiguous musical gestures that may not be easily categorized as Italian, French, or

German that this essay plans to suggest fitting explanation. It is crucial for the performer to be as

well informed about the context and practices of these styles in order to communicate the

composer’s intention. For example, performing the first section of a French overture with

metronomic precision to rhythmic values would produce result contradictory to the identity of

the work. Insights about the level of the beat, tempo, articulation, caesuras, and affect will help

the performer bring the dances to life.

As there are too many dance genres that Bach composed, his Lute Suite No.3 BWV 995

will be used as a framework for in-depth exploration of the dances. The objective is to classify

and identify musical elements that are crucial to the identity of each individual dance, and to

clarify the performance practices appropriate for the music of Bach and his contemporaries.

National Styles: Italian, French, and German

Before delving into specific dances, some general observations about the French, Italian,

and German national styles will allow for a better understanding of how individual dances

developed their character. These three national styles were the dominant styles of the Baroque

era. While there were other regional styles, they contributed more towards the popular and folk

traditions, and remained outside the centrality of music from the Baroque era and more

specifically, the music of Bach (Ratner 359).

Italian

The Italian style was the most prominent of the three national styles due to the spread of

its virtuosic school of violin playing and bel-canto singing. Italian music of the early 18th century

often possess frequent key changes and repeating passages. The most captivating quality of

Italian music is perhaps melody, which usually floats above and rarely distracts the simple and

regular harmonic progression that accompanies it. Features of Italian melody includes the

“mechanical figuration in rapid notes,” repetitive arpeggios patterns, and florid ornamentation,

such as appoggiaturas, trills, tiratas, and mordents (Ratner 338). Regular rhythmic pulsation

plays an important role in Italian instrumental music. This is achieved through the use of

uniformed rhythmic divisions, repeated patterns, and a punctuating bass line that accentuates

downbeats. Another quality that adds to the persistent rhythmic drive is the use of a more

transparent harmonic texture. (See Ratner, “Italian Style,” 335)

French

In late 17th century France, the absolutist reign of Louis XIV shaped the French style and

the role of music. Music was subservient to declamation and dancing, which were the focus of

artistic life in dramatic forms such as the comédie ballet and the tragédie en musique as

developed by Jean-Baptiste Lully. The purpose of music was to enhance the text or to

accompany choreography. This paradigm was in contrast with the Italians, who at this stage of

operatic history prioritized melody and vocal performativity. The French orchestra that

accompanied the dances played in an obligatory five-part texture, as cultivated by Lully in his

tragédies en musique. This rich texture generated a massive sound and a slower rhythmic drive,

which responds to the grandeur and attention required of French spectacle.

In the French style, elaborate ornaments such as appoggiaturas, trills, turns, and mordents

frequently decorate a single note. Short phrases are often echoed in various registers through the

use of coloristic embellishments. The style brisé or broken style, originating from the French lute

tradition, where notes of a chord are played in sequence rather than simultaneously is also a

common textural quality of the French style. Wide variety of ornamental figuration that are

derived and elaborated from the style brisé can be seen throughout French keyboard music.

The German “Mixed Style”

The German courts that were the center of musical activities employed both French and

Italian musicians. As such, French and Italian music influenced not only Bach but also his

German contemporaries, including Georg Philipp Telemann and Johann Joachim Quantz. The

music of Arcangelo Corelli, Giuseppe Torelli, and Antonio Vivaldi stood as models for the

Italian style, and that of Jean-Baptiste Lully, François Couperin, and André Campra for the

French style. The music of these composers was widely disseminated and performed in German

speaking lands. Thus, German composers readily adopted the styles of the Italian and French, not

only because of their popularity, but also because of their perceived cultural superiority.

Although German music took much from the Italian and French styles, they maintain a

style that can be qualified as their own. One which exhibits a more complex and full harmony

and learned contrapuntal logic. The German devotion to the strict and learned style produced a

body of work that is characterized by a rich texture, filled with imitations, counter rhythms, and a

quick harmonic rhythm. Together with the practice of developing a single idea to diverse ends,

the effect of German style is often that of “compression and greater substance” (Ratner 356).

The Cultural Significance of Court Dance

[After] the severe economic and social disruptions of the Thirty Years War… [between

the years 1618-1648], many German courts and cities imported culture from France

and Italy as part of a peacetime cultural competition, striving to build - brilliant, elegant

centers of civility which would outshine those of their neighbors (Little 3).

One of these cultural imports was French court dance. In France, these dances occurred at

ceremonial events held in courts and were attended by aristocrats. They were well rehearsed and

planned, and only the best recreational dancers performed while others watched and admired.

Almost all of the dances (minuets, courantes, gavottes, and other forms) consisted of special

written choreographies which were memorized beforehand; other members of the court had

learned the same choreographies and would know if they were performed correctly. Elegant

ceremonial balls were held to celebrate important events of the realm, such as a military victory,

the signing of a treaty, and the marriage or birthday of a socially prominent person (Little 5).

In German courts, much of the same tradition was preserved. By the early 18th century, the

custom of formal balls in the French style was beginning to be enjoyed by the middle classes as

well as the aristocrats. Although these balls were attended by a greater range of classes, it still

maintained the French standard of style, civility, and dignity. Apart from ceremonial balls held in

the courts, dance masters held weekly balls as an avenue for students to perform their

choreographies. In the interest of raising their social standing, the upper middle class strove to

imitate court life. They also adopted the practice of holding balls as much as it was possible. By

learning gracious behavior through dancing, the German citizens gained a sense of pride and

competence in society. The social gestures such as, bowing, taking one’s hat off, and other

cultured behavior that were part of dance instructions were especially important to the middle

class person who aims for a better life. Such gestures were expected not only of the participants

of the dance events but also of anyone who were to be presented in court (see Little 9).

Apart from ceremonial balls, theatrical dance which was more elaborate and carried greater

social prestige were held at the more affluent courts. They were larger productions involving

French dancers and a bigger ensemble, and included works such as opera and ballet. French

ballets and operas required a large audience with refined taste in order to make its excessive

expenditure worthwhile. Yet many German courts invested in this recreation in pursuit of

assimilating the elegance of French culture (Little 12).

French dance masters were held in high regard and enjoyed a social standing equal to those

of doctors, lawyers, and businessmen, who made up the upper stratum of society (Little 9).

Taking this and previous details into account, it is clear that French court dance was esteemed in

the German’s social milieu. It represented the epitome of refinement, provided a way into a

cultured lifestyle, and reflected one’s social hierarchy. As such, many German citizens were

eager to adopt the practice.

Lute Suite No. 3, BWV 995

Bach likely composed the cello suites between the years 1717 and 1723, when he served

as a Kapellmeister in Köthen. The 5th cello suite, in which the BWV 995 is based on, is unique

among the cello suites for it is the only one predominantly in the French style. Bach made the

lute arrangement somewhere between 1727 and 1731 while in Leipzig. Solo lute music of the

period were usually written in lute tablature. However, Bach made this arrangement in staff

notation. Therefore, it is likely that he intended it as a basis for an experienced lutenist to draw

out an idiomatic intabulation, for he did not play the lute (Ledbetter 239).

Prelude

The Prelude of Lute Suite No. 3, though not explicitly titled, is in the style of the French

overture. There are two main sections made distinct by tempo and textural changes. The French

overture’s saccadé (dotted rhythm) and slow tempo characterize the first section of the Prelude.

Though the tempo marking for the opening section is not written in by Bach, it could be inferred

from Bach’s strict adherence to the French overture form. French overtures arose in the late 16th

century as an opening movement for earlier ballets de cour. The opening sections of French

overtures were usually marked grave or lent. Full chordal harmonies on the downbeat followed

by decorative consecutive motion, and written down ornaments, are not only characteristic of the

French overture, but also of the French style in general. Of these characteristics, the dotted

rhythm is the principal means of providing the familiar majestic, heroic, festive, and pompous

feel of the French overture, more than any other stylistic element (Grove music online - French

overture).

In works composed around 1730, it has been noted that Bach developed a greater

sensitivity in his notation of dotted rhythms. In comparing the 5th cello suite copies made by

Anna Magdalena, Bach has changed the notation in the lute arrangement to reflect a more precise

rhythmic notation (Ledbetter 215). Because of Bach’s greater specificity to the rhythm, groups of

three sixteenth notes such as those found in measures 3, 4, 6, and so on, should not be treated as

an embellishment of the ensuing downbeat. On the other hand, the group of three sixteenth notes

in measure 16 serves as a preparation for a trill, and can hardly be meant to have more than a

decorative function (Ledbetter 216).

In the interest of further accentuating the downbeats, notes inégales – a rhythmic

convention according to which certain divisions of the beat move in alternately long and short

values – was commonly practiced by musicians of the French and German courts. Distinction

should be made between notes inégales and the tirata, which is the embellishment of quick

successive notes, typically (but not always) in consecutive motion. The difference is between the

alternation of long and short values for notes inégales and a burst of equal note values for the

tirata. Tiratas can be found in measures 7, 9, and 26 of the opening section, and are likely meant

to form a single upbeat group (Ledbetter 215).

The second section marked tres viste corresponds with the tradition of the French

overture of employing a compound time signature and fugal texture for the second section of the

form. In this section, Bach also adopted the rhythmic pattern of the Passepied, a dance popular in

the French courts in the early 18th century that could be said to be gay, fickle, delicate, and

rhythmically exciting. The Passepied is frequently compared with the Minuet because they share

the same character and many stylistic elements apart from the 3/8 time signature, upbeat, and

off-beat accent. The dance choreographies of the Passepied are similar to that of the Minuet, and

as with other dance forms, the Passepied is often given comparative tempo suggestions of a

slightly faster tempo than that of the Minuet (Little 84). Kirnberger, a pupil of Bach, advocated

that the Passepied’s 3/8 meter be “performed in a light but not entirely playful manner”

(Ledbetter 216).

Although Bach has employed the Passepied’s rhythm in his other French overtures, there

is however, no set convention for the use of the Passepied’s or any dance rhythm in the fugal

section. Bach has in instances employed dance rhythms in his cantata arias to reinforce the

meaning of the text, but apart from its meter, the fugal section does little to invoke the character

of the Passepied in its gay, fickle, and delicate nature. The overall affect is of the majestic French

overture instead.

The fugue maintains a single line throughout, and though a few “double stops” emphasize

the structural cadences, they play no part in the contrapuntal argument. In spite of the single line

texture, Bach creates an illusion of two voices in the subject with the first two notes, followed by

the next three in a different tessitura, and so on.

Allemande

The rhythmic patterns of Allemandes from the late 16th century resembles that of early

17th century Bourrees and Gavottes. Repetition of phrases, reprises, and whole pieces are often

ornamented with divisions into quick notes and sometimes very quick ones. Allemandes of the

early 18th century evolved to be more contrapuntal and elaborate by having rhythms that are

stylized divisions of earlier Allemandes (see Mather 207).

The Allemande is unique among the other dances discussed, because as early as 1636, it

was performed as a purely instrumental piece and no longer danced to. It has however, became

one of the standard dances in instrumental suites. By the 18th century, Allemandes appeared as

highly stylized keyboard works that have lost the most distinguishable characteristic of dance

music, a recurring rhythmic pattern of a prescribed length. Unlike the other dances that have

clear distinguishable rhythmic patterns, the Allemande lack this feature as a genre. This means

that Allemandes are often distinct from one another in regards to rhythmic treatment.

Although Allemandes may not share a common rhythmic pattern, Natalie Jenne pointed

out, as mentioned by F. W. Marpurg in his Clavierstücke mit einem practischen Unterricht für

Anfänger und Geübtere Volume II, that Allemandes share a common objective of being a

“succession of changing harmonies” in an improvisatory style (Jenne 16). This feature together

with evaded cadences and an irregular grouping of beats are common to the improvisatory nature

of Preludes. In several of Bach’s dance suites, the Allemande is the opening movement. Unlike

the free Prelude, however, dissonances are carefully prepared and resolved in the strict style.

The affect of the Allemande has been described in the mid-18th century as “serious”, and

“a sort of grave, solemn music” (Mather 211). Allemandes of the early 18th century could be

slow or quick, however, Marpurg advises that because the melody is serious, the tempo should

not be exaggerated but moderate. In order to determine an appropriate tempo, the rhythmic and

harmonic structure should be examine (Jenne 15).

The Allemande of BWV 995 resembles the opening Prelude in that it contains dotted

rhythms and tiratas that are characteristic of the French overture. Usually in French overtures, the

first section in duple-time is repeated after the fugal section. In a similarly French styled suite,

BWV 831, the first section of the French overture is repeated after the second section. The

following movement is not an Allemande but a Courante. However, as Ledbetter pointed out, in

this particular suite, the Allemande fulfills the expectation of the repeated first section instead

(Ledbetter 219).

Another feature common with the Prelude is the implication of different voices. The

opening figure of the Allemande is imitated in the bass register of measure 2. There are similar

imitations between voices later on in measure 23 where the top voice is answered in the bass in

measure 24 and in the tenor of measure 25 (Ledbetter 219). In light of the multiple voices, as

quoted by Jenne, Marpurg suggests that “no voice [...] should stand out above another, it is good

when all of the various voices [...] work against each other with approximately the same

strength” (Jenne 14).

As the Allemande’s character is strongly built upon a “succession of changing

harmonies”, an analysis of the harmonic structure, and subsequently determining the weight of

each harmony and cadence, will help provide an effective performance. Performers might

determine the relative weight of the harmonies by applying 18th century theorist, J. P.

Kirnberger, discussions on harmony (See Jenne 18). A key point that Kirnberger makes is that

harmonies contain degrees of rhythmic activity. A triad in root position represents repose while a

seventh chord presents activity.

Courante

The Courante began its popularity in the early 17th century much to the aid of the French

court of Louis XIII (Little 114). It was an especially popular dance with the aristocrats, a

possible reason being Louis XIV’s further championing of the dance. With that in mind, it is no

surprise that the Courante has been called “the grandest in style and noblest in character” among

the court dances (Little 114). Apart from its high reputation as a dance, it also enjoyed a greater

popularity than any other dance used in instrumental music, especially in lute and keyboard in

17th century France. The Courante was very much established as a tradition in German lands as

well. Just as the Courante was danced in German courts, leading composers such as Froberger,

Buxtehude, and Pachelbel all wrote Courantes for the keyboard (Little 114, 115).

The French Courante has been described as “serious and solemn”, “noble and grand”,

“hopeful”, majestic”, and “earnest” (Little 115). All these characterizations suggest a slower

tempo. The Courante is indeed the slowest of all court dances with a meter of three, “followed in

order of increasing speed by the Sarabande, Passacaille, Chaconne, Minuet, and Passepied”

(Little 115). Common elements that are unique among French Courantes are the 3/2 time

signature that often switches between 6/4 entirely, or simultaneously possessing a 3/2 and 6/4

meter between voices. For example, a top voice could be clearly written in a rhythmic structure

that accentuates the duple division of 3/2 while the bottom voice would accentuate the compound

division of 6/4. These mixed meters or hemiolas are, however, especially common at cadences

ending a strain (Little 118). The Courantes of François Couperin provide a good example of

switching between meters (for examples, see Little 120 and Ledbetter 76).

The rhythmic patterns of a dotted quarter followed by an eighth and separate quarter

notes are common rhythmic divisions in the Courante. In such instances, the performance

tradition was to shorten the eighth note so as to intensify the following beat (Little 121), and to

“detach each quarter, each quarter being a separate pulse” in the latter case (Ledbetter 222).

An interesting feature of the Courante that cannot be said of other dances is that it

frequently contains variable phrase length as oppose to a more balance phrase structure. In the

Courante of BWV 995, for instance, the phrases are divided as such: 5 + 3 & 1 + 3, 3 + 2 & 2 + 2

+ 1 + 2. Non-functional harmonies that provides coloristic effect are also a characteristic feature

of the Courante.

Composers took a flexible approach in titling the Courantes. Even among the works of a

single composer, the movement could be titled a “Courante”, but instead be an Italian Corrente

which possessed an opposing character. This loose approach to titling happens both ways (Little

134). It is not difficult however, to distinguish between the two styles. A cursory analysis of the

rhythmic structure will reveal the actual nationalistic style.

In contrast, the Italian Corrente permeates the affect of virtuosity. The Italian Corrente

expresses the mood of “Sprightfulness, and Vigour, Lively, Brisk and Cheerful,” through its

“moderate to fast tempo” (Little 129). It usually consists of “continuous elaboration of eighth or

sixteenth notes over a bass line in fast triple meter, with simple texture, slow harmonic rhythm,

and phrases of varying lengths” (Little 129). Frequently in the time signature of 3/4 with an

upbeat. The tempo among Corrente should be determined by the level of the beat, whether one or

three per measure, and the amount of rhythmic activity (Little 129).

Sarabande

Unlike the other dances discussed in this essay, the Sarabande originated in Latin

America and Spain as a folk dance accompanied by singing and instruments — castanets and

guitar (See Little 92 & Grove Music Online, article, “Sarabande”). The Spanish Zarabanda is a

“tempestuous,” “exotic,” “lascivious,” “sensuous,” and “passionate” dance (Little 92 & Mather

26). Critics have even called it “bawdy,” “obscene,” and “barbarous” (Mather 26).

The French, however, refined the Sarabande to better suit the aristocracy of their courts,

replacing the evocation of carnal passion with a more controlled tone (Little 92). Earlier

Sarabandes were usually “gay and lively” and were considered brisk dances. However, by the

end of the 17th century, the French Sarabande became the slow, “deliberate,” “serious,” and high

cultured dance that is better known to later generations (Mather 296 & Ratner 12).

Paraphrasing Father Francois Pompey’s account of a French Sarabande in his Le

Dictionnaire Royal Augmenté published in Lyons in 1671, a lone dancer is described as having a

“charming grace, with a serious and circumspect air” with “nonchalance,” “noble,” and fluid

delivery (cited in Little 93). Pompey mentions the use of several contrasting moods within a

single piece: “anger and spite with an impetuous and turbulent rhythmic unit; and [later],

evoking a sweeter passion through more moderate motions” (cited in Little 94). An interesting

observation in the account that adds to the Sarabande’s mystique and sensuality is the use of

pantomime by the dancer through facial expression, eye glances, and gestures. The description of

the dancer who “remains suspended” and later, quickens his steps to compensate for the lost time

seem to suggest the practice of tempo rubato, as Little has noted (Little 94).

In the Sarabande of BWV 995, Bach uses a balanced four bar phrase structure of

statement and counter statement, typical of the French style (Ledbetter 223 & Little 96). Since

Bach maintained a single line texture throughout, melodic dissonance – frequently on the high

point of beat 2 – and careful use of the tessitura are his prime expressive tools (Ledbetter 223).

Another device that he uses to meet his expressive ends is the appoggiatura. The half-step motion

in a way resembles the act of sighing which adds to the gravitas of the piece. The single line

texture creates a fleeting glimpse of implied harmony as it occasionally changes within the

measure. After arriving on the relative major at the end of the first strain, the first two beats of

measure 9 is a Bb major triad but turns to a dominant seventh on the third beat. In measure 11,

we hear an F minor triad followed by the lone G, implying the dominant of C minor. This is only

apparent after hearing the cadential pattern as in measure 4, but on C minor this time.

Gavotte

The Gavotte was enjoyed as court dance and music for over two centuries. It reached its

peak of popularity during the 1720s and 1730s when those who lived in urban cities looked to

the pastoral references of the gavotte as a reflection of a simpler rural life (Little 47). The

predictable rhyme and balance derived from clear question and answer phrases could be possible

elements for the sentiment (Little 50).

There were at least two distinct national styles of Gavottes in instrumental music of the

18th century corresponding to the French and Italian traditions. The Gavottes of BWV 995, in

fact, possess characteristics of both traditions. Gavotte I has a clear four and eight beat measure

phrase particular of French Gavottes – Italian gavottes usually have 4 + 4 phrases – while also

possessing an Italianate figuration of chordal outlining (Little 58). Little suggests the use of notes

inégales in conjunct melodic passages to further reinforce the pastoral ideas so well expressed in

these Gavottes.

As the Gavotte II en Rondeau is in the same mode as the Gavotte I, Bach creates the

expected contrast by maintaining a single melodic line, which harks back to the Sarabande, and

raising the division to triplet eighth notes (Ledbetter 225). The constant triplet eighth notes seem

to suggest that it is a double of which the original piece is missing (Little 58). The use of triplets

with the time signature of 2/2 instead of 12/8 suggests a lighter feel without the least accent on

the last beat as opposed to 12/8 which often has a change of harmony on the last beat (Ledbetter

225).

Gigue

There are several variants of the Gigue which are sometimes spelled as “Jig”, “Jigg”,

“Gigue”, “Gique”, and “Giga”. Its origins has been traced back to the 15th century, where

popular dances and tunes from the British Isles were titled as “Jig” (Grove music online -

Gigue). The old French word “Giquer”, which means to “frolic”, “leap”, or “gambol” provides

an accurate description of the Gigue. The general affect of Gigues are that they are lively and

joyful (Little 145). As there are several styles of Gigues, it is prudent for the performer to be able

to make distinction between them. Little provides three distinct categories of Gigues; the French

Gigue, Giga I, and Giga II.

The literal translation of “Giquer” applies best to the French variant of the Gigue as one

of its stylistic elements, the rhythmic figure of a dotted eighth, sixteenth, and eighth note, which

resembles “sautillant”, hopping, or skipping is used almost constantly (Little 145). French

Gigues are often found in time signatures of 6/8 or 6/4, but it is not uncommon for them to be in

3. Regardless of the time signature or title, to properly identify a piece as a French gigue, one

should analyze the metrical structure. The metrical structure of a French Gigue in 6/8 is two

beats of dotted quarter, the first being thought of as the downbeat, and the second as the upbeat,

with a triple beat division (Little 146). The tempo is often described as fast. However, Little

cautions that the description, as with all literal description of tempo in the period, is a

comparison with other dances, and by modern standards, the fastest of them is still within in a

moderate tempo (Little 146). Mather makes a good point that reinforces the adoption of a

moderate tempo; stating that because “beats composed of ternary dotted figures can only be

moderately fast even when the very quick notes of the dotted figures are performed as rapidly as

possible” (Mather 258).

Conclusion

In closing, I wish to have convinced the performer to pay careful attention to the elements

which provides a dance its character. These elements such as meter, rhythmic design, form,

harmonic progression and rhythm, phrase structure, and texture, should be prioritize according to

each specific dance. I hope to have established that, though a dance is often thought as being

born out of a recurring rhythmic motif, the aforementioned elements may at times carry a greater

weight at characterizing a dance. And as such, should be highlighted by the performer in order to

realize the dance’s full potential.

Bibliography

Hudson, Richard. “Sarabande.” Grove Music Online. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

Jenne, Natalie. “On the Performance of Keyboard Allemandes.” Notes: Bach 10, no. 2 (April

1979): 13-30.

Little, Meredith, and Natalie Jenne. Dance and the Music of J.S. Bach. Bloomington: Indiana

University Press, 2001.

Little, Meredith. “Gigue.” Grove Music Online. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

Ledbetter, David. Unaccompanied Bach: Performing the Solo Works. New Haven: Yale

University Press, 2009.

Mather, Betty. Dance Rhythms of the French Baroque. Bloomington: Indiana University Press,

1987.

Ratner, Leonard. Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style. New York: Schirmer Books,

1980.

Waterman, George, and James Anthony. “French overture.” Grove Music Online. Web. 10 Dec.

2014.