perspectives on human development across the...

Perspectives on human development acrossthe lifespan

In this issue:

A Student Journal Volume 1, Number 1

Unit One: What is developmental psychology?

A Journal of DevelopmentalPsychology to support Psychology 30,a course offering of SaskatchewanEducation

In this issue: Introduction to developmental psychology

Volume 1, Number 1

Welcome to Ages and Stages! Page 4Ages and Stages is a student Journal of Developmental Psychology, which is meant to

accompany Psychology 30: Human Development. In this article, we describe the course content,the organizational structure, and timelines for the course.

Understanding contemporary perspectives on psychology Page 15Abstract: In the Western tradition, there are 6 dominant perspectives that seek to explain

human thought and behaviour. In this article, we describe each perspective, and then invite youto look at a situation from each perspective.

Looking through the eyes of …… What do you see? Page 12In this article, we examine the process of human development from two perspectives: The

perspective of the developing person and the influences of our biology and the environment ondevelopment; and secondly, from the perspective of the systems of support that nurture thedevelopmental process.

Feature Articles

An Introduction to Developmental Psychology Page 7In conversation with Dr. Katherine Robinson, a developmental psychologist from the

University of Regina, Ages and Stages explores the basic concepts of developmentalpsychology.

An Aboriginal perspective on “psychology” Page 10In conversation with Mr. Bill Asikinack, Assistant Professor, Department of Native

Studies with the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College, and Traditional Leader of the CraneClan in his family in the Ojibway Nation, Ages and Stages explores the basic concepts ofpsychology from an Aboriginal perspective.


A Journal of DevelopmentalPsychology to support Psychology 30, acourse offering of SaskatchewanEducation

Making connections ….

Issues in the Methods and Ethics of Research Page 23Abstract: What are the issues and concerns in conducting research? In this article we describe

and explain the methods issues of reliability, validity, and correlation and causation, as well as theethical issues of confidentiality, informed consent, bias, and animal research.

Book Review: The Sacred Tree Page 26Abstract: For all the people of the earth, the Creator has planted a Sacred Tree under which

they may gather, and there find healing, power, wisdom and security. The roots of this tree spreaddeep into the body of Mother Earth. Its branches reach upward like hands praying to Father Sky. Thefruits of this tree are the good things the Creator has given to the people: teachings that show the pathto love, compassion, generosity, patience, wisdom, justice, courage, respect, humility and many otherwonderful gifts.

My Anthology Page 29To truly make Ages and Stages your own, we provide a space where you can keep

sayings, pictures, poems, anecdotes, musical lyrics, anything that you find intriguing, inspiring,amusing or thought provoking.

From both perspectives…. Page 30Should families be limited to two children?

Research Methodologies in Psychology Page 19How do we make sense of our behaviour? In this article, we look at research methodologies in

trying to make sense of issues in developmental psychology.


Welcome to Ages and Stages! It is our hope thatthis journal of developmental psychology willhelp you in organizing and understanding thebasic concepts of developmental psychology asyou move through the course content ofPsychology 30: Human Development.

The aim of this course is on practicalityand applicability. While it is very important thatyou have some understanding and appreciationfor the different perspectives on thedevelopmental changes through the stages of lifefrom conception to death, the aim of this courseis to present the concepts of developmentalpsychology in a practical, relevant,contemporary, research-oriented, and applicableframework. You will not just be studying aboutdevelopmental psychology, you will be applyingit to issues in your lives, and those of yourfamilies, friends, classmates, and communitymembers.

As a way of organizing the concepts andinformation about the various aspects ofdevelopmental psychology, SaskatchewanLearning has created this journal, which we havetitled, Ages and Stages. There will be onevolume for each of the 4 required units of studyin the course; Introduction to developmentalpsychology, Prenatal development, Infancy andEarly childhood. The last three units, MiddleChildhood, Adolescence and Adulthood, areoptional, and may not necessarily be a part of the

course content. In each volume, as your table ofcontents for this volume shows, will be a numberof articles which directly relate to the conceptsand understandings being taught in class. Thisjournal can also serve as a reflective journal, astudy guide, as well as a notes and researchorganizer. Each article will explain and describethe concept or topic, using a variety of formsincluding text, graphics, pictures, poetry andshort stories. You are encouraged to do the same.Use your copy of Ages and Stages to helporganize your thinking about developmentalpsychology in the form or medium that suitsyour individual preference and style. If you are aperson who can understand visual images orgraphics such as a concept map or web, then useAges and Stages as the format within which youmake sense of this course by creating conceptwebs or visual metaphors. If you are a learnerwho learns best by the printed word, thenunderline, highlight, number in the margins anduse your copy to facilitate your learning!

No doubt you have some questions aboutexactly what the concept map shows. To beginwith, the concept map shows that we will belooking at the changes across the lifespan fromtwo perspectives: (1) from the perspective of thedeveloping person, in other words what are the

Welcome to Agesand Stages!

Ages and Stages is a student Journal ofDevelopmental Psychology, which is meantto accompany Psychology 30: HumanDevelopment. In this article, we outline theaims of the course, as well as describe thecourse content and organizational structure.

Looking through the eyes of the systems of support …

Nature/NurtureInfluence of the domains

MicrosystemsExosystemsMacrosystem

Pre-conceptionto birth

Infancy EarlyChildhood

MiddleChildhood

Adolescence

Adulthood

Looking through the eyes of the developing person …


issues, challenges and changes which a human atthat particular stage of development isexperiencing; and, (2) from the perspective ofthe various support systems which foster andpromote healthy development. These systems ofsupport include your parents, family, friends,neighbors, community members, as well asinstitutions such as day cares and schools. Asyou consider the developmental process from theperspective of the developing person, you will beaddressing the issues of the relative influences ofheredity (Nature) and the environment (Nurture),as well as the interactions and influences of thebiological, cognitive, socioemotional andspiritual domains.

For example, at the conception to birthstage, you will be looking at the process ofdevelopment from the perspective of the unbornchild, including physical development,development of the brain, the influence ofheredity and our genetic makeup. From theperspective of the systems of support, thequestion might be: What does it take to have thehealthiest baby possible? For example, whateffects do smoking and drinking have on theunborn baby? What prenatal programs exist?Should you talk to your unborn child?

There are four required units of study inPsychology 30, An introduction todevelopmental psychology, Pre-conception toBirth, Infancy (zero - two years of age), andEarly Childhood (two – six years of age). Somuch of what happens to us as we grow older isdetermined in the first six years, that specialattention is given in this course to those early,critical years of development. That is not to saythat development is a “fait accompli” by the ageof six, far from it! But for the purposes of thiscourse, we have decided to make the units ofstudy Middle Childhood (six – 12 years of age),Adolescence and Adulthood, optional units ofstudy as time, interest and need dictate.

Unit One is titled, What is developmentalpsychology? In this unit of study, you will beginto lay down the foundation so that you will notonly begin to understand the basic perspectives,

concepts and terms used in developmentalpsychology, but you will also learn the variousways and means of collecting, processing andcommunicating information about the “changesacross the stages”.

The first stage of development you willstudy is the stage from before conception occurs,until the actual process of labour and delivery.We begin Unit Two by having you consider thevitally important question: Why do you want tobecome a parent?, and related to that, What arethe issues, challenges and responsibilities ofcreating human life? This is a time ofphenomenal physical development, in fact, atone point in the fetal development stage, 16 000neurons (brain cells) are being created everyminute! And so your first unit of study will lookat the developmental process from conception tolabour and delivery from the perspectives of boththe developing fetus and the systems of support,in particular, the expectant mother.

Unit Three will examine the stage frombirth until the age of two years. While theemphasis during the first stage (from theperspective of the developing person) was onphysical development, now the emphasisbecomes shared between the physical, cognitive(thoughts, learning, intelligence, memory), andsocioemotional (emotions, personality ortemperament, attachment, sense of Self-identity)aspects of development. Here the influences ofthe sociocultural context become increasinglyimportant in terms of child rearing practices,roles of the father and mother, economicsituation, nutrition, early experiences to promotecognitive development and the beginnings ofpersonality (e.g., shyness, aggressiveness,inquisitiveness). You will also examine issuessuch as breast feeding versus bottle feeding,attachment issues, daycare versus parental care,as well as gender differences in development andhow our culture promotes gender role identity.

As each stage not only has its own uniqueissues and challenges, so too it serves as thefoundation upon which the next stage ofdevelopment is built. The final stage of the


required units of study, Unit Four, is the EarlyChildhood stage, or the period of developmentfrom two years of age until six, or the time atwhich most children begin their formal period ofschooling. This period of development has beentermed “The Play Years” (Berger, 2000),because the primary context for socioemotionaland cognitive development in particular, is inplaying with other children. This is a period ofdevelopment during which the child begins tomake sense of the world around them, asexemplified by their seemingly never-endingquestioning! Why is the sky blue? Why can’t Ihave this, or that? Why can’t I do this, or dothat? Why, Why, Why? This is also the period inwhich the child learns about socialization, aboutgetting along with other children, about theirown unique identity in terms of self-identity andself-concept, and most especially about genderroles and identity. You will look at the issues ofday care and pre-school, early interventionprograms, cultural differences in terms of genderroles and identity, parenting issues, and the like.

Units of Study Five (Middle Childhood),Six (Adolescence), and Seven (Adulthood), areoptional units of study, and may or may not beincluded in the course content. However, theapproach will remain the same, in terms ofconsidering the developmental process from theperspectives of both the developing person, andfrom the systems of support.

Can you see now why this journal iscalled Ages and Stages? It is our hope that youwill find this course enlightening, challenging,informative, practical, relevant, and thoughtprovoking. The story of the human journey is acomplex and fascinating one, we hope that thiscourse fuels that sense of wonder.

Making connections …

• Create a collage to illustrate thecourse content

• Why do you think the editor of Agesand Stages chose the cover graphic?What do you think it means? Whatconnection would that graphic haveto developmental psychology?

• Design your own cover graphic!• Human development has been

described, in metaphorical terms, asbeing like a staircase, a vine, or aseedling (Santrock, 2000). Explaineach metaphor.

• Define the following terms:• Heredity• Cognition• Socioemotional aspect• Culture• Nature/Nurture


Ages and Stages: How would you definedevelopmental psychology?

I think that developmental psychology isessentially concerned with change, and thechange process at different ages. While muchattention is placed on child development,developmental psychology deals with howhuman beings change across time, and that timeis not just childhood.

Ages and Stages: What do developmentalpsychologists do?

Because I teach at the University of Regina, myprimary focus is academic, on the teaching of theconcepts of psychology. But a large part of myresponsibilities also involves research withchildren, going out to see what children do, andhow they change. Developmental psychologistsalso perform community work, for exampleworking with parenting groups, or supportgroups for parents with children with specialneeds. Developmental psychologists also workclosely with educators to assist them withchildren with developmental problems andlearning disabilities. You will also finddevelopmental psychologists working with andfor social welfare groups, and involved in legalissues related to psychology, for example,determining how reliable eyewitness testimonyis in children, or the validity of childhoodmemories in legal cases.

Ages and Stages: What skills and training arerequired to become a successfuldevelopmental psychologist?

Developmental psychologists begin their trainingby completing a university undergraduatedegree, usually an Honors degree in psychology.After that three or four year degree is completed,then you would apply to do graduate work, andbegin work on a Masters degree. Following thetwo year Masters program of studies,Developmental psychologists will then apply todo a Doctoral degree with a specialization indevelopmental psychology. In terms of skills, Iwould say that interest in being a researcher,interest in working with children, adolescents, orthe elderly, would be the basis for considering acareer in developmental psychology.

Ages and Stages: In what ways hasdevelopmental psychology directly impactedour lives?

There are a lot of different areas indevelopmental psychology and everybody hastheir own specific interests and applicability. Wedeal with a wide range of subjects like conductdisorders, and so for example we will be lookingat the social aspects of conduct disorder. Is it thepeers or the parents, or perhaps is there acognitive base to the conduct disorders? Thesefindings can be applied to all aspects of our lives,most particularly in this case, Education.But developmental psychology can tell us a lotabout more than just parenting. It can tell usabout learning, it can tell us about play and it’s

An introduction to developmental psychologyIn conversation with Dr. Katherine Robinson, a developmentalpsychologist from the University of Regina, Ages and Stages explores thebasic concepts of developmental psychology.


importance and role in child development. It cantell us about how we develop our sense of beingmale or female. And so there are manyapplications of developmental psychology to allareas of our lives.

Ages and Stages: Of the many perspectives onhuman development, is there presently onewhich seems to dominate?

Developmental psychology is like all otheraspects of psychology, there are a variety ofdifferent sub-groups. In general, when we thinkof developmental psychology we think of threemain groups: physical development, cognitivedevelopment, and socioemotional development.All of those three interact to produce the person.

But there is no one dominant grandtheory, for example, Piaget is probably the mostfamous developmental psychologist, but evenPiaget’s work applies mainly to cognitivedevelopment and he has little to say about whathappens in adulthood.

People like Erikson have a much broaderperspective, in the sense that he starts out atinfancy and goes all the way through to lateadulthood. But Erikson’s theory is moreconcerned with the social aspects ofdevelopment and the sense of personal identity,so again, he has not developed a single grandtheory.

Ages and Stages: To what extent does cultureinfluence our development?

Culture is gaining in its influence ondevelopmental research, it is becoming one areaof developmental psychology that we arerealizing we must focus on. A lot of the researchthat has been done up to this point has focusedon a very small sub-group of the totalpopulation, primarily middle class children whocome from a Caucasian background. Of course,that does not reflect the reality of today’s society,we are very much a multicultural society. So weneed to address the cross-cultural aspects of

development, in other words are there someaspects of development that are universal, andwhat aspects are culturally based? We also needto look within the cultures to look at thedifferences and diversities and look at the waysin which these theories of development actuallyapply to different groups within a culture.

Ages and Stages: What are the mostimportant, current issues in developmentalpsychology today?

I would say that one of the biggest hurdles whichdevelopmental psychologists have to cross is theWhy? question. We have done a pretty good job,at least for a small part of the population abouthow development occurs. But we have beenhaving a hard time explaining why it occurs!

What is it that leads to change? What is itthat leads a child to develop object permanence?Piaget did a wonderful job of describing thechanges that the child goes through inunderstanding that objects do not just disappearwhen they are out of sight, but we still do notknow why? We need to address the why questionin terms of what cognitive structures in thechild’s brain are changing so that the childdevelops object permanence. And so there is anincreasing focus on change mechanisms, not justdescribing what happens as they develop intoadults.

Also, I think that on the topic of theNature/Nurture question, developmentalpsychologists generally agree that there is aninteraction, it cannot be explained simply by oneor the other, but as an interaction between thetwo. However, a recent theory by Judy Harrisproposes that in terms of the Nurture side of theissue, that it is peers, rather than parents, whohave the most influence on development. Wehave, at least up to this point, generally acceptedthe view that it was the parents who were theprimary sources of influence on development.But now this position has been put forward, andit has provoked a lot of research. It does notmatter if you agree or disagree, but a lot of


research has been, and will be, devoted to thisquestion of the relative influence of the parentsand peers.

Ages and Stages: Dr. Robinson, we sincerelythank you for taking the time to share yourthoughts and ideas on the topic of developmentalpsychology.


• Find current newspaper or magazinearticles that deal with issues indevelopmental psychology. With apartner, create a role play in which thetwo of you take opposing sides on theissue.

• Create your own Ages and Stagesarticle!

• Interview a family member, friend, orsenior. You can select an issue from themany which were raised by Dr.Robinson, or you can use the issue thatyou found in the newspaper or magazinearticle. Hint: Prepare the questions inadvance, use a tape recorder, and thentranscribe the interview later!

• How would an understanding of humandevelopment aid you as a familymember?

• Using a comparison chart, list thesimilarities and differences betweensocial psychology and developmentalpsychology.

What am I interested in learning?

How can developmental psychology be ofbenefit in my life?


Ages and Stages: From an Aboriginalperspective, how would you define socialpsychology?

In our culture, Aboriginal people do not have a termlike “social psychology” as it is used in the Westernworld. From our perspective, we seek to understandour holistic relationship to Nature and others,understanding our role and place in Creation. In life,we seek meaning, which helps provide purpose, andunderstanding how to live in harmony with Natureand others. This process starts with the individual andmoves outwards. In our culture, the medicine wheelrepresents all aspects of our Being; physical,spiritual, mental, and emotional. Each of theseaspects must be equally developed in a healthy, well-balanced individual through the development and useof our will.

Ages and Stages: How was this understandingcommunicated?

Through the oral tradition of storytelling.Storykeepers, or storytellers, would instruct andguide the people using “Lessons from Nature”. Insome instances there were men’s stories, and storiesmeant primarily for women (but I am sure that thesewere not kept exclusive to either group!). Somenations only told stories at certain times or for a veryspecific purpose, while others would tell stories asthe need arose. This was the case with my people, Ican remember being told stories whenever a lessonwas needed to be learned!

Ages and Stages: Who were, or are, the“psychologists” in the Aboriginal culture?

Storytellers, or storykeepers. This was not a male orfemale dominated role. I heard as many stories fromwomen as I did men. It was the women were mostlyresponsible for the transmission of cultural valuesand attitudes, because at a certain age the youngmales would go off with the older males to learn theskills of hunting and providing, while the girls wouldstay with their mothers and grandmothers for a longerperiod of time.

Ages and Stages: How did the storykeepersinfluence their people?

The storykeepers would observe behaviour and tellstories to indirectly guide and direct behaviour. Thestories were always directly applicable to what thestorykeepers had seen or heard. But one fascinatingaspect of the stories was that they were alwaysexpressed in a positive way, the stories were never”negative words”. The stories were also never told ina direct manner, as a list of do’s and don’ts. Instead,it was storytelling in an allegorical and metaphoricalway. For example, I remember one story that wastold to me when I was fishing. The story involved theblack water monster, who would rise up and take meaway from this reality to the next unless I paidcareful attention to the signs around me. How wouldI interpret or explain this story in ways that non-Aboriginals could understand? Well, the black wateris a sign in nature of an impending storm. Beingcaught out in that storm could be dangerous. So itwas left up to me to get the meaning from the story. Iwas never told to watch the water because blackwater meant possible danger. I would use an onion asan example for the type of stories that I heard when Iwas a child. Every time I heard a story, I would peelaway one layer of meaning, and another layer wouldappear.

Ages and Stages: What skills or training werenecessary to become an Aboriginal “socialpsychologist”?

In our tradition, the Elders would have selected, andtrained, young people in the art of storytelling. Thestoryteller was developed from within the group, itwas an active process of selection by the Elders who

An Aboriginalperspective on

social psychologyIn conversation with Mr. Bill Asikinack, AssistantProfessor, Department of Native Studies with theSaskatchewan Indian Federated College, andTraditional Leader of the Crane Clan in his familyin the Ojibway Nation, Ages and Stages exploresthe basic concepts of social psychology from anAboriginal perspective.


recognized that certain individuals had a “gift”. Thatgift was then promoted, and the young storytellerswould then develop the ability to tell their stories inexactly the same way. Storytellers would sometimeshave visited other nations to share stories, and thesestories would then become part of the storykeeper’sstories. A storyteller had a very high social status, aprominent role in the culture.

Ages and Stages: What are the Aboriginalperspectives on various aspects of humanthought and behaviour? Let’s begin with theissue of Self identity.

Children were named in a formal naming ceremonyby a name-giver, a person charged with theresponsibility of naming the baby. Children werenamed for a purpose, to learn certain things. Thewhole community knew the name and fostered thedevelopment of the qualities and attributes associatedwith the name. In a very real sense, then, part of thesense of identity would come from your given name.The community became responsible for helping thechild fulfill their name.

Ages and Stages: What is the Aboriginalperspective on child rearing and parenting?

In our culture, the child had control over their owndevelopment but the parents (and the community)were always watchful, so that the child woulddevelop into a “proper” adult whose skills would beuseful to the survival of the community. As I havealready described from my upbringing, childdevelopment was guided through stories, andinterpretation left up to developing individual. Youremember the story of the black water, watermonster, in contemporary sense, black water meansimpending storm.

Ages and Stages: What is the role andimportance of spirituality to Aboriginalpeoples?

It’s the whole world to an Aboriginal person.Spirituality is central to our way of Being. In ourtradition, we celebrate life, give thanks every day. Iremember a story when I was in Navajo country inthe United States, and a small cactus was pointed out

to me. I was reminded that this small plant wasabsolutely critical to my survival, because if I hadnothing else, that the milk of this cactus wouldprovide enough nutrition to survive in the desert.That's what I mean about giving thanks, andappreciating the gifts of Creation.

Ages and Stages: What is the Aboriginalperspective on the role of the family?

In the Aboriginal culture, the family is what has beendescribed as an "extended" family , it involves thewhole community. There is an active connecting tothe extended family, recognizing the need to involvemany people in the development and guidance of thechild. Family, then, could be defined as “people whohave influence on the developing person”.

Ages and Stages: How would you describe theAboriginal worldview?

A worldview is the fundamental set of values thatdirect our behaviour , it is how we view ourrelationship to all Creation. From our perspective,Humankind is the least of all of Creation (becausehumans depend on the animals and plants. They donot need us to survive, we need them. In ourworldview, everything is related to everything else,and everything has purpose.

Ages and Stages: Mr. Asikinack, we sincerelythank you for taking the time to share your thoughtsand ideas on the topic of an Aboriginal perspectiveon developmental psychology.


In this article, we consider the two perspectivesupon which this course is based: (1) theperspective of the developing person and thephysical, mental and emotional changes acrossthe lifespan; (2) the perspective of the systems ofsupports as described by Urie Bronfenbrenner(1979), support systems such as the family,friends, classmates and Health agencies whichpromote and nurture healthy development.

Let’s begin by examining the influence thatour physical, mental and emotional aspects bringto bear on our thoughts, feelings and behaviours.To describe the physical influences on ourdevelopment is to consider how certain traits areinherited from our parents. One way to find outwhether a trait is inherited is to study twins.

Identical twins develop from a singlefertilized egg and share the same genes. In a fewcases, identical twins have been separated atbirth. Psychologists at the University ofMinnesota have been studying identical twinswho were separated at birth and reared indifferent environments (Holden, 1980) One ofthe researchers, Thomas Bouchard, reports thatdespite very different social, cultural, andeconomic backgrounds, the twins shared manycommon behaviours. For example, in one set oftwins (both named Jim), both had done well inmath and poorly in spelling while in school; bothworked as deputy sheriffs; vacationed in Florida;gave identical names to their children and pets;bit their fingernails; had identical smoking anddrinking patterns; and liked mechanical drawingand carpentry. (Kasschau, 1995, p. 101-103)

Our mental state is directly tied to how wefeel, and how we behave. How we thinkinfluences how we feel and how we act. Manypeople behave as if they were controlled by theirbodies. They cannot separate what their bodieswant from what is true and good. To exercisethis kind of discipline requires discipline anddetermination to fulfill our purposes and achieveour goals. Our feelings do not “happen” to uslike a rock dropped on our heads. Yet wiseteachers and elders know that feelings can berealized and controlled by an act of our will.Indeed, feelings can be refined, evaluated anddeveloped. Just as the body can be trained anddeveloped through the exercise of the will, so toocan our feelings be disciplined. For example,people who fly into uncontrollable anger becausethey have been denied something they wanted,have not learned to discipline the powers ofemotion. On the other hand, to hold in feelingsof hurt or anger without being able to releasethem can be extremely damaging to our physical,mental, emotional and spiritual well-being. Themost difficult and valuable gift is the capacity toexpress feelings openly and freely in ways thatdo not hurt other beings. To own feelings of hurtcan prevent us from being a clear-thinking andeffective human being. (Bopp, 1985)

Now let’s turn our attention to the relativeinfluence of the environment in terms ofinfluencing our behaviour. According to UrieBronfenbrenner (1979), each person issignificantly affected by interactions among anumber of overlapping ecosystems.

Looking through the eyes of….What do you see?

In this article, we consider the two perspectives upon which this course is based: (1) the perspectiveof the developing person and the physical, mental and emotional changes across the lifespan; (2) theperspective of the systems of supports as described by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979), support systemssuch as the family, friends, classmates and Health agencies which promote and nurture healthydevelopment.


At the center of the model is the individual.Surrounding the individual are the systems ofsupport that most directly and immediatelyinfluence the individual. These are termed themicrosystems . The primary microsystems forchildren include the family, peer group,classroom, neighbourhood, and sometimes achurch, temple, or mosque as well. Interactionsamong the microsystems, as when parents andteachers coordinate their efforts to educate thechild, take place through the mesosystem.Surrounding the microsystems is the exosystem,which includes all the external networks, such ascommunity structures and schools, medical,employment, and communications systems, thatinfluence the microsystems. And influencing allother systems is the macrosystem, whichincludes cultural values, political philosophies,economic patterns, and social conditions.Together, these systems are termed the socialcontext of human development. (Berger, 2000, p.5)

Using the Bronfenbrenner ecological modelas our guide, let’s investigate how we asindividuals guide and direct our own behaviour.As we described earlier, humans have abiological basis to helping others, in fact, we aremore likely to help others in need if we arerelated to them, and the closer that relationship,the stronger the drive to help. This was explainedby psychologists as one way of preserving thecontinuation of the species! But in addition tohaving the biological capacity to behavealtruistically, we also have the capacity to learnto behave altruistically under certaincircumstances. We learn our social behaviour bywatching others, and so it only makes sense thatwe would be more likely to help others if we hadobserved our parents, friends, peers, and othersignificant adults in our lives, demonstratingthose helping behaviours.

The sociocultural context plays animportant role in the learning environments ofschools. In a typical U.S. classroom session,teachers talked to students as a group; thenstudents worked at their desks independently.

Reinforcement or other feedback was usuallydelayed or absent. In contrast, the typicalJapanese classroom placed greater emphasis oncooperative work between students (Kristof,1997). Teachers provided more immediatefeedback on a one-to-one basis, and there was anemphasis on working in teams made up ofmembers with differing abilities, so that fasterlearners could help teach slower ones. TheJapanese children also practised more. (Bernsteinand Nash, 1998, p. 176)

Still another example of the influence ofthe environment has to do with people’sperceptions of what is considered appropriate insocial situations. People tend to judge othersbased on the eye contact they engage in.Canadians generally prefer modest amounts ofeye contact rather than constant or no eyecontact. Job applicants, for example, are ratedmore favourably when they make moderateamounts of eye contact, speakers who makemore rather than less eye contact are preferred,and witnesses testifying in a court trial areperceived as more credible when they make eyecontact with the attorney questioning them.(DePaulo, 1992) However, all of this is true onlyin Western cultures, which foster anindividualistic stance; in some non-Westerncultures - for example, Japan or among FirstNations people - making direct eye contact maybe a sign of disrespect, arrogance, and even achallenge. (Lefton, 2000, p. 459)

There is some fascinating research on theinfluence of culture on our behaviour. In oneexample, the cultural influence on perceptionwas investigated. If people in different culturesare exposed to substantially different visualenvironments, some of their perceptualexperiences may differ as well. Researchers havecompared responses to pictures containing depthcues by people from cultures that do and do notuse pictures and paintings to represent reality(Derogowski, 1989). People in cultures thatprovide little experience with pictorialrepresentation, like the Me'n or the Nupa inAfrica, have a more difficult time judging


distances shown in pictures. So, although thestructure and principles of human perceptualsystems tend to create generally similar views ofthe world for all of us, our perception of reality isalso shaped by experience, including theexperience of living in a different culture.(Bernstein and Nash, 1998, p. 104)

In summary, we are influenced by allaspects of our being: physical, mental, emotionaland spiritual. Most psychologists now agree withthe position that our behaviour is determined bythe relative influences of biology and theenvironment, and that in certain situations oneaspect might exert more influence on ourbehaviour than the other. UsingBronfenbrenner’s ecological model as our guide,we described some of the influences from thevarious systems of support that surround theindividual. Those systems include themicrosystems of family, friends, peers and theclassroom, outward to the exosystems of school,community, the media, and further outward tothe macrosystems of society, the cultural context,and the political and economic situations that welive in.


• Find examples of the ways in which thecultural industries of fashion, music andbeauty influence us.

• I AM CANADIAN. What does it meanto be Canadian? How do wedemonstrate our national identity?

• Research your family history. Where doyou come from? Design a family tree.

• Complete the Who I Am Templateincluded in the Ages and Stages MakingConnections section.

• Interview a classmate. During the courseof the interview, complete theEcological Model template in terms ofthe network of support systems thatnurture and promote the healthydevelopment of your classmate.

References:• Baron R., Earhard B., & Ozier M. (1998). Psychology.

Ontario: Prentice Hall• Lefton L., Boyes M., & Ogden N. (2000). Psychology.

Ontario: Prentice Hall


What are the contemporary perspectives which try to explain human thought and behaviour?This article will present a description of six of the “grand theories”, compare them in table format fortheir perspectives on continuous or stage theory, the relative influence of biological and environmentalfactors, the importance of cognition, and the research methods used. Finally, each of these perspectiveswill be used as a lens to interpret human behaviour.

Lifespan development has produced a number of broad conceptual perspectives representingdifferent approaches to development. Each broad perspective encompasses a number of theories,explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. A theory provides a framework forunderstanding the relationships among an organized set of principles or facts. The six major theoreticalperspectives include:

• Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the inner person. Advocates of thepsychodynamic perspective believe that behaviour is motivated by inner forces, memories andconflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control.

° Freud’s psychoanalytic theory suggests that unconscious forces act to determinepersonality and behaviour. To Freud, the unconscious is a part of the personality aboutwhich a person is unaware. It contains infantile wishes, desires, demands and needs thatare hidden, because of their disturbing nature, from conscious awareness. Freudsuggested that the unconscious is responsible for a good part of our everyday behaviour.According to Freud, one’s personality has three aspects: the id, the ego and thesuperego.The id is the raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth. Itrepresents primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression and irrational impulses.The id operates according to the “pleasure principle”, in which the goal is to maximizesatisfaction and reduce tension.The ego is the part of the personality that is rational and reasonable. Providing a realitycheck for the demands of the id, the ego acts as a buffer between the outside world andthe primitive id. The ego operates on the “reality principle”, in which instincts arerestrained in order to maintain the safety of the individual and help integrate theindividual into society.Finally, Freud proposed that the superego represents a person’s conscience,incorporating distinctions between right and wrong. It develops around age 5 or 6 and islearned from an individual’s parents, teachers and other significant figures.° Erikson’s psychosocial theory suggests that developmental change occursthroughout our lives in eight distinct stages. The stages emerge in a fixed pattern andare similar for all people. Erikson argues that each stage presents a crisis or conflict thatthe individual must resolve. Although no crisis is ever fully resolved, making life

Understanding contemporary perspectiveson developmental psychology

Abstract: In the Western tradition, there are six dominant perspectives that seek to explainhuman thought and behaviour. In this article, we describe each perspective, and then invite youto look at a situation from each perspective.


increasingly complicated, the individual must at least address the crisis of each stagesufficiently to deal with demands made during the next stage of development.

• The Behavioural Perspective: Considering the outer person. The behavioural perspectivesuggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behaviour and outsidestimuli in the environment. If we know the stimuli we can predict the behaviour. Behaviouraltheories reject the notion that individuals universally pass through a series of stages. Instead,people are assumed to be affected by the environmental stimuli to which they happen to beexposed. Developmental patterns, then, are personal, reflecting a particular set ofenvironmental stimuli, and development is the result of continuing exposure to specific factorsin the environment.

° John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner’s theories of classical and operant conditioninghold that all behaviour is learned as a response to external stimuli. Classicalconditioning occurs when an organism learns to respond in a particular way to a neutralstimulus that normally does not evoke that type of response. In operant conditioning,Skinner demonstrated that individuals learn to act deliberately on their environments inorder to bring about desired consequences. In a sense, then, people operate on theirenvironment in order to bring about a desired state of affairs. Reinforcement is theprocess by which a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a precedingbehaviour will be repeated. In addition, punishment will decrease the probability thatthe preceding behaviour will occur in the future.° According to social-cognitive learning theorist Albert Bandura, when we see thebehaviour of a model being rewarded, we are likely to imitate that behaviour. Behaviouris learned through observation and imitation, not conditioning through reinforcement orpunishment.

• The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the roots of understanding. The cognitiveperspective focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand and think about theworld. The cognitive perspective emphasizes how people internally represent and think aboutthe world. By using this perspective, developmental psychologists hope to understand howchildren and adults process information, and how their ways of thinking and understandingaffect their behaviour.

° No single person has had a greater impact on the study of cognitive development thanJean Piaget who proposed that all people pass in a fixed sequence through a series ofuniversal stages of cognitive development. In each stage, he suggested that not only didthe quantity of information increase, but so did the quality of knowledge andunderstanding. Piaget suggests that the growth in children’s understanding of the worldcan be explained by two basic principles. Assimilation is the process in which peopleunderstand an experience in terms of their current state of cognitive development andway of thinking. In contrast, accommodation refers to changes in existing ways ofthinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events.° Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory proposes that a fullunderstanding of development is impossible without taking into account the culture inwhich children develop. Sociocultural theory proposes that children’s understanding ofthe world is acquired through their problem-solving interactions with adults and otherchildren. As children play and cooperate with others, they learn what is important intheir society, and at the same time, advance cognitively in their understanding of theworld.


• The Humanistic Perspective: Concentrating on the unique qualities of human beings.Rejecting the notion that development is largely determined by unconscious processes, bylearning from our environment, or by rational cognitive processing, the humanistic perspectivecontends that people have a natural tendency to make decisions about their lives and controltheir behaviour. The humanistic perspective emphasizes free will, the ability of humans tomake choices and come to decisions about their lives.

° Carl Rogers suggested that all people have a need for positive regard that results froman underlying wish to be loved and respected. Because it is other people who providethis positive regard, we become dependent on them. Consequently, our view ofourselves and our self-worth is a reflection of how we think others view us.° Abraham Maslow suggests that self-actualization is a primary goal in life. Self-actualization is a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potentialin their own unique way. (Feldman, 2000)

• The Evolutionary Perspective: Focusing on biology as the determinant of development.The Ethological Theory stresses that behaviour is strongly influenced by biology, is tied toevolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods. (Santrock, 1999) Evolutionaryapproaches grow out of the groundbreaking work of Charles Darwin.

° Konrad Lorenz discovered that newborn geese are genetically preprogrammed tobecome attached to the first moving object they see after birth. His work, whichdemonstrated the importance of biological determinants in influencing behaviourpatterns, ultimately led developmentalists to consider the ways in which humanbehaviour might reflect inborn genetic patterns.° The evolutionary perspective encompasses one of the fastest growing areas within thefield of lifespan development, behavioural genetics. Behavioural genetics studies theeffects of heredity and genetics on behaviour. As technology improves, and researcherscontinue to map the human genome, there is an increasing understanding of the role andfunction of the genetic codes and their influence on development.

• The Sociocultural Perspective: Emphasizing the systems of support. The Ecologicalmodel, the major proponent of which is Urie Bronfenbrenner, seeks to explain individualknowledge, development, and competencies in terms of the guidance, support, and structureprovided by society and to explain social change over time in terms of the cumulative effect ofindividual choices. (Berger, 2000)

° According to Urie Bronfenbrenner, each person is significantly affected byinteractions among a number of overlapping ecosystems. At the center of the model isthe individual. Microsystems are the systems that intimately and immediately shapehuman development. The primary microsystems for children include the family, peergroup, classroom, neighbourhood, and sometimes a church, temple, or mosque as well.Surrounding the microsystems is the exosystem, which includes all the externalnetworks, such as community structures and local educational, medical, employment,and communications systems, that influence the microsystems. And influencing allother systems is the macrosystem, which includes cultural values, politicalphilosophies, economic patterns, and social conditions. Together, these systems aretermed the social context of human development. (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, quoted inBerger, 2000)


Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing onthe inner person. Advocates of thepsychodynamic perspective believe thatbehaviour is motivated by inner forces,memories and conflicts that are generallybeyond people’s awareness and control.

The Behavioural Perspective: Considering theouter person. The behavioural perspectivesuggests that the keys to understandingdevelopment are observable behaviour andoutside stimuli in the environment. If we knowthe stimuli we can predict the behaviour.Behavioural theories reject the notion thatindividuals universally pass through a series ofstages. Instead, people are assumed to be affectedby the environmental stimuli to which theyhappen to be exposed. Developmental patterns,then, are personal, reflecting a particular set ofenvironmental stimuli, and development is theresult of continuing exposure to specific factors inthe environment.

The Cognitive Perspective: Examiningthe roots of understanding. Thecognitive perspective focuses on theprocesses that allow people to know,understand and think about the world.The cognitive perspective emphasizeshow people internally represent and thinkabout the world. By using thisperspective, developmental psychologistshope to understand how children andadults process information, and how theirways of thinking and understanding affecttheir behaviour.

The Humanistic Perspective: Concentratingon the unique qualities of human beings.The humanistic perspective contends thatpeople have a natural tendency to makedecisions about their lives and control theirbehaviour. The humanistic perspectiveemphasizes free will, the ability of humans tomake choices and come to decisions abouttheir lives.

The Evolutionary Perspective: Focusing onbiology as the determinant of development.The Ethological Theory stresses that behaviouris strongly influenced by biology, is tied toevolution, and is characterized by critical orsensitive periods. Evolutionary approaches growout of the groundbreaking work of CharlesDarwin.

The Sociocultural Perspective: Emphasizing thesystems of support. The Ecological model, themajor proponent of which is Urie Bronfenbrenner,seeks to explain individual knowledge, development,and competencies in terms of the guidance, support,and structure provided by society and to explainsocial change over time in terms of the cumulativeeffect of individual choices.

Grand Theories of Human Development


How do young children learn the skills ofbecoming a good friend? Why do people joingangs and cults? At what age is a child able toresist temptation? Why do some people help in acrisis, and other people just stand and watch?

A variety of research methods havehelped psychologists answer the previousquestions and illuminate our understanding ofmany areas of human thought and behaviour.Psychology can be a lot of fun. It is alsochallenging, creative, and is personally andscientifically rewarding when the research isdone properly. This article outlines how weanswer psychological questions. Rather thanfocusing exclusively on the answers themselves,we will focus on the ways answers arediscovered.

Naturalistic ObservationThere are a variety of observational

research styles and these are arranged accordingto the degree of observer intervention. InNaturalistic research, the observer does notintervene at all. For all intents and purposes, theresearcher is invisible and works hard not tointerrupt the natural dynamics of the situationbeing investigated. For example, if we wereinterested in the social interactions of schoolchildren we might observe their behavior atrecess. In a situation such as this, the researchermight be looking for specific behaviorsaccording to a predetermined set of criteria (suchas fighting, sharing, conversations, etc). On the

other hand, naturalistic methods may also beused when little is known about the phenomenonbeing investigated and the researcher uses herobservations to develop hypotheses.

Pros and Cons: Naturalistic methods can give usrich descriptions about the nature of the socialworld where there is little or no manipulation ofthe environment. On the other hand, Naturalisticmethods limit the extent to which we can drawmeaningful conclusions about the causes ofbehaviors due to the lack of control over thesituation.

Participant ObservationResearchers intervene to a greater extent

when they engage in participant observation.Some of the “heavyweight champions” of socialpsychology (Festinger, Reicher, and Schachter)adopted this method for research on cultmembers. Cults and doomsday groups haveenjoyed a long history. Ordinarily such groups(a) predict a calamity and the date on which itwill occur, and (b) prepare for the tragic event.For example, members of the “Heaven’s Gate”group were looking forward to leaving their“Earthly vessel” (the body) when a spaceshipfollowing the Hale-Bopp comet would take themto a higher level! Festinger and his colleaguesinfiltrated a group called the “Seekers”. TheSeekers were led by a middle-aged housewifewho received messages from “Guardians”located on the planet “Clarion.” The Guardians’

Research Methodologies inDevelopmental Psychology

By Dr. Mark Burgess and Dr. Stephen Kemp

Abstract: A variety of research methods have helped psychologists answer the previous questions andilluminate our understanding of many areas of our lives. Psychology can be a lot of fun. It is alsochallenging, creative, and is personally and scientifically rewarding when the research is doneproperly. This article outlines how we answer psychological questions. Rather than focusingexclusively on the answers themselves, we will focus on the ways answers are discovered.


messages informed Mrs. Keech of the time anddate of a massive flood that would wipe-out theUnited States. In return for their faithfulness,members of the Seekers would be rescued by aspaceship! So far the world hasn’t ended,meaning the cult members must cope with theobvious fact that they, and we, are still here!

Pros and Cons: One of the advantages ofparticipant observation is that we can gain accessto situations that would otherwise remain closed,and therefore get a better idea of the experienceunder investigation. However, if people knowthey are being studied they will likely alter theirbehavior to present themselves in a moredesirable manner. Even if the researcher’ssuccessfully conceals his identity from the rest ofthe group (as was the case with the Seekers), hewill unconsciously alter the group dynamicssimply as a result of being a group member.Also, the researcher may even developsympathies for the people being studied (or learnto despise them!) and develop an exaggeratedbias for or against the group.

Field ExperimentsIn field experiments, researchers set up

all aspects of a particular event and have almostcomplete control over the social context. Thepeople being studied are not aware that they arebeing observed even though the researcher iscontrolling the situation. An example would be astudy in which a researcher wanted to knowunder what conditions people are likely to helpothers in need. The researcher might “fake” anaccident, or “fake” a person in distress such as aperson appearing to be having a heart attack. Inthis mode of research, the participants areunaware that they are involved in a controlledsituation and that their responses are beingobserved.

Pros and Cons: The researcher has an enormousamount of control over the social context andthis is helpful in enabling us to make causal

statements. On the other hand, the situation lacksthe natural aspect of the observational methods.

ExperimentsExperimental research does allow us to

identify causal relations. For example, followinga brutal assault and eventual murder of a youngwoman in New York City, psychologists wantedto know why nobody did anything to help thevictim. In fact, 37 people witnessed the event,yet nobody even called the police. Darley andLatane (1968) predicted that increasing numbersof bystanders at an emergency actually decreasesthe probability that any one bystander willintervene and help the victim. They set out toinvestigate the phenomenon of bystanderintervention experimentally.

Darley and Latane (1968) hadparticipants arrive at a laboratory and wait in afoyer area with other supposed participants(these were actually part of the researcher team).One of the “fake participants” who had alreadyclaimed to suffer from epilepsy started to have a“seizure”. The researchers had hypothesized thatif nobody else was present, the participant wouldgo for help more frequently (and more quickly)than if one or more other people were present. Infact, this was true, 85% of participantsintervened if they were the only ones present,whereas only 62% intervened if one other personwas present, and 31% intervened if four otherpeople were present. The researchers hadcomplete control over the experimental context.They controlled all aspects of the situation inorder that they could confidently state that thenumber of people at an emergency does indeedimpact the likelihood of a particular personlending a hand.

Pros and Cons: Experimental researchers takecare to create an environment in which they canmake causal statements. They manipulatevariables, randomly assign participants tovarious conditions, and seek to control otherinfluences that could affect their research.However, in working so hard to control all


aspects of the situation except the one variablethey are examining, the researcher may create anenvironment that is rather artificial and may noteasily generalize to the real world. Also, theremay be some important areas of life that wecannot study experimentally for ethical reasons.For example, we might want to know about theeffects of bullying, but would be unable toinvestigate the phenomenon experimentally as itwould be unethical to place people in those kindsof situations.

InterviewThe interview method of research, typically,

involves a face-to-face meeting in which aresearcher (interviewer) asks an individual aseries of questions. The interviewer usually taperecords or writes down the participant’sresponses. To enhance the value of the interview,the researcher should prepare questions inadvance, even though there is a likelihood of the“conversation” going off on a number ofdifferent tangents.

Pros and Cons: The advantage of an interviewover a survey or questionnaire is that it allowsfor a wider range of responses. But, the interviewtechnique is time consuming, and, as withquestionnaires, no cause-and-effect relationshipscan be inferred. (Lefton, 2000, p. 14)

Survey, or QuestionnaireConducting research using a survey

involves going out and asking questions aboutthe phenomenon of interest. The survey methodis especially useful for collecting data from alarge number or people and is often the only wayof obtaining data about thoughts, feelings, andprivate behaviour not open to direct observation.

Pros and Cons: The strength of the questionnaireis that it gathers a large amount of information ina short space of time. Its weaknesses are that it isimpersonal, it gathers only the information askedby the questions, it limits the participants’ rangeof responses, it cannot prevent some respondents

leaving some questions unanswered or frombeing untruthful in their responses, and it doesnot provide a structure from which cause-and-effect relationships can be inferred. (Lefton,2000, p. 14)

SummaryThere are a variety of techniques

available for psychological investigation. Whichtechnique is actually chosen depends largelyupon the researcher’s own research interests,methodological training, and personalpreference. It is important to acknowledge thatany one method is not superior to another.Rather, different methods are appropriate underdifferent circumstances, and their combinedimpact has increased our understanding of thesocial environment considerably.


What are the issues and concerns inconducting research? There are two aspects tothis question: (1) What do we need to considerso that the research process is conductedproperly?; (2) What do we need to consider sothat the research process is conductedappropriately? The first aspect of the properconduct of research, deals with the methods ofresearch, and the questions we need to address toensure that the research yields results that will beuseful. The second aspect, the appropriateness ofthe research process, deals with the ethics of thestudy, or issues of honesty, openness, fairness,and correctness.

In terms of the methods issues inconducting research, there are three that we needto address. The first is the issue of reliability.Reliability is defined as “the extent to which theresearch yields the same results each time theyare applied to the same issue”. (Baron, 1998, p.459) For instance, if we were conducting anobservational study of the play behaviours ofchildren during recess, and our findings at theend of one study indicated that the boys weremore aggressive than girls, but when we repeatedour study at a different school and we found theopposite, that the girls were more aggressivethan the boys, then we could not claim that ourstudy was reliable.

The second aspect to the methods issuesin research deals with validity. Validity isdefined as “ the extent to which a researchmethodology measures what it is supposed to

measure.” (Baron, 1998, p. 460) Continuing withour example of the play behaviours of youngchildren, is the observational approach a validmeans of studying the topic? Let’s say that wehad chosen to do an interview, and weinterviewed the children and asked themquestions about what happened at recess time.Would this method be considered valid as a wayto gain information from which we could draw aconclusion? Probably not, or not as valid asdirectly observing them. To ensure that there isas much validity as possible, how the data isgathered also can determine the degree ofvalidity. For example, it would be one thing toobserve the behaviours of the children at recessand write down comments or jot notes. On theother hand, it would make the research study farmore valid if we videotaped the children at play.Having a videotaped record of the behaviourswould allow us to share our findings with otherpeople who could then use exactly the sameinformation to reach their conclusion. If ourconclusions matched, then this would add to thevalidity of the study. Remember this pointwhenever you conduct research, particularly inobservational, interview, or field studies.

The third methods issue is the degree towhich events are related. In formal terms, this iscalled correlation. But the issue here is whetherevents that are related can be said to cause eachother. For example, a researcher who finds thatchildren whose parents are divorced have moreemotional problems and commit more crimes

Issues in the Methods and Ethics ofResearch

Abstract: What are the issues and concerns in conducting research?In this article we describe and explain the methods issues ofreliability, validity, and correlation and causation, as well as theethical issues of confidentiality, informed consent, bias, andanimal research.


than children from intact families can state thatthere is a correlation. There is a relationship thatexists between divorce and emotional problemsand crime in the children. However, theresearcher cannot conclude that divorce causesemotional problems or crime. (Lefton, 2000, p.11)

How do I make research more valid andreliable? There are several issues and concernsthat we need to be aware of to make the researchstudy valid, reliable and credible. Scientificinvestigation includes the possibility thatresearchers’ procedures and/or biases maycompromise the validity of their findings.Researchers can, however, use a number oftechniques to increase the validity of theirresearch:

• Sample size : To make statementsabout people in general, scientists study groupsof individuals chosen from populations. Eachsuch group, called a sample, must be largeenough to ensure that a few extreme cases withinthe sample do not distort the picture it gives ofthe population.

• Representative sample: Datacollected from one group of individuals may notbe valid for other people who are different insignificant ways, such as in gender or ethnicbackground. Thus it is important that everysample be a representative sample, that is,consist of people who are typical of the generalpopulation the researchers wish to learn about.

• “Blind experimenters”: Whenexperimenters have specific expectations abouttheir research findings, those expectations canaffect the research results. As much as possible,therefore, the people who actually gather the datashould be “blind”, that is, unaware of thepurpose of the research.

• Operational definitions : Whenplanning a study, researchers must establishoperational definitions of whatever phenomenathey will be examining. That is, they must defineeach variable in terms of specific, observablebehaviour that can be measured with precision.

• Experimental and control groups : Totest a hypothesis accurately in an experiment,researchers must gather data on two samples thatare similar in every important way except one.They must compare an experimental group.Which receives some special experimentaltreatment, and a control group, which does notreceive the experimental treatment.

• Statistical significance: Wheneverresearchers find a difference between twogroups, they have to consider the possibility thatthe differences occurred purely by chance.Determining the statistical significance is amathematical measure of the likelihood that aparticular research result occurred by chance.(Berger, 2000)

There are many issues involved in theappropriateness of research. It is beyond thescope of this article to discuss them all, however,we will consider five: confidentiality, informedconsent, debriefing, bias, and research usinganimals.

Confidentiality is the right of privacy forsubjects concerning their participation inresearch. All steps must be taken to assure thatsubjects’ participation is confidential. If anypossibility exists that someone other than theresearcher may have access to the data, thesubject must be informed of this possibilitybefore they provide their informed consent toparticipate. (Carlson, 1997, p. 39)

Informed consent means that potentialsubjects understand exactly what is expected ofthem during the course of the research and thatthe investigator protects participants fromphysical and psychological discomfort, harm anddanger. (Carlson, 1997, p. 39) For example, ifyou are interviewing someone, you must ask fortheir permission to be interviewed, and thenshare with them all of your jot notes or transcriptof the conversation. Of course, there are manysituations where you cannot ask for theparticipant’s permission, as in the example of theobservational study of children at play duringrecess. In this case, after the fact, you must


obtain permission from the parents or guardiansof the children.

Debriefing means that researchparticipants be given full information about allaspects of the study after they have participatedin it, thus assuring that they leave with a fullunderstanding of its purpose, and receive a fulldisclosure of the information gathered. (Baron,1998, p. 31) In other words, it is yourresponsibility to communicate back to theparticipants, whenever possible, of what yourstudy found, and concluded.

Bias is an important consideration whenconducting research. One powerful source ofbias is known as the confirmation bias, thetendency to notice and remember mainlyinformation that confirms what we alreadybelieve. (Baron, 1998, p. 16) Researchers mustbe careful to avoid subtle biases that influenceresults, such as gender (male or female),ethnicity (people’s common traits, background,and allegiances which are often cultural,religious, or language based), and cultural (aperson’s racial and ethnic background, religiousand social values, artistic and musical tastes, andscholarly interests) bias. (Lefton, 2000, p. 16)

Animal research is probably the mostcontentious issue in psychological research. Is itappropriate to subject helpless rats, pigeons andmonkeys to conditions, operations andtreatments that could not be performed onhumans? (Baron, 1998, p. 32) On the other hand,there are conditions that affect humans thatcannot be addressed through any other means.Would it be appropriate to change the diet ofchildren to study allergic reactions? Would it beappropriate to administer behaviour alteringdrugs to study their effects without knowingwhat the possible side effects might be? Aboveall of this, however, still remains the centralissue: Do we, as humans, have the right to useother forms of life to suit our purposes?

In summary, when we are conductingresearch, we must make every effort to ensurethat our research methods are reliable, valid, andaccurately describe the relatedness between

issues. In so doing, we must respect the privacyof the participants, ask their permission, informthem of our results, and be aware of any biasesthat we hold.


• What affect does violence on television haveon people? Design a research study to recordthe number of violent acts in a televisionprogram, and then to observe the reactions ofchildren watching the program.


The Sacred Tree, a publication of the FourWorlds International Institute for Human andCommunity Development based in Lethbridge,Alberta, describes the meaning of a symbol"around which lives, religions, beliefs andnations have been organized." (p. 20) The SacredTree, in the aboriginal culture, represents life,cycles of time, the earth, and the universe. Inshort, this book provides a simple, yet complete,understanding of the aboriginal world view,Humankind's relationship to Creation.

The teachings of the Sacred Tree aresummarized as follows:

• Wholeness: All things are interrelated.Everything in the universe is a part of asingle whole. Everything is connected insome way to everything else. It is thereforepossible to understand something only if wecan understand how it is connected toeverything else.

• Change: All of Creation is in a state ofconstant change. Nothing stays the sameexcept the presence of cycle upon cycle ofchange. One season falls upon the other.Human beings are born, live their lives, dieand enter the spirit world. All things change.There are two kinds of change. The comingtogether of things (development) and thecoming apart of things (disintegration). Bothof these kinds of change are necessary andare always connected to each other.

• Changes occur in cycles or patterns. They arenot random or accidental. Sometimes it isdifficult to see how a particular change is

connected to everything else. This usuallymeans that our standpoint is limiting ourability to see.

• The seen and the unseen. The physical worldis real. The spiritual world is real. These twoare aspects of one reality. Yet, there areseparate laws which govern each of them.Violation of spiritual laws can affect thephysical world. Violation of physical lawscan affect the spiritual world. A balanced lifeis one that honors the laws of both of thesedimensions of reality.

• Human beings are spiritual as well asphysical.

• Human beings can always acquire new gifts,but they must struggle to do so. The timidmay become courageous, the weak maybecome bold and strong, the insensitive maylearn to care for the feelings of others and thematerialistic person can acquire the capacityto look within and to listen to her inner voice.The process human beings use to developnew qualities may be called "true learning".

• There are four dimensions of "true learning".These four aspects of every person's natureare reflected in the four cardinal points of themedicine wheel. These four aspects of ourbeing are developed through the use of ourwill. It cannot be said that a person hastotally learned in a whole and balancedmanner unless all four dimensions of Beinghave been involved in the process.

• The spiritual dimension of humandevelopment may be understood in terms ofthe capacity to accept, listen to, respond to,

Book Review: The Sacred TreeAbstract: For all the people of the earth, the Creator has planted a Sacred Tree under which theymay gather, and there find healing, power, wisdom and security. The roots of this tree spread deepinto the body of Mother Earth. Its branches reach upward like hands praying to Father Sky. Thefruits of this tree are the good things the Creator has given to the people: teachings that show thepath to love, compassion, generosity, patience, wisdom, justice, courage, respect, humility andmany other wonderful gifts.


and use the spiritual teachings in the materialworld.

• Human beings must be active participants inthe unfolding of their own potentialities.

• The doorway through which all must pass ifthey wish to become more or different thanthey are now is the doorway of the will. Aperson must decide to take the journey. Thepath has infinite patience. It will always bethere for those who decide to travel it.

• Anyone who sets out on a journey of selfdevelopment will be aided. No test will begiven that the traveler does not already havethe strength to meet.

• The only source of failure on a journey willbe the traveler's own failure to follow theteachings of the Sacred Tree.

In addition to the sacred teachings concerningthe nature of things, the teachings of the SacredTree include a code of ethics to which all shouldconform their lives if they wish to find happinessand well-being. This code describes whatwisdom means in the relationship betweenindividuals, in family life, and in the life of thecommunity. These are the sparkling gems ofexperience practiced by Native peopleseverywhere.

• Each morning before rising, and eachevening before sleeping, give thanks for thelife within you and for all life, for the goodthings the Creator has given you and othersand for the opportunity to grow a little moreeach day. Consider your thoughts and actionsof the past day and seek for the courage andstrength to be a better person. Seek for thethings that will benefit everyone.

• Be truthful at all times, and under allconditions.

• Always treat your guests with honor andconsideration. Give of your best food, yourbest blankets, the best part of your house, andyour best service to your guests.

• The hurt of one is the hurt of all, the honor ofone is the honor of all.

• Receive strangers and outsiders with a lovingheart and as members of the human family.

• Observe moderation and balance in allthings.

• All the races and tribes in the world are likethe different coloured flowers of onemeadow. All are beautiful. As children of theCreator they must all be respected.

• To serve others, to be of use to family,community, nation or the world is one of themain purposes for which human beings havebeen created. Do not fill yourself with yourown affairs and forget your most importanttask. True happiness comes only to thosewho dedicate their lives to the service ofothers.

• Know those things that lead to your well-being, and those things that lead to yourdestruction.

• Respect the wisdom of the people in council.Once you give an idea to a council or ameeting it no longer belongs to you. Itbelongs to the people. Respect demands thatyou listen intently to the ideas of others incouncil and that you do not insist that youridea prevail. Indeed you should freelysupport the ideas of others if they are true orgood, even if those ideas are quite differentfrom the ones you have contributed. Theclash of ideas brings forth the spark of truth.Once a council has decided something inunity, respect demands that no one speaksecretly against what has been decided. If thecouncil has made an error, that error willbecome apparent to everyone in its own time.

• Respect. Respect means "to feel or showhonor or esteem for someone or something;to consider the well-being of, or to treatsomeone or something with deference orcourtesy". Showing respect is a basic law oflife.

- Treat every person, from the tiniestchild to the oldest elder with respectat all times


- Special respect should be given toelders, parents, teachers, andcommunity members.

- No person should be made to feel"put down" by you; avoid hurtingother hearts as you would avoid adeadly poison.

- Touch nothing that belongs tosomeone else without permission, oran understanding between you.

- Respect the privacy of every person.Never intrude on a person's quietmoments or personal space.

- Never walk between people that areconversing.

- Never interrupt people that areconversing.

- Speak in a soft voice, especially whenyou are in the presence of elders,strangers, or others to whom specialrespect is due.

- Do not speak unless invited to do soat gatherings where elders arepresent.

- Never speak about others in anegative way, whether they arepresent or not.

- Treat the earth and all of her aspectsas your mother. Show deep respectfor the mineral world, the plantworld, and the animal world. Donothing to pollute the air or the soil.If others would destroy our mother,rise up with wisdom to defend her.

- Show deep respect for the beliefs andreligions of others.

- Listen with courtesy to what otherssay, even if you feel that what theyare saying is worthless. Listen withyour heart.

• Listen to and follow the guidance given toyour heart. Expect guidance to come in manyforms; in prayer, in dreams, in times of quietsolitude and in the words and deeds of wiseelders and friends.

There is much, much more to this book than thevery brief summaries provided. However, theinvitation is open to read The Sacred Tree foryourself. It will no doubt lead you to a deeperunderstanding of the Aboriginal people's beliefs,values and attitudes, their worldview, and inturn, lead you to carefully consider yours.

Bopp J., Bopp M., Brown L., Lane P., TheSacred Tree (1985). Four Worlds InternationalInstitute for Human and CommunityDevelopment, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.


• What are your basic beliefs andvalues? In the medium of yourchoosing, express your world view.

• Can you give examples of how yourworld view influences your behaviour?

• Research the beliefs and values ofanother faith system, and then comparethem both with your own, and those ofthe aboriginal peoples as described inThe Sacred Tree.

• Reflect on how, and when, you learnedthe difference between “good” and“bad”, “right” and “wrong”, and themost important influences in your life.

• Interview a senior citizen or an Elder.In what ways have society’s valueschanged since they were your age?

• Reflect on the impact that technologyhas had, and will have, on ourunderstanding and appreciation of thevalue systems of other cultures. Inwhat ways might technology help totruly make us a “global village”?


Anthology

The Most Courageous Thing I Know

She’s never saved a person’s lifeOr fought in a battle or war;She’s never put out a raging fireOr faced a tornado’s core;She’s never been in the paperOr on the six o’clock news;But she’s got more courage and braveryThan I could ever use.She’s that girl you laughed at yesterdayBecause of how she did her hair,The girl you joked about the day beforeBecause of what she likes to wear.She’s the bravest person I knowBecause she lives through every single dayKnowing there’s always something badThat someone’s going to say.Each day she goes right backTo where people hurt her so.To go through that pain again and againIs the most courageous thing I know

Kristina GutenbergKindersley Composite SchoolTeacher; Mrs. Sandra DorowiczPublished in Golden Taffy, Volume 35, Number 1, Fall 1999

Why?

A young child cold and aloneNo place to go, no place to call homeA young girl working the streetJust to survive, just so she can eatA family torn apart by an uncaring and devious heartWhy do people just pass them by?Have you really stopped and wondered why?Why does no one seem to care?If others are stripped naked, left trembling bare?Could it be we choose not to see?Just content that it’s not you or me?Some one killed because of his skin color,Will we ever learn to love one another?Another war of hate to be foughtWhile the devil laughs at the souls he’s caught.People murdered for what they believe in,Can you tell me the reason?Why can’t we accept one anotherAnd walk hand in hand with our fellow brother?I’ve thought and thought and I’ll tell you whyPower, greed and money influence and catch the eyeIt’s a sad world we’re living inWhen people can’t spare a dime or a fraction of their time.

Adriana BrehmLeader Composite SchoolTeacher: Ms PearmanPublished in Golden Taffy, Volume 35, Number 1, Fall 1999


From both perspectives ……Topic: Families should be limited to a maximum of 2 children.

Reasons why I agree… Reasons why I disagree …

perspectives on human development across the...

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