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PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ATTITUDE TOWARD KNOWLEDGE SHARING
Oleh:
Ida Juliana Hutasuhut
This Project submitted to comply with the requirement of Master of Science in Human Resource Development
Faculty of Cognitive Science and Human Development UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA SARAWAK
2007
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor Encik
Rizal Abu Bakar who has sacrificed so much time in giving his critical review, suggestion,
support, guidance and motivation throughout this study until last minutes before his departure for
further study in Australia. I also wish to convey my gratitude to my second supervisor Dr.
Shahren Ahmad Zaidi Adruce who generously has transferred his knowledge and expertise in
the area of knowledge management. He also gives constructive suggestion, support, and guidance
throughout this study. I consider myself really fortunate having opportunity to work under the
supervision of dedicated supervisors like them.
I also wish to express my heartfelt thanks to all other lecturers in the Faculty of Cognitive
Science and Human Development for their generous advice and suggestions. I am also grateful to
the librarians in the Centre for Academic Information Services for their assistance to get access to
the materials whenever required.
Last but not least, I wish to express my sincere appreciation to all who have contributed to the
successful completion of this study. My appreciation also goes to all my friends who have
encouraged and supported me during the process of completing this study.
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ABSTRACT
PERSONAL CHARACTERISTIC AND ATTITUDE TOWARD KNOWLEDGE SHARING
Ida Juliana Hutasuhut
This study attempts to look at knowledge management by taking individuals as the centre of attention. The individual as creator, custodian, sharer, manager and user of knowledge is a key determinant factor that ensures the success of knowledge sharing in organizatio, n; 'Therefore, there must be a reason behind the option of why they should share their knowledge. This study focuses on personality traits (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience and extraversion) of the individual with regard to his/her willingness to share knowledge. Although this is very important, unfortunately there are limited studies that examine personality traits toward knowledge sharing; 'The objective of this study is to examine whether there is a relationship between personality traits and attitude toward knowledge sharing.
This study was conducted in University Malaysia Sarawak (Unimas). The unit of analysis is the lecturers from various faculties. A stratified random sampling method was used in the selection of respondents. There are 96 lecturers from various faculties that were selected for this study. Data was collected by using The Big Five Inventory (BFI) to examine the personality traits, and questionnaire to examine respondent's attitude toward knowledge sharing.
The finding suggested that there is a positive and moderate relationship between personality and attitude toward knowledge sharing. Specifically, result on conscientiousness and agreeableness are positively and moderately related to attitude toward knowledge sharing. Result on openness to experience arjd-extraversion are positively and weakly related to attitude toward knowledge sharing. Finall} result on neuroticism is negatively and weakly related to attitude toward knowledge sharing. It is expected that results from this study could contribute toward the literature on personality, knowledge management, HR practices (personnel selection or recruitment), training and team building in organization. The limitation, implication and recommendation for future study are also discussed.
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ABSTRAK
KARAKTERISTIK PRIBADI DAN SIKAP KEPADA PENGKONGSIAN PENGETAHUAN
Ida Juliana Hutasuhut
Kajian ini meliputi usaha untuk melihat bidang pengurusan maklumat melalui tumpuan kepada individu. Individu sebagai pembina/pencipta, penjaga, 'sharer', pengurus dan
pengguna/pengamal pengetahuan merupakan kunci dalam menentukan kejayaan perkongsian pengetahuan dalam sesebuah organisasi. Oleh itu, terdapat sebab di sebalik setiap pilihan sama ada seseorang individu patut mengkongsikan pengetahuannya. Kajian ini berfokus kepada tret kepribadian (mempunyai kesedaran, berpendapat sama, neurotik, keterbukaan dan ekstraversi) seorang individu dengan melihat kesediaannya untuk berkongsi pengetahuan. Sungguhpun
penting, tetapi kajian terhadap perhubungan personaliti fret dan perkongsian pengetahuan adalah agak terhad. Objektif kajian adalah untuk menguji sama ada terdapat perhubungan antara karakteristik pribadi dan sikap kepada perkongsian pengetahuan.
Kajian ini dilakukan di Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (Unimas). Responden kajian ini adalah terdiri daripada pensyarah dari pelbagai fakulti di Unimas. Kaedah persampelan
-yang digunakan adalah Stratified random sampling. Terdapat 96 orang pensyarah terlibat dalam kajian ini. Data telah dikumpul menggunakan "The Big Five Inventory (BFI) " untuk menguji tret keperibadian dan borang soal selidik digunakan untuk mengkaji sikap responden terhadap perkongsian pengetahuan.
Hasil kajian mendapati bahwa terdapat hubungan yang posit if dan sederhana antara kepribadian dan sikap kepada perkongsian pengetahuan di kalangan pensyarah di Unimas. Secara spesifik, hasil kajian dari aspek kepribadian mempunyai kesedaran dan berpendapat
sama mempunyai hubungan yang positif dan sederhana dengan sikap kepada perkongsian pengetahuan. Hasil daripada keterbukaan dan ekstraversi pula mempunyai hubungan yang positif dan lemah dengan sikap kepada perkongsian pengetahuan. Terakhir sekali, dapatan dari
aspek kepribadian bersifat neurotik didapati rnempunyai hubungan yang negatif dan lemah dengan sikap kepada perkongsian pengetahuan. Hasil kajian dijangka akan rnenyumhang kepada literatur dalam bidang personaliti, pengurusan maklumat, pengamal sumber manusia (pernilihan dan pengambilan), latihan dan pembentukan kumpulan dalam organisasi. Limitasi, implikasi dan cadangan untuk pengkaji akan datang juga turut dibincangkan.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE PAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES FIGURE
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.4 Research Question
1.5 Conceptual Framework
1.6 Definition of Term
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Personality Theory
2.1.1 Psychodynamic Theory
2.1.2 Humanistic Theories
2.1.3 Social Cognitive Theories
2.1.4 Trait Theory
2.2 Knowledge Management (KM)
2.2.1 Historical Overview
2.2.2 Data, Information and Knowledge
2.2.3 Knowledge Management Processes
2.2.4 Organizational Knowledge Creation
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2.3 Attitudes
2.3.1 Concepts of Attitudes
2.3.2 Components of Attitude
2.3.3 Formation of Attitudes
2.3.4 Theory of Reasoned Action
2.4 Previous Research
2.4.1 Relationship between Personality and Knowledge Sharing
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Introduction
Research Design
Location and Sampling
Data Collection Techniques
Research Instrument
Data Analysis
3.5.1 Reliability of Instrument
3.5.2 Validity of Instrument
3.5.3 Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient (p)
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CHAPTER IV: DATA ANALYSIS
4.0 Introduction 51
4.1 Total Respondent Rate 51
4.2 Respondent Demography 52
4.3 Answer to Research Questions 52
4.3.1 Is there a relationship between personality traits and attitudes toward 52
knowledge sharing?
4.3.2 Is there a relationship between conscientiousness and attitudes toward 53
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knowledge sharing?
4.3.3 Is there a relationship between agreeableness and attitudes toward 54
knowledge sharing?
4.3.4 Is there a relationship between neuroticism and attitudes toward 55
knowledge sharing?
4.3.5 Is there a relationship between openness to experience and attitudes toward 55
knowledge sharing?
4.3.6 Is there a relationship between extraversion and attitudes toward 56
knowledge sharing?
CHAPTER V: RESULT AND DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, SIGNIFICANT OF THE
STUDY, LIMITATION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.0 Introduction 57
5.1 Result and Discussion 57
5.1.1 Relationship between personality traits and attitudes toward knowledge 57
sharing?
5.1.2 Relationship between conscientiousness and attitudes toward knowledge 58
sharing?
5.1.3 Relationship between agreeableness and attitudes toward knowledge 58
sharing?
5.1.4 Relationship between neuroticism and attitudes toward knowledge sharing? 59
5.1.5 Relationship between openness to experience and attitudes toward 59
knowledge sharing?
5.1.6 Relationship between extraversion and attitudes toward knowledge 60
sharing?
5.2. Conclusion 62
5.3 Significance of the Study 63
5.3.1 Significance for Literature 63
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5.3.1.1 Significant for Literature on Personality Traits and Knowledge
Management
5.3.1.1 Significant for Literature on Culture and Personality Traits
5.3.2 Significance for Practitioners
5.3.2.1 Significance for Personnel Selection
5.3.2.2 Significance for Team Building
5.3.2.3 Significance for Human Resources Policy
5.3.2.4 Significance for Educational Institution
5.4 Limitation and Recommendation
5.4.1 Data Collection Technique
5.4.2 More Comprehensive Study
5.4.3 Contribution for Literature
5.4.4 Sample Size
5.4.5 Mediating or Moderating Variables
5.4.5 Cultural Aspect
REFERENCE
APPENDICES
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
This study tries to examine whether there is a relationship between personal characteristics with
the attitude toward knowledge sharing. Personality as one of the individual characteristic exists as
a major factor that distinguishes people from others. Understanding personality is one of the most
important challenges for individual in order to know one self and others. Therefore, people as a
social being need to learn how to interact with people, need to analyze others characteristics, try
to understand what others thinking and feeling, and attempt to predict others responses.
Personality refers to the relatively stable pattern of behaviors and consistent internal states that
explain a person's behavioral tendencies (McShane, 2005). According to Al-Ghazali (as cited in
Raba, 2001), the human being or the human personality is made of self, body, heart, soul and
intellect; all these five elements make up an integrated personality. Many studies have been
conducted by researchers to understand personality.
With the intention of understanding factors that influence individual personality, psychologists
nowadays are interested in understanding how heredity and environment affect personalities and
mental abilities (Bronfrenbenner & Ceci, 1994, Dannefer & Perlmutter, 1990, as cited in
Zimbardo, Johnson & Weber, 2006). Individuals can be caused exclusively by the environment,
but many physical and psychological traits are likely to arise from a combination of both nature
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(innate factors) and nurture (experience), (Nairne, 2003). They recognized that nature and
nurture are interrelated. They interact dynamically. Heredity establishes potential, but experience
determines how the potential will be realized - nature proposes, and nurture disposes (Zimbardo,
Johnson & Weber, 2006).
In today's knowledge based economy, appropriate knowledge management ability is a critical
factor to maintain distinctive core competencies of an organization (DeTienne, Dyer, Hoopes &
Harris, 2004; Hinds & Pfeffer, 2003). Knowledge is considered to be the most important
resource (Conner & Prahalad, 1996; Grant, 1996; Nahapiet & Ghosal, 1998; Pettigrew & Whip,
1993, as cited in Hoof & Ridder, 2004). Many organizations have concluded that effective
knowledge sharing is the crucial way to lever their core competencies and gain competitive
advantage (Gold, Malhotra, & Segars, 2001, as cited in Lee & Lin, 2004).
In the organizational context, employees take their talent (knowledge) away with them when they
are off duty, when they are transferred to another department, when they are dismissed and/or
when they resign and leave a company. If these employees do not share and transfer their
knowledge, loss of potential human capital (i. e. intangible assets) could be incurred (Yang,
2004). The effective management of this resource is, consequently, one of the most important
challenges of the organizations (Davenport & Prusak, 1998; Drucker, 1993; Hansen, Nohria &
Tierney 1999, as cited in Hooff & Ridder, 2004).
Managing knowledge requires understanding of how the knowledge acquire, transfer and used to
produce innovative products or services that affect organizational competitiveness. Management
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need to exceedingly concern that people is the key to a successful knowledge management (KM).
Establishing knowledge sharing environment are encouraged in which employees share their
knowledge to solve problem and furthermore to develop organizational core competencies.
Sharing knowledge between individuals and departments is considered to be a crucial process
(O'Dell & Grayson, 1998, Osterloh & Frey, 2000, as cited in Hoof & Ridder, 2004) and becomes
a critical step for organizational knowledge creation to take place. So, knowledgeable worker
who are willing to share their knowledge will be a critical factor in the coming years.
1.2 Statement of Problem
Understanding employee personalities will make a significant difference in the way the
organization approach, persuade, and motivate their employees on how the work should be
performed. Although many researchers have studied personality traits and the relationship with
variety of managerial and organizational factors, so far, there are not many empirical studies
recorded in area of knowledge management that focused on people.
Organizations are now realizing that technology is not a fix-all solution, knowledge management
has begun shifting its focus to people (Poole, 2000, as cited in DeTienne et al, 2004). People as
the creators, transferors, and users of knowledge (DeTienne et al., 2004) are the key resource to
ensure the success of knowledge management program in an organization. Karl-Erik Sveiby, a
KM expert, said that: "I believe that only a people focused approach to KM will be competitive
long-term, because at the end of the day, any IT solution can easily be copied by competitors
(O'Dell & Grayson, 1998, as cited in DeTienne et al., 2004). Moreover, the deep, tacit
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knowledge that is the root of human thought and action cannot be replicated or replaced by
information and communication technologies (Walsham, 2001).
According to Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995), sharing tacit knowledge among multiple individuals
with different backgrounds, perspectives, and motivations becomes a critical step for
organizational knowledge creation to take place. Individuals have options to share their
knowledge. In contrast to sharing, is hoarding knowledge, which could occur when employees do
not feel that their sharing will be reciprocated (Yang, 2004). Why they should share their
knowledge? It is mainly depending on the attitude they hold towards the behavior of sharing
knowledge (Kwok & Gao, 2005). Although this area seems important, unfortunately there are
limited studies examine the aspects of personal characteristic and attitude toward knowledge
sharing. Therefore, this study set to explore the relationship between personality traits and
attitude toward knowledge sharing.
According to the theory of "Reason Action" (Kwok & Gao, 2005; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), an
individual's intention to perform a behavior and their actual behavior can be determined by their
attitude toward this behavior. Ruggles (1998) noted that the biggest difficulty in managing
knowledge is to change people's behavior. It is believed that an individual attitude toward a
certain behavior can influence their intention to perform such sharing behavior and further affect
actual work performance (Kwok & Gao, 2005; Ajzen & Fishbein 1980). Individuals are usually
more likely to perform a behavior if they possess positive attitude toward this behavior and vice
versa (Kwok & Gao, 2005).
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Organization need to consider the characteristics of employees who have a positive attitude
toward knowledge sharing that can most effectively facilitate knowledge management. Many
organizational variables have been extensively analyzed and discussed in the literature; however
personal characteristics, which are equally crucial, have been neglected in knowledge
management field. Personality as a major component of individual characteristic should have a
role in constructing attitude toward certain behavior, include knowledge sharing. Despite the
growing interest in personality and the growing evidence that personality influences work attitude
(Judge, Heller et al., 2002; as cited in Matzler, Renzl, Mooradian & von Krogh 2006, ) and
behavior (Matzler et. al., 2006; Barrick & Mount 1991), the exact mechanisms by which
personality affect organizational behavior (attitude toward knowledge sharing) are not well
understood (Raja, John et al., 2004, as cited in Matzler et. al., 2006). This study focus on
personality traits, which is known as the big five that consist of conscientiousness, agreeableness,
neuroticism, openness to experience and extraversion. These personality traits should have
correlation with attitude toward knowledge sharing.
Traits are the units of personality that have predictive value. Traits exist as determiners of
behavior (Cattel, 1979, as cited in Cloninger, 2004). Thus, it is reasonable to expect that
personality traits influence personal values and attitudes (Olver & Mooradian, 2003) however the
exact mechanisms by which personality affect organizational behavior are not well understood
(Raja, John et al., 2004 as cited in Matzler et. al., 2006).
Conscientiousness is associated with industriousness, perseverance, and sense of duty
(Bonzionelos, 2004). Conscientious workers achieve more and set higher goals (Barrick &
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Mount, 1991; Barrick, Mount & Strauss, 1993). Meta-analytic studies suggest that
conscientiousness is the most potent and consistent correlate of job performance across all types
of jobs and occupations (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Mount & Barrick, 1995; Salgado, 1997; as
cited in Bonzionelos, 2004).
Individuals who are high in conscientiousness feel capable and effective in their field. This
feeling could become basic foundation for them to confident in sharing knowledge. Empirical
studies also found positive relationships between conscientiousness and organizational
citizenship behavior (Organ, 1994; as cited in Matzler et. al., 2006), i. e. the individual
contributions that go beyond role requirements and contractually rewarded job achievements
(Organ & Ryan, 1995; as cited in Matzler et. al., 2006). Thus, it could be assumed that employees
with high levels of conscientiousness will be more willing to share their knowledge with others
and to contribute to organizational success (Matzler et. al., 2006).
Agreeableness, which describes people as compliant, soft-hearted and good natured tend to avoid
tenses and disagreement in the workplace (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Agreeable individuals are
altruistic, sympathetic, and eager to help others, and that they strive for cooperation rather than
competition (liao & Chuang, 2004; as cited in Matzler et. al., 2006).
Agreeableness is also a variable which could be expected to have correlation with attitudes
toward knowledge sharing, since employees with high score on agreeableness will prioritize
cooperativeness with others. Agreeableness, which describes people as altruism also persuade
them to share their knowledge. In other word, they will tend to avoid being selfish.
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Neuroticism encompasses characteristics that include excessive worry, pessimism, low
confidence, and tendencies to experience negative emotions. Because of their tendency to
interpret experiences under negative light, individuals who score high on neuroticism should be
less likely to develop positive attitudes towards their work (Bonzionelos, 2004). Indeed,
empirical evidence suggests that neuroticism is negatively related to the tendency to be goal-
oriented (Malouff, Schutte, Bauer, Mantelli, 1990). Therefore, individuals who score high on
neuroticism could be linked with negative attitudes towards knowledge sharing, since people
with this characteristic tend to have lack of trust in people. People who have low confidence,
excessive worry and pessimism could be predicted to interpret sharing knowledge as a thing that
may reduce or jeopardize their job security.
Openness to experience includes multiplicity of interests, receptivity of new ideas, flexibility of
thought, inventiveness, and the tendency to develop idealistic ideas and goals (Bonzionelos,
2004). Therefore, individuals who score high on openness should be more likely to share their
knowledge because they will agree with the concept that knowledge increases in value when it is
shared (Sawhney & Prandelli, 2000, cited in Yang, 2004). Those who share knowledge can refine
their shared knowledge by the interactive dialog process: those who shared knowledge can obtain
knowledge from sharers. Consequently, the outcomes would be multiplied beneficially among all
parties. These person also perceive that their work can serve as an arena to entertain their
curiosity, their appetite for exploring new perspectives and their tendency to develop genuine
interest for any activities they are involved in (Yang, 2004).
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Finally, extroversion which describes people with friendly, fun loving, affectionate and talkative
(McCrae & Costa, 1987; cited in Cloninger, 2004), sociability, assertiveness, social dominance,
ambition, tendencies towards action, sensation-seeking, and the experience of positive affect
(Bonzionelos, 2004). Therefore individuals who score high on extraversion is expected to
correlate to positive attitudes toward knowledge sharing since they should be more likely to
possess the need to occupy a central position in their work environment so they can satisfy their
ambitious and domineering tendencies (Bonzionelos, 2004).
1.3 Objectives of the Study
General Objective
The general objective of this study is to examine whether "there is relationship between
personality traits and attitude toward knowledge sharing ".
Specific Objectives
The specific research objectives (RO) are set to examine whether there is relationship between:
RO1: conscientiousness with attitude toward knowledge sharing.
R02: agreeableness with attitude toward knowledge sharing.
R03: neuroticism with attitude toward knowledge sharing.
R04: openness to experience with attitude toward knowledge sharing.
R05: extraversion with attitude toward knowledge sharing.
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1.4 Research Question
The general research question (RQ) of this study: "is there a relationship between personality
traits with attitude toward knowledge sharing ".
The specific research questions are set to identify: is there a relationship between
RQ 1: conscientiousness with attitude toward knowledge sharing.
RQ2: agreeableness with attitude toward knowledge sharing.
RQ3: neuroticism with attitude toward knowledge sharing.
RQ4: openness to experience with attitude toward knowledge sharing.
RQ5: extraversion with attitude toward knowledge sharing.
1.5 Conceptual Framework
Personality Traits:
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Neuroticism f> Attitude toward
Knowledge Sharing
Openness to Experience
Extraversion
Figure 1: Framework of the study: relationship between personality traits and attitude toward knowledge sharing
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1.6 Definition of Term
Personality
Conceptual:
Personality refers to the relatively stable pattern of behaviors and consistent internal states that
explain a person's behavioral tendencies (McShane, 2004).
Operational:
Personality is the relatively stable pattern which permits prediction of a person behavior in the
certain situations. In this study, the personality had subsumed by the "Big Five"
(Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness to experience and extraversion) from
a large number of traits.
Personality Trait
Conceptual:
Personality trait is defined as characteristics of an individual that exerts pervasive influence on a
broad range of trait-relevant responses (Ajzen, 2005).
Operational:
Personality trait is the primary unit of individual's characteristics which permits prediction of
individual's behavior in a certain situations.
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Conscientiousness
Conceptual:
Conscientiousness is associated with industriousness, perseverance, and sense of duty
(Bonzionelos N. 2004).
Operational:
Conscientiousness is personality trait that is characterized by organized, reliability, persistence,
ambitious and goal-directedness. This person has high self control over impulses to achieve and
to act in a directed manner.
Agreeableness
Conceptual:
Agreeableness "includes the traits of being cautious, good-natured, emphatic and caring. Some
scholars prefer the label of "friendly compliance" for this dimension, with its opposite being
"hostile noncompliance". People with low agreeableness tend to be uncooperative, short
tempered and irritable (McShane & Von Glinow, 2005).
Operational:
Person that characterized with high in agreeableness has a tendency to accommodate to the
wishes and needs of others, while person low in agreeableness tends to provide to his or her own
personal priorities.
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Neuroticism
Conceptual:
Neuroticism characterizes people with high levels of anxiety, hostility, depression and self-
consciousness. Neuroticism also describes people who frequently are troubled by negative
emotions such as worry and insecurity (McCrae & Costa, 1992).
Operational:
Person that characterized with high neuroticism will tend to emotionally unstable, low self-
esteem and easily insecure with their colleagues or friends. Furthermore, they will lose temper
easily and usually being labeled as "emotional person". For those who has characterized as low
neuroticism are described as calm, well adjusted, capable of dealing with new or complicated
situation without excessive emotional reactions.
Openness to experience
Conceptual:
People with high openness to experience is describe with attribute such as imaginative, cultured,
curious, original, broad-minded, intelligent, and artistically sensitive (Barrick & Mount, 1991).
Operational:
Employees that characterized with high level of openness to experience will tend to share their
creative ideas among their colleague and managerial levels. At the same time, they are also ready
to accept the ideas from others and prefer to become more flexible in the ways they do things. By
contrast, those who are low in openness to experience prefer to reserve in compliance to accept
new and unconventional ideas. They feel comfortable with concrete and familiar situations.
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Extraversion
Conceptual:
Extraversion characterizes people who are outgoing, talkative, sociable and assertive. The
opposite is introversion, which refers to those who are quite, shy and cautious. Introverts do not
necessarily lack social skills. Rather, they are more inclined to direct their interests to ideas than
to social events. Introverts feel quite comfortable being alone, whereas extraverts do not. (Mc
Shane & Von Glinow, 2005).
Operational:
Employees that labeled as extraversion are sociable, energetic, enthusiastic, dominant, and
talkative. Introverted people tend to be shy, retiring, submissive and quite. They tend to prefer
working alone, quite, serious, and being a private person who may prefer writing or e-mail to
talking with co-workers.
Attitude
Conceptual:
According to Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), attitudes can be described as a learned predisposition to
respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object. The
definition above implies that attitude is learned behavior to respond or act in either a favorable or
unfavorable manner towards an object. The responses are consistent.
Operational:
Attitude means as a consistent tendency to perform a behavior towards some degree of favour or
disfavor object. The word object may refer to the issues, actions, behavior, practices or events.
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Knowledge Sharing
Conceptual:
McDermott (1999, as cited in Riege, 2005) describes the process of "knowledge sharing" as
enabling sharers to guide sharees through sharers' thinking and/or using their insights to assist
sharees to examine their own situations.
Operational:
Knowledge sharing involves the processes through which knowledge is channeled between a
source and a recipient. The objective of any knowledge-sharing process is to transfer source
knowledge successfully to a recipient.
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter will review theories on personality, traits and the big five, knowledge management,
organizational knowledge creation, and concepts of attitudes. This literature review serves as the
references for this research.
2.1 Personality Theory
Two thousand years before academic psychology appeared, people were classifying each other
according to four temperaments, based on a theory proposed by the Greek physician Hippocrates.
According to Hippocrates a person's temperament resulted from the balanced of the four
humors, or fluids, secreted by the body (Cloninger, 2004). A sanguine, or cheerful, person was
characterized by strong, warm blood. A choleric temperament, marked by anger, came from
yellow bile (called choler), believed to flow from the liver. Hippocrates thought that the liver also
produced black bile, from which arose a melancholic, or depressed, temperament. Finally, if the
body's dominant fluid is phlegm, or mucus, this person will have a phlegmatic temperament;
cool, aloof, slow, and unemotional (Cloninger, 2004).
Since the days of Hippocrates, certain scholars in the fields of psychology and counseling were
more concerned with the investigation of human behavior and personality types and traits. Some
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of them were Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychodynamic theory, Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow with the humanistic theories, and Albert Bandura with social-cognitive theory. Gordon
Allport and Raymond Cattell were very well-known figures in the study of personality traits.
Each of them describes personality from a different perspective (Cloninger, 2004).
2.1.1 Psychodynamic Theory
Freud (as cited in Nairne, 2003), believed that human personality consists of three parts: the id,
ego, and super ego. The id seeks immediate satisfaction of innate urges, without concern for the
morals and customs of society, it is called the pleasure principle. Id is the dark side of personality
- the seeker of pleasure - that guarantees survival of the species by motivating a desire for sexual
intercourse. At the same time, people are more than irrational sexual machines. The superego
follows an idealistic principle that encourages people to act in an ideal fashion to act in
accordance with the moral customs defined by parents and culture. Sitting between the forces of
the id and superego, and acting as a mediator is the ego. The ego encourages people to act with
reason and deliberation and help people conform to the requirements of the external world. Ego
obeys a reality principle; it monitors the real world looking for appropriate outlets for the id's
needs, but it also listens intently to the moralistic preaching of the superego. The ego's goal is
compromise among three demanding masters: the external world, the id, and the superego
(Nairne, 2003).
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