permaculture in wikipedia

7/31/2019 Permaculture in Wikipedia

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Permaculture is a branch ofecological designandecological engineeringwhich develops

sustainablehuman settlements and self-maintainedagriculturalsystems modeled from natural

ecosystems.[1][2]

The core tenets of permaculture are:

Care of the Earth: Provision for all life systems to continue and multiply. Care of People: Provision for people to access those resources necessary for their

existence.

Setting Limits to Population and Consumption: By governing our own needs, we canset resources aside to further the above principles.

[3][4]

Permaculture design emphasizes patterns of landscape, function, and species assemblies. It

asks the question, Where does this element go? How can it be placed for the maximum

benefit of the system?" To answer this question, the central concept of permaculture is

maximizing useful connections between components andsynergyof the final design. The

focus of permaculture, therefore, is not on each separate element, but rather on therelationships created among elements by the way they are placed together; the whole

becominggreater than the sum of its parts. Permaculture design therefore seeks to minimize

waste, human labor, and energy input by building systems with maximal benefits between

design elements to achieve a high level ofsynergy. Permaculture designs evolve over time by

taking into account these relationships and elements and can become extremely complexsystems that produce a high density of food and materials with minimal input.[5]

Common permaculture practices include the use ofagroforestry,natural building,rainwater

harvesting, andsheet mulching.

Theory

The 12 permaculture design principles

Permaculturists generally regard the following as its 12 design principles:[6]

1. Observe and interact: By taking time to engage with nature we can design solutionsthat suit our particular situation.

2. Catch and store energy: By developing systems that collect resources at peakabundance, we can use them in times of need.

3. Obtain a yield: Ensure that you are getting truly useful rewards as part of the workthat you are doing.

4. Apply self-regulation and accept feedback: We need to discourage inappropriateactivity to ensure that systems can continue to function well.

5. Use and value renewable resources and services: Make the best use of nature'sabundance to reduce our consumptive behavior and dependence on non-renewable

resources.

6. Produce no waste: By valuing and making use of all the resources that are available tous, nothing goes to waste.

7. Design from patterns to details: By stepping back, we can observe patterns in natureand society. These can form the backbone of our designs, with the details filled in aswe go.
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8. Integrate rather than segregate: By putting the right things in the right place,relationships develop between those things and they work together to support each

other.9. Use small and slow solutions: Small and slow systems are easier to maintain than big

ones, making better use of local resources and producing more sustainable outcomes.

10.Use and value diversity: Diversity reduces vulnerability to a variety of threats andtakes advantage of the unique nature of the environment in which it resides.11.Use edges and value the marginal: The interface between things is where the most

interesting events take place. These are often the most valuable, diverse and

productive elements in the system.

12.Creatively use and respond to change: We can have a positive impact on inevitablechange by carefully observing, and then intervening at the right time

Patterns

Permaculture design focuses heavily upon natural patterns. All things, even the wind, the

waves and the Earth moving around the Sun, form patterns. In pattern application,

permaculture designers are encouraged to develop an awareness of the patterns that exist in

nature (and how these function) and how patterns can be utilized to satisfy the specific designneeds of a specific site. "The application of pattern on a design site involves the designer

recognizing the shape and potential to fit these patterns or combinations of patternscomfortably onto the landscape".[7]

Layers

Layers are one of the tools used to design functional ecosystems that are both sustainable and

of direct benefit to man. A mature ecosystem has a huge number of relationships between itscomponent parts: trees,understory,ground cover,soil,fungi, insects, and animals. Because

plants grow to different heights, a diverse community of life is able to grow in a relativelysmall space, as each layer is stacked one on top of another. There are generally seven

recognized layers in afood forest, although some practitioners also includefungias an eighth

layer:[citation needed]

1. Thecanopy: the tallest trees in the system. Large trees dominate but do not saturatethe area, i.e. there exist patches barren of trees.

2. Low tree layer: dwarf fruit trees, citrus trees and other short trees3. Shrubs: a diverse layer that includes most berry bushes4. Herbaceous: may be annuals, biennials or perennials; most annuals will fit into thislayer5. Rhizosphere:root cropsincludingpotatoesand other edibletubers6. Soil surface:cover cropsto retain soil and lessen erosion, along withgreen manures

to add nutrients andorganic matterto the soil, especiallynitrogen

7. Vertical layer: climbers orvines, such asrunner beansandlima beans(vine varieties)Guilds

Aguildis any group ofspeciesthat exploit the same resources, often in related ways. Guilds

are groups of plants, animals, insects, etc. that work well together. Some plants may be grown

for food production, some to attractbeneficial insects, and others to repel harmful insects.

When grouped together these plants form a guild.[8][9][10]
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Edge effect

Theedge effectin ecology is the effect of the juxtaposition or placing side by side of

contrastingenvironmentson an ecosystem. Permaculturists argue that, where vastly differing

systems meet, there is an intense area of productivity and useful connections. An example of

this is the coast; where the land and the sea meet there is a particularly rich area that meets adisproportionate percentage of human and animal needs. So this idea is played out inpermacultural designs by using spirals in the herb garden or creating ponds that have wavy

undulating shorelines rather than a simple circle or oval (thereby increasing the amount ofedge for a given area). Edges between woodland and open areas have been claimed to be the

most productive.[11]

Zones

Zones are a way of organizing design elements in a human environment on the basis of thefrequency of human use and plant or animal needs. Frequently manipulated or harvested

elements of the design are located close to the house in zones 1 and 2. Less frequently used or

manipulated elements, and elements that benefit from isolation (such as wild species) are

farther away. Zones is about positioning things appropriately. Zones are numbered from 0 to

5:[citation needed]

Zone 0

The house, or home center. Here permaculture principles would be applied in terms of

aiming to reduce energy and water needs, harnessing natural resources such as

sunlight, and generally creating a harmonious, sustainable environment in which tolive and work. Zone 0 is an informal designation, which is not specifically defined in

Mollison's book.Zone 1

The zone nearest to the house, the location for those elements in the system thatrequire frequent attention, or that need to be visited often, such as salad crops, herb

plants, soft fruit like strawberries or raspberries, greenhouse and cold frames,

propagation area,worm compostbin for kitchen waste, etc.Raised bedsare often

used in zone 1 inurban areas.

Zone 2

This area is used for siting perennial plants that require less frequent maintenance,

such as occasional weed control or pruning, including currant bushes and orchards.

This would also be a good place forbeehives, larger scalecompostingbins, and so on.

Zone 3The area where maincrops are grown, both for domestic use and for trade purposes.

After establishment, care and maintenance required are fairly minimal (provided

mulchesand similar things are used), such as watering or weed control maybe once a

week.

Zone 4

A semi-wild area. This zone is mainly used for forage and collecting wild food as well

as timber production.

Zone 5

A wild area. There is no human intervention in zone 5 apart from the observation ofnatural ecosystems and cycles.
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Animals

Animals are often incorporated into site design.[12][13]

Common practicesAgroforestry

Agroforestryis an integrated approach of using the interactive benefits from combining trees

and shrubs with crops and/or livestock. It combines agricultural andforestrytechnologies to

create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems.[14]In

agroforestry systems, trees or shrubs are intentionally used within agricultural systems, ornon-timber forest productsare cultured in forest settings.[

citation needed]Forest gardeningis a

form of agroforestry that is particularly popular with permaculturists.[citation needed]

Natural building

Anatural buildinginvolves a range ofbuildingsystems and materials that place majoremphasis on sustainability. Ways of achieving sustainability through natural building focus

on durability and the use of minimally processed, plentiful orrenewable resources, as well asthose that, whilerecycledor salvaged, produce healthy living environments and maintain

indoor air quality. Natural building tends to rely on human labor, more than technology.[citation

needed]

The basis of natural building is the need to lessen theenvironmentalimpact of buildings and

other supporting systems, without sacrificing comfort, health oraesthetics. To be more

sustainable, natural building uses primarily abundantly available, renewable, reused or

recycled materials. In addition to relying on natural building materials, the emphasis on the

architectural design is heightened. The orientation of a building, the utilization of local

climate and site conditions, the emphasis on natural ventilation through design,fundamentally lessen operational costs and positively impact the environmental. Building

compactly and minimizing theecological footprintis common, as are on-site handling ofenergy acquisition, on-site water capture, alternate sewage treatment and water reuse.[

citation

needed]

Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvestingis the accumulating and storing of rainwater for reuse before it reaches

theaquifer. It has been used to providedrinking water, water forlivestock, water for

irrigation, as well as other typical uses. Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses and

local institutions can make an important contribution to the availability of drinking water. It

can supplement the subsoil water level and increase urban greenery. Water collected from the

ground, sometimes from areas which are especially prepared for this purpose, is calledstormwater harvesting.[

citation needed]

Greywateriswastewatergenerated from domestic activities such as laundry, dishwashing,

and bathing, which can be recycled on-site for uses such as landscape irrigation and

constructed wetlands. This wastewater contains no feces or urine. Greywater differs from
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water from the toilets which is designatedsewageorblackwater, to indicate it contains

human waste, but it is suitable as a source of water for toilets.[citation needed]

Sheet mulching

In agriculture andgardening, mulch is a protective cover placed over the soil. Any material orcombination can be used as mulch, stones, leaves, plastic, cardboard etc., though in

Permaculture mulches of organic material are the most common because they perform more

functions. These include: absorbing rainfall, reducing evaporation, providing nutrients,increasing organic matter in the soil, feeding and creating habitat for soil organisms,

suppressing weed growth and seed germination, moderating diurnal temperature swings,

protecting against frost, and reducing erosion.Sheet mulchingis an agricultural no-dig

gardening technique that attempts to mimic natural processes occurring withinforests, sheet

mulching mimics the leaf cover that is found on forest floors. When deployed properly and in

combination with other Permacultural principles, it can generate healthy, productive and low

maintenance ecosystems.[15][16]

Sheet mulch serves as a "nutrient bank," storing the nutrients contained in organic matter and

slowly making these nutrients available to plants. It also improves the soil by attracting and

feedingearthworms, and addinghumus. Earthworms "till" the soil, and theirworm castings

are among the best fertilizers andsoil conditioners. Sheet mulching can be used to reduce oreliminate undesirable plants by starving them of light, and may be more advantageous than

usingherbicideor other methods of control.[citation needed]

Etymology

The term permaculture (as a systematic method) was first coined byAustraliansBill MollisonandDavid Holmgrenduring the 1970s. The word "permaculture" originally referred to

"permanent agriculture" but was expanded to stand also for "permanent culture," as it was

seen that social aspects were integral to a truly sustainable system. Inspired by Fukuoka

natural farmingphilosophy, Mollison has described permaculture as "a philosophy ofworking with, rather than against nature; of protracted and thoughtful observation rather

than premature and thoughtless labor; and of looking at plants and animals in all their

functions, rather than treating any area as asingle project system."[17]

History

Precursors

Permaculture draws from several disciplines includingorganic farming,agroforestry,

integrated farming,sustainable development, andapplied ecology. "The primary agenda of

the movement has been to assist people to become more self reliant through the design and

development of productive and sustainable gardens and farms. The design principles which

are the conceptual foundation of permaculture were derived from the science ofsystems

ecologyand study of pre-industrial examples ofsustainableland use."[18]

In 1929, Joseph Russell Smith took up the term as the subtitle for Tree Crops: A Permanent

Agriculture, a book in which he summed up his long experience experimenting with fruitsand nuts as crops for human food and animal feed.

[19]Smith saw the world as an inter-related
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whole and suggested mixed systems of trees and crops underneath. The definition of

permanent agriculture as that which can be sustained indefinitely was supported by

AustralianP. A. Yeomansin his 1973 bookWater for Every Farm. Yeoman introduced anobservation-based approach to land use in Australia in the 1940s; and thekeyline designas a

way of managing the supply and distribution of water in the 1950s.

Stewart Brand'sworks were an early influence noted by Holmgren.[20]

Other early influences

includeRuth StoutandEsther Deans, who pioneered"no-dig gardening methods", and

Masanobu Fukuokawho, in the late 1930s in Japan, began advocatingno-tillorchards,

gardens andnatural philosophy.[21]

The first recorded modern application of permaculture concepts as a systematic method was

possibly by Austrian farmerSepp Holzerin the 1960s.[22]

Mollison and Holmgren

In the mid-1970s, Bill Mollison and David Holmgren started developing ideas about stable

agricultural systems on the southern Australian island state ofTasmania. This was a result ofthe danger of the rapidly growing use of industrial-agricultural methods. In their view, highly

dependent on non renewable resources, these methods were additionally poisoning land and

water, reducingbiodiversity, and removing billions of tons oftopsoilfrom previously fertile

landscapes. A design approach called "permaculture" was their response and was first made

public with the publication of their bookPermaculture One in 1978.[citation needed]

By the early 1980s, the concept had broadened from agricultural systems design towards

sustainable human habitats. After Permaculture One, Mollison further refined and developed

the ideas by designing hundreds of permaculture sites and writing more detailed books,notably Permaculture: A Designers Manual. Mollison lectured in over 80 countries and

taught his two-week Permaculture Design Course (PDC) to many hundreds of students.[citation

needed]

In 1991, a four-part television documentary by ABC productions called "The GlobalGardener" showed permaculture applied to a range of worldwide situations, bringing the

concept to a much broader public.[citation needed]

In 2012, the UMass Permaculture Initiativewon the White House "Champions of Change" sustainability contest, which declared that

"they demonstrate how permaculture can feed a growing population in an environmentally

sustainable and socially responsible manner".[23]

Trademark and copyright issues

There has been contention over who if anyone controls the legal rights to the word

"Permaculture", meaning is ittrademarkedorcopyrighted, and if so, who holds the legal

rights to the use of the word. For a long time Bill Mollison claimed to have copyrighted the

word permaculture, and his books reflected that on thecopyright page, saying "The contents

of this book and the word PERMACULTURE are copyright." These statements were largely

accepted at face-value within the permaculture community. However, copyright law does notprotect names, ideas, concepts, systems, or methods of doing something; it only protects the

expression or the description of an idea, not the idea itself. Eventually Mollison
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acknowledged that he was mistaken and that no copyright protection existed for the word

"permaculture".[24]

In 2000 Mollison's US based Permaculture Institute sought aservice mark(a form of

trademark) for the word permaculture when used in educational services such as conducting

classes, seminars, or workshops.[25]

The service mark would have allowed Mollison and histwo Permaculture Institutes (one in the US and one in Australia) to set enforceable guidelines

as to how permaculture could be taught and who could teach it, particularly with relation to

the PDC. The service mark failed and was abandoned in 2001. Also in 2001 Mollison applied

for trademarks in Australia for the terms "Permaculture Design Course"[26]

and "Permaculture

Design".[27]These applications were both withdrawn in 2003. In 2009 he sought a trademark

for "Permaculture: A Designers' Manual"[28]

and "Introduction to Permaculture",[29]

the names

of two of his books. These applications were withdrawn in 2011. There has never been a

trademark for the word Permaculture in Australia.[30]

CriticismsGeneral criticisms

In his books Sustainable Freshwater Aquaculture and "Farming in Ponds and Dams", Nick

Romanowski expresses the view that the presentation of aquaculture in Bill Mollison's books

is unrealistic and misleading.[31]

Linda Chalker-Scott claims that Toby Hemenway's viewsregardinginvasive speciesin the permaculture book "Gaia's Garden" are pseudo-

science.[32][33]

Agroforestry

Greg Williams also argue that woods can not be more highly productive than farmland, asecological successionstates that net productivity declines when forests mature.[34]Proponents

of permaculture respond that this is true only if one compares data from between woodland

forest and climax vegetation, but not when comparing farmland vegetation with woodlandforest.[35]For example,ecological successiongenerally indicates that a forest's productivity

rises after its establishment only until it reaches the woodland state (67% tree cover), beforedeclining untilfull maturity.[5]

Scientific data

Greg Williams argue it is often difficult to find scientifically tested data that validate certain

claims promoted by permaculture advocates, and conclude that they often neglect thescientific approach.[34]Since late 2011, as an example, Bec-Hellouin permaculture farm

engaged in a research program in partnership with INRA and AgroParisTech to collect

scientific data.[36]
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permaculture in wikipedia

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