personality an individual’s characteristic pattern.. 1

Personality

An individual’s characteristic pattern..

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The Psychoanalytic Perspective

Freud’s theory proposed that childhood…

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Psychoanalysis

Free Association

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Unconscious

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Personality Structure

Id

Ego

Superego

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Psychoanalytic Approach

Conscious

Unconscious

Superego Preconscious

Id

Ego

Informationwhich can

easily bemade

conscious

Thoughts,Feelings, urges, andother informationthat is difficult to bring to consciousawarenesss

Informationin yourimmediateawareness

Rational, planful,mediating dimensionof personality

Moralistic,judgmental, perfectionistdimension of personality

Irrational, illogical,impulsivedimension ofpersonality

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Personality Development

Psychosexual Stages

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Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

Stage Focus

Oral Pleasure centers on the mouth–(0-18 months) sucking, biting, chewing

Anal Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder (18-36 months) elimination; coping with demands for during toilet training control

Phallic Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with (3-6 years) incestuous sexual feelings

Latency Dormant sexual feelings(6 to puberty) Focus is on mastery of skills

Genital Maturation of sexual interests(puberty on) Resolution is an appropriate, permanent

love interest.

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Personality Development

Oedipus Complex (Electra Complex)

Identification

Fixation

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Identification

Children cope with threatening feelings by repressing them and by

identifying with the rival parent. Through

this process of identification, their

superego gains strength that

incorporates their parents’ values.

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Defense Mechanisms Defense Mechanisms

Repression

Regression

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Defense Mechanisms Sublimation

Reaction Formation

Projection

Rationalization

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Defense Mechanisms Denial

Suppression

Daydreaming

Undoing

Displacement

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Assessing the Unconscious

Projective Test

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Rorschach Inkblot Test

The most widely used projective test uses a set of 10 inkblots and was designed by Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their

interpretations of the blots.

Lew M

errim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

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Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)

Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a projective test in which people express their

inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Lew M

errim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

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Projective Tests: Criticisms

Critics argue that projective tests lack both reliability (consistency of results) and

validity (predicting what it is supposed to).

1. When evaluating the same patient, even trained raters come up with different interpretations (reliability).

2. Projective tests may misdiagnose a normal individual as pathological (validity).

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Neo-Freudians

Accepted Freud’s basic ideas, but:1.Put more emphasis on the conscious mind’s

role in interpreting experience and coping with the environment, and

2.Doubted that sex and aggression were all consuming motivations.

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The Neo-Freudians

Like Freud, Adler believed in childhood tensions. However, these tensions were social in nature and not sexual. A child struggles with an

______________________during growth and

strives for superiority and power.

Alfred Adler (1870-1937)

National Library of M

edicine

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The Neo-Freudians

Like Adler, Horney believed in the

social aspects of childhood growth and development.

She countered Freud’s assumption

that women have weak superegos and suffer from “penis

envy.” Karen Horney (1885-1952)

The Bettm

ann Archive/ Corbis

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The Neo-Freudians

Jung believed in the ______________________

which contained a common reservoir of images derived from

our species’ past. This is why many cultures share certain myths and images such as the mother being a

symbol of nurturance.Carl Jung (1875-1961)

Archive of the History of Am

erican Psychology/ University of Akron

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Erik Erikson (1902 – 1990)

• Psycho-social Stages of Development• Each new stage of life presents a unique set of

demands and conflicts in the interpersonal and social realms.

• Successfully resolving these conflicts enables us to become well adjusted mature adults.

• Development occurs throughout the life span.

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Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Approximateage Stage Description of Task

Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants(1st year) develop a sense of basic trust.

Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they

doubt their abilities.

Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks(3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel

guilty about efforts to be independent.

Elementary Competence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying(6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel puberty) inferior.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial DevelopmentApproximateage Stage Description of Task

Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by(teens into confusion testing roles and then integrating them to 20’s) form a single identity, or they become

confused about who they are.

Young Adult Intimacy vs. Young adults struggle to form close relation- (20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate 40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated.

Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri-(40’s to 60’s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through family

and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.

Late Adult Integrity vs. When reflecting on his or her life, the older(late 60’s and despair adult may feel a sense of satisfaction orup) failure.

Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective

1. Personality develops throughout life and is not fixed in childhood.

2. Freud underemphasized peer influence on the individual, which may be as powerful as parental influence.

3. Gender identity may develop before 5-6 years of age.

Modern Research

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4. There may be other reasons for dreams besides wish fulfillment.

5. Verbal slips can be explained on the basis of cognitive processing of verbal choices.

6. Suppressed sexuality leads to psychological disorders. Sexual inhibition has decreased, but psychological disorders have not.

Modern Research

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Freud's psychoanalytic theory rests on the repression of painful experiences into

the unconscious mind.

The majority of children, death camp survivors, and battle-scarred veterans are

unable to repress painful experiences into their unconscious mind.

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The scientific merits of Freud’s theory have been criticized. Psychoanalysis is meagerly testable. Most of its concepts arise out of clinical practice, which are

the after-the-fact explanation.

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Humanistic Perspective

• Focused on the ways “healthy people strive for self-determination and self-realization”.

• Based on idea that people want to do good and make the most of their own potential.

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Self-Actualizing PersonMaslow proposed that we as individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs, we

try to reach the state of self-actualization—fulfilling our potential.

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Maslow• Studied people he believe had achieved self-

actualization (e.g. Lincoln).• Characteristics he found in common in these

people he defined as Mature Adult Qualities.• Mature Adult Qualities: self-aware and self-

accepting, open and spontaneous, loving and caring, not paralyzed by others opinions, secure in who they are, interests are problem centered (not self centered), had a life’s mission, few deep relationships, had a spiritual or personal peak experience.

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Rollo May (1909 – 1994)• Best known American Existential Psychologist.• Human concerns are:

– Our freedom to choose our actions.– Being responsible for those actions.– Feeling alone in the world.– Trying to find meaning and purpose in our lives.– Confronting the prospect of death.

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• Existential Therapy is designed to help people accept and deal with these concerns head-on rather than to continue ignoring or avoiding them.

Person-Centered PerspectiveCarl Rogers also believed in an individual's self-actualization tendencies if there are in a growth promoting climate where people are:1.Genuine – 2.Accepting –

3.Empathetic –

Michael Rougier/

Life Magazine ©

Tim

e Warner, Inc.

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Assessing the Self

Self-Concept =

In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the two descriptions were close

the individual had a positive self-concept.

Positive self-concept =

Negative self-concept =

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Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective

Humanistic psychology has a pervasive impact on counseling, education, child-rearing, and management with its emphasis on a positive self-concept, empathy, and the thought that people are basically good and can improve.

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Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective

1. Concepts in humanistic psychology are vague and subjective and lack scientific basis.

2. The individualism encouraged can lead to self-indulgence, selfishness, and an erosion of moral restraints.

3. Humanistic psychology fails to appreciate the reality of our human capacity for evil. It lacks adequate balance between realistic optimism and despair.

Criticisms

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The Trait Perspective

An individual’s unique constellation of durable dispositions and consistent ways of behaving (traits) constitutes his or her

personality.Trait

Examples of Traits

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Trait Theories

• Trait –

• Goal of trait theories…

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Exploring Traits

Gordon Allport set out to describe personality in terms of fundamental traits. He was not concerned with

explaining behavior.

Each personality is uniquely made up of multiple traits.

Allport & Odbert (1936), identified almost 18,000 words representing traits.

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Raymond Cattell

• Developed a theory based on 16 fundamental characteristics or source traits.

• Developed a personality test based on his 16 fundamental traits – the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire.

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Factor Analysis

One way to condense the immense list of personality traits is through factor

analysis…

Hans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that personality could be reduced down to two

polar dimensions…

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The Trait Perspective Hans and Sybil Eysenck

use two primary personality factors as axes for describing personality variation

They added a third dimension –

UNSTABLE

STABLE

cholericmelancholic

phlegmatic sanguineINTROVERTED EXTRAVERTED

MoodyAnxious

RigidSober

PessimisticReserved

Unsociable

Quiet

SociableOutgoing

TalkativeResponsiveEasygoing

LivelyCarefree

Leadership

PassiveCareful

Thoughtful

Peaceful

ControlledReliable

Even-temperedCalm

TouchyRestlessAggressive

ExcitableChangeable

ImpulsiveOptimistic

Active

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Assessing Traits

Personality inventories are…

The Eysenck’s developed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)to measure the traits they suggested.

Their questionnaire has been found to be fairly valid cross-culturally.

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MMPIThe Minnesota Multiphasic Personality

Inventory (MMPI) is…

The MMPI was developed by empirically testing a pool of items and then selecting

those that discriminated between diagnostic groups.

Empirically Derived Test

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The Big Five Factors

Today’s trait researchers believe that earlier trait dimensions, such as Eysencks’ personality

dimensions, fail to tell the whole story. So, an expanded range (five factors) of traits does a better

job of assessment.Openness

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

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Questions about the Big Five

These traits are common across cultures.3. How about other

cultures?

Fifty percent or so for each trait.2. How heritable are they?

Quite stable in adulthood. However, they change over development.

1. How stable are these traits?

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Endpoints

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Evaluating the Trait Perspective

The Person-Situation Controversy

Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the

resulting behavior in various situations is different. Therefore, traits are not good

predictors of behavior.

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The Person-Situation Controversy

Trait theorists argue that behaviors from a situation may be different, but average behavior

remains the same. Therefore, traits matter.

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Consistency of Expressive Style

Expressive styles in speaking and gestures demonstrate trait consistency.

Observers are able to judge people’s behavior and feelings in as little as 30

seconds.

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Behavioral Perspective

• Behaviorists tried to develop a theory of personality based on theories of conditioning, but it was rejected as too narrow and mechanistic by most psychologists.

• Ivan Pavlov• Edward Thorndike• John B. Watson• B. F. Skinner

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Social-Cognitive PerspectiveBandura (1986, 2001, 2005) believes that personality is the result of an interaction that takes place between a person and their social context.Behavior is learned through conditioning and modeling.What we think about the situation also effects behavior.

Reciprocal Determinism…

Albert Bandura

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Individuals & Environments

How we view and treat people influences how they treat us.

Our personalities shape situations.

Anxious people react to situations differently than relaxed people.

Our personalities shape how we react to events.

The school you attend and the music you listen to are partly based on your dispositions.

Different people choose different environments.

Specific ways in which individuals and environments interact

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Personal Control

Jullian Rotter developed the idea of an:External locus of control which refers…

And an

Internal locus of control which refers…

Social-cognitive psychologists emphasize our sense

of , whether we control the environment or the

environment controls us.

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An external Locus of Control has been linked to Learned

HelplessnessWhen unable to avoid repeated adverse events

an animal or human learns helplessness.

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An Internal Locus of Control has been linked with:

• .

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Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective

Critics say that social-cognitive psychologists pay a lot of attention to the situation and pay

less attention to the individual, his unconscious mind, his emotions, and his genetics.

The social-cognitive perspective on personality sensitizes researchers to the

effects of situations on and by individuals. It builds on learning and cognition research.

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Cognitive Theory of Personality

• George Kelly (1905 –1967)

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Positive Psychology

Positive psychology, like humanistic psychology, attempts to foster human fulfillment. Positive psychology is the scientific study of optimal human functioning. It aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable human beings and communities to thrive

Martin Seligman

Courtesy of Martin E.P. Seligm

an, PhD D

irector, Positive Psychology Center/ U

niversity of Pennsylvania

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Three Pillars of Positive Psychology1. Positive Subjective Well-being:

2. Positive Character:

3. Positive Groups, Communities and Cultures:

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Biological Perspective• Influences of biology on thoughts, feelings and

actions.• Describes a biological basis for personality.

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Biology and Personality

Personality dimensions are influenced by genes.

1. Brain-imaging procedures show that extraverts seek stimulation because their normal brain arousal is relatively low.

2. Genes also influence our temperament and behavioral style. Differences in children’s shyness and inhibition may be attributed to autonomic nervous system reactivity.

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PersonalityPersonality (our characteristic pattern of thinking feeling and behaving)emerges from an interplay of

external and internal influences.

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personality an individual’s characteristic pattern.. 1

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