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ARTICLES

１ TransformationsofSocietyandPowerinAncientNasca ChristinaA.Conlee

36 ParacasenPalpa:LosFundamentosdelPoderdelaCulturaNasca MarkusReindel,JohnyIsla,HermannGorbahnyHeikeOtten

64 UshnusenlaProvinciaInkadeVilcashuaman YuriIgorCaveroPalomino

PERUVIAN ARCHAEOLOGYVolume 2

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1Texas State University, Department of Anthropology, 601 University Drive, San Marcos,

TX 78666, USA. [email protected]. 512-245-6582

Transformations of Society and Power in Ancient Nasca

ChristinaA.Conlee

During the severalmillennia of cultural development in theNasca region thereweremanytransformations insocietythatweretiedtochanges in the foundations,structures,andrelationships of power.From semi-sedentaryhunters andgatherers of theArchaic to theincorporationoftheregionintotheIncaempire,thispaperexploreschangingaspectsofancientsocietyoveraperiodoffivethousandyears.Muchof this informationcomesfroma long-termresearchprojectattheancientsettlementofLaTizainthesouthernNascadrainage.

The Site of La Tiza

LaTizaislocatedneartheconvergenceoftheAjaandTierrasBlancasvalleysinthemiddleNascaValley (Figure1).Thesettlement issituatedonahillsideon theAjariversideof thevalleyinanareawithgoodamountsofarablelandwithfertilealluvialsoil.Thereisalsogoodaccesstowaterinthispartofthevalley,andwithinthesoutherndrainage,theAjatributaryhasthegreatestannualdischargeofwater (ONERN1971;SchreiberandLancho2003:25).However,aswithotherriversinthesouth,thereisgenerallynosurfacewaterbetweenthemonthsofMayandDecemberinthemiddlevalley(ca.400-1000masl)wheremostofthegoodagriculturallandislocated(SchreiberandLancho2003:31).Thereisyear-roundsubsurfacewaterthatpeoplewereabletoutilizeduringthedryseasonbydiggingwellsandbuildingaqueducts.NearLaTizatheundergroundwaterisclosertosurface(ca.4m)thaninmanyareasofsouthernNascasoitwouldhavebeeneasiertoaccess(SchreiberandLancho2003:94).Therewerealsoprobablyaspectsofsacredgeographythat ledtotheestablishmentofasettlement inthisparticular locationsinceCerroBlanco,adistinctivewhitesandmountain,andthemostimportantmountaindeityinNasca(Acosta1962;Reinhard1988),sitsacrossthevalleyfromthesite.ResearchbeganatLaTizain2002whenthesitewasmappedand30hectaresofarchitecturewasrecorded.Subsequentexcavations in2004,2005,2006,and2009revealed it tobeamulti-componentsitewith theearliesthabitationextendingback into theArchaicwithoccupationspanningseveralthousandyearsuntil theIncaconquestoftheregion(Table1).Thenatureofthesettlementduringeachofthemajorperiodsinwhichitwasoccupiedwillbediscussedinthefollowingsectionsandthehistoryofthesitewillbetiedinwithbroaderregionaldevelopments.

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PERUVIAN ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure1MapoftheNascadrainagewiththesiteofLaTiza.

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Volume 2, 2015 Christina A. Conlee

Rad

ioca

rbon

dat

es f

rom

La

Tiz

a.Sample#

Context

Material

13C/12C

14CAge

2SigmaCalibration

Period

AA74717

Unit50,LevelB

Charcoal

-24.4

4827+/-41

3649-3378BC

MiddleArchaic

Beta387849

Unit52,LevelC,Feature2

Charcoal

-24.3

4710+/-30

3620-3610BCand3520-3365BC

MiddleArchaic

Beta259911


Charcoal

-23.5

3940+/-40

2560-2520BCand2500-2300BC

LateArchaic

Beta25992

Unit51,LevelE

Charcoal

-23.0

3990+/-40

2580-2460BC

LateArchaic

Beta330058

Unit49,Feature3

Charcoal

-25.0

3830+/-30

2430-2150BC

LateArchaic

Beta259908

Unit5,LevelC

Charcoal

-23.5

2120+/-40

350-300BCand210-40BC

Formative

Beta259909

Unit7,LevelD

Charcoal

-22.0

2170+/-40

340-100BC

Formative

AA687737

Unit27,LevelB

Charcoal

-22.8

2069+/-37

160BC-AD75

Formative

AA68738

Unit28,LevelC

Charcoal

-22.8

2082+/-36

163BC-AD63

Formative

Beta358021

Unit58,LevelC

Charcoal

-23.0

2030+/-30

110BC-AD30andAD40-50

Formative

Beta330057

Unit46,Burial8

Tooth

-14.0

1840+/-30

AD80-240

Nasca

AA74716

Unit46,LevelB,Feature2

Charcoal

-24.0

1801+/-36

AD145-405

Nasca

Beta358019

Unit54,LevelB

Charcoal

-26.5

1670+/-30

AD260-430

Nasca

Beta358018

Unit21,LevelC

Charcoal

-25.7

1580+/-30

AD410-550

Nasca

Beta259910


Charcoal

-24.2

1340+/-40

AD640-720and740-770

MiddleHorizon

AA74720


Charcoal

-26.2

1367+/-35

AD652-775

MiddleHorizon

AA68744

Unit20,LevelC

Charcoal

-24.4

1323+/-36

AD664-887

MiddleHorizon

AA74722

Unit17,LevelC,Hearth

Charcoal

-26.2

1275+/-35

AD688-891

MiddleHorizon

AA68742

Tomb6

Tooth

-15.8

1160+/-44

AD782-1021

MiddleHorizon

AA74723

Unit47,Burial7

Tooth

-14.7

1149+/-44

AD783-1025

MiddleHorizon

AA74721

Unit48,LevelB,Feature2

Charcoal

-24.7

795+/-36

AD1212-1374

LIP

AA68736

Unit23,LevelB

Charcoal

-25.3

664+/-42

AD1291-1404

LIP

AA74718

Unit51,LevelC

Charcoal

-16.2

679+/-34

AD1291-1395

LIP

AA68741

Unit35,LevelC

Charcoal

-24.4

603+/-35

AD1315-1436

LIP

AA74715

Unit33,LevelB

Charcoal

-24.6

604+/-34

AD1315-1435

LIP

AA68740

Unit15,LevelC

Charcoal

-24.4

583+/-35

AD1320-1444

LIP

AA74719

Unit41,LevelB

Charcoal

-23.9

530+/-34

AD1400-1455

LIP

AA68739

Unit13,LevelC

Charcoal

-22.9

438+/-36

AD1435-1624

LateHorizon

Table1

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Archaic

TheearliestoccupationsofLaTizawereduringtheMiddle(6000-3000BC)andLateArchaic(3000-1800BC).Duringthisperiodthereare indications that theregionexperienced increasedaridityaftertheearlyandmid-Holocenewhenconditionsweremorehumid(EitelandMächtle2009:23).Peoplebegantosettleinareasalongtheriverswheretherewasmorereliablewater.Asdiscussedabove,LaTizaissituatedinaparticularlygoodlocationtotakeadvantageofwaterandotherresources.TheArchaicoccupationwasconcentratedintheeasternareaofthesettlementinthelowestelevationsofSectorsIandII(Figure2).Theearliestdateisaround3600BCinadeflatedareainsideofalargesquarestructurethatwasmostlyconstructedinlaterperiods(Units50,52,and53). InthisMiddleArchaicareatherewerenoceramicsandthecontents includedash,charcoal,shellbeads,obsidian,groundstone,shell,acorncob,unidentifiedbotanicalmaterial,andunidentifiedanimalbone (Figure3).Therewasalsoonesmallcottontextile fragment. InUnit52ahearthwasdugintothesterilesoilandconsistedofasemi-circleoffirecrackedrockswithcharcoalandburntbone in the interiorandapieceofgroundstonesimilar toamano.TwelvepiecesofobsidianfromUnit50wereanalyzedusingx-rayfluorescence(XRF)inordertodetermine the source fromwhich theywereobtained.All of thepieceswere sourced toQuispisisa,whichistheclosestobsidiansourcefromtheAjaValleywithastraightlinedistanceof85.7km(Eerkensetal.2010:Table2).ThesmallcorncobinUnit50wasidentifiedasConfiteChavinenese,whichisoneoffiveearlyorprimitiveracesofmaizeintheAndesandisapopcorn(Grobmanetal.1961:138).TheearliestcornrecordedinthecoastalAndescomesfromthesitesofParedonesandHuacaPrietaonthenorthcoastofPeruandhasMiddleArchaicdates(ca.6700BP)(Grobmanetal.2012).ThecontextthecornwasfoundinatLaTizawasnotinafeaturebutfromthetopoftheMiddleArchaiclevel,whichmayhavehadsomemixing.LateArchaicdatescomefromthebottomlevelsoftwostructures(Unit49and51)thatarejusttothewestoftheMiddleArchaiccontextsandrangefrom2580-2300BC.Thematerialinthesecontexts issimilar to that found in theMiddleArchaiconeswith theadditionofchalcedonylithicmaterialalthoughtherewasquiteofbitofmixingsincethisareawasoccupiedby laterNascacultureandLate IntermediatePeriodpeople.There isnoclearevidenceofchange inlocalsocietyduringtheLateArchaicalthoughthereiscurrentlynotenoughdatatosufficientlyevaluate.InothercoastalareasofPerupeopleintensifiedfishingandcottongrowingbytheendoftheMiddleArchaic (StothertandQuilter1991:41). InNasca,bytheendoftheLateArchaictherewasprobablymoreofafocusonplantcultivation.ItislikelytherewassporadicoccupationoftheeasternareaofthesettlementbyhuntersandgatherersthroughouttheArchaic.TheArchaicoccupationatLaTizaissimilartothatfoundatotherinteriorsitesinNascasuch

asPernilAlto,LaEsmerelda,andUpanca (Isla1990;Reindel2009;VaughnandLinares2006).Foraginggroupswerehuntingvariousanimalsandcollectingplant remains.Tools includedgroundstoneforprocessingplants,andlithicartifactsthatwereusedforhuntingandprocessingfood.Obsidianwasobtained from theQuispisisa source inAyacuchopossibly aspart of aseasonalroundor fromtradewithgroups inthehigherelevationsof thedrainage.Shellbeads

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Figure2MapwiththeArchaicunitsexcavatedatLaTiza.

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wereused forornamentation.There is possible evidencefor cultigens suchas cottonand corn.Thepeople atLaTizamay have been semi-sedentary, occupying thesettlement for part of theyearandmovingtothecoast,lomas , andhighlandsduringother times. However, theextent of theirmobility andthesizeofterritorythattheycoveredareunknown.Duringthe Archaic it is possiblethatpeoplecametogetheratcertain timesof theyear forritual and social activitiesat places such asCahuachi.People in theNasca regionpracticedArchaicwaysoflifelonger than inotherareasofthePeruviancoastprobablyb e c au s e o f t h e g r e a t e rdistances between resourcezonesand theoverall sparsenatureoftheresources.Littlecanbesaidaboutthedevelopmentofpowerrelationsduringthistimeperiod.

Formative

Thereareno indicationsofoccupation inthesouthernNascadrainageoratLaTiza inthefollowingInitialPeriod (1800-800BC)althoughhabitationof this timehasbeendocumented inthenortherndrainage(Reindel2009:444).ThefirstlargeandwidespreadoccupationtobefoundthroughouttheNascadrainagewasduringtheEarlyHorizon(800BC-AD1).Inthenorth,thereisevidenceforoccupationfromearlyintheperiodwithadramaticincreaseinpopulationbytheend.Inthesouth,theredoesnotappeartohavebeensignificantoccupationuntilEpoch8,whichbeginsaround400BC(SchreiberandLancho2003:13).SomeresearcherssuchasVanGijseghemandVaughn(2008:115)usethetermFormativeforthisperiodbeforetheflorescenceoftheNascaculturebecausetheregionwasoutsideoftheChavínareaofinfluence,whichishowtheEarlyHorizonhastraditionallybeendefined.Thatprecedentisfollowedhere.Thereisnoevidencefor

Figure3Artifacts found in theMiddleArchaiccontexts inUnits50and52includingahandheldgrindingstone,shellbeads,andobsidian.

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EarlyorMiddleFormativeatLaTizaasthereisatsitesinthenorth.OccupationbeginsintheLateFormative,aperiodcalledLateParacas(370-200BC)andInitialNasca(120BC-AD90)inthenorth(Reindel2009),andPuntilla(400-200BC)andMontana(200BC-AD1)inthesouth(SchreiberandLancho2003:13-14).ThefirstsubstantialandpermanenthabitationatLaTizadates370BCtoAD75whenthefirstfarmerslivedatthesettlement.Thesiteisnotsituateddefensivelylikemanyothersofthetime;however,pilesofsling-stonesarelocatedontheridgeoverlookingSectorIwherethemajorityoftheLateFormativearchitectureisfound(Figure4).Inthissectorthereisagglutinatedcompoundarchitectureconstructedofangular fieldstonewithoutmortarandperishablematerial for theroofsandpartsofthewalls.Thereisaseriesoffree-standingroundstoragestructureslocatedalong thebaseof theridgenext to thedomesticstructures.Adjacent to theLateFormativecompoundarchitecturetothesoutharetwoplazasthatmayhavefirstbeenusedinthisperiod.InSectorIItothewestthearchitectureismorevariableandconsistsofbothcompoundareasandfreestandingroundpatiogroups.During theLateFormativeLaTizapeopleweregrowingmost of the crops theywouldcontinueto farmthroughoutprehistory.Besidesfarming,peoplealsokeptcamelidsandguineapigsatornearthesiteaswellasprocuredwildresourcessuchasdeer,bird,andshellfish.Theyweremanufacturingandusingavarietyofgoodssuchaspottery,textiles,andlithictools.Theyobtainedobsidianthroughlongdistancetradewithallbutoneofthesampledobsidianartifacts(n=16)comingfromQuispisisa.Onepoint fragmentwas identifiedfromJampatilla,whichafterQuispisisaisthenextclosestsourcetoNasca,althoughitisarelativelyminorone.Thepeopleofthisperiodalsoparticipatedinregionaltradeinvolvingmarineresourcesandpottery.TherewasavarietyofceramicstylesinuseatLaTizaduringtheLateFormativeincluding

Paracas fineware,plainwares thatwereproduced locally,Tajoplainand incised, andNasca1 (Figure5).There isevidenceofsocialdifferentiationwith theParacas finewaresrestrictedtoSector II, although theywere found inverysmallnumbers.Compositional analysisusingInstrumentalNeutronActivation (INAA) on a small sample of 28 sherds identified threecompositionalgroups.ThemostcommonwastheGroup1Macro,whichcomprised64%ofthesample (n=18).Thisgroup isdescribedas representing thecompositionalvariabilityofclayresourcesfromsouthernNascaandcanbeconsideredlocalfromaregionalperspective(BoulangerandGlascock2008).ThisgroupcontainsavarietyofpotterytypesincludingTajodecorated,Tajoplainware,Ocucaje8red-slipped,andNasca1redslippedbowls.Sherdsclassifiedasoutliersorunassignedmakeupthesecondmostcommoncategory,andconsistof22%of theassemblage(n=6).Thisgroupalso includesavarietyof types includingParacasfineware,anOcucajered-slippedvessel,Tajodecoratedsherds,andaNasca1red-slippedbowl. Thesearevesselsthatwere likelyproducedoutsideof thesouthernNascaregionorcomefromunidentifiedsources.ThethirdmostcommongroupwasGroup1(n=4)at14%,whichhasbeenidentifiedbypreviousresearchaspossiblycomingfromaclaysourcenearCahuachi(VaughnandNeff2004;Vaughnetal.2006).ThisgroupalsocontainedavarietyoftypesincludinganOcucaje8redslippedvessel,anunidentifiedLateFormativesherd,aNasca1bowl,andanincisedTajosherd.

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Figure4MapwiththeLateFormativeunitsexcavatedatLaTiza.

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During the Late Formative thefoundationswere laid for the large,complex regiona l cu l ture thatflourishedduring theensuingEarlyIntermediate Period. This was atransformativetimewhentherewasa continuation of older traditions,alongwith new innovations, andwavesofpeople settling theregion.ThesiteofCahuachiappearstohavehad a ceremonial function by thetimeNasca 1 ceramicswerebeingproduced in the Late Formative(Silverman and Proulx 2002:164;VaughnandVanGijseghem2007:816).Therewasavarietyofcommunitiesthatwere established during thistimewithrelativelysmallsitessuchasLaTizaandlargeronessuchasLaPuntilla thatwas located justacrossthevalleyandhadmoreevidenceofsocialdifferentiation(VanGijseghem2006).IthasbeenproposedthatNascasocietywasbornfromthefrontierprocessthatallowedfor

experimentation, innovation,andperhapsdissent (VanGijseghem2006:439).Whencolonizationwascompleteandpopulationhad increased,negotiationandcooperationwasneeded, and itwasoutofthisscenariothattheNascaregionalculturedeveloped.Thereiscertainlyevidencefor thisatLaTizawheretherewassocialdifferentiationbetweenSector IandSector II,andevidenceofconflictorthreatofconflictinthepilesofsling-stonesfoundontheridgeseparatingthesesectors.ParacastextilesandpotteryoftheEarlyHorizonweredecoratedwithimagesthatwouldbecomeintegraltoNascaideology.Thisreligionwasbroughttotheareabyimmigrantsandthenreformedtobecomethereligionthatwouldbecenteredintheareaforseveralhundredyearstocome. TheLateFormativedidnotseethedevelopmentofreallypowerful leadersorlargecenters.However,thesocialandpoliticalmilieuofthisperiodwascomplexandcreatedtheopportunityforhierarchicalandcentralizedpoliticalformstodevelop.

Nasca Culture

Interpretationsof thesubsequentNascaculture (AD100-650)varygreatly in termsof levelofintegrationandtypeofsociopoliticalorganization,andithasbeendescribedasaheterarchy,middle-rangesociety, simplechiefdom, theocracy,confederacy,paramountchiefdom,state,and

Figure5LateFormativepottery fromLaTiza;a)Tajodecorated;b)Nasca1bowl;c)Paracas

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empire(Carmichael1995;IslaandReindel2006;Massey1986;Orefici2011a,b;Reindel2009;Rowe1960;Schreiber1999;SchreiberandLancho2003;Silverman1993;SilvermanandProulx2002;Vaughn2009).Therearedifferencesinhowarchaeologistswhoworkinthenorthversussouthhaveviewedpolitical complexityandpower relationsduring thisperiod.The southduringEarlyNascahasbeendepictedaspopulatedprimarilybysmallvillages located in theuppervalleyswherewaterwasavailable(Schreiber1999;SchreiberandLancho2003,Silverman1993;SilvermanandProulx2002;Vaughn2009;VaughnandLinares2006).Thesevillagesaredescribedas self-sufficient,with some evidence of social differentiation, and integrated through theceremonialcenterofCahuachi,andasharedreligioustradition.Theassessmentofsociopoliticalorganization fromthesouthhasgenerallybeen thatNascawasachiefdomorother typeof“middle-rangesociety.”This is incontrast to thenorthwhere researchershaverecordedahierarchyofsiteswithhamlets,smallvillages,andcenterswithcivic-ceremonialfunctions(Browne1992;IslaandReindel2006;Reindel2009).ThearchaeologistswhoworkinthisareaconcludethatNascawasmorecomplexandstratified.ScholarswhoseresearchisfocusedatCahuachi(Orefici2011a,b;Strong,1957),withtheexceptionofSilverman(1993),proposeNascawasmorelikelyastatelevelsociety.TheNascacultureoccupationofLaTizabeganinEarlyNascaandextendedthroughMiddleNasca.Muchofwhatinitiallyappearedtobecemeterywasfoundtobedomesticandritualareas,andthesizeoftheNascasettlementisatleastthreetimeswhatwasinitiallythoughtbeforeitwasexcavated(Conlee2014).InEarlyNasca,thesitegrewinsizefromtheLateFormativeandincludedareasofSectors II, III,andVtotalingover8hectares (Figure6).RadiocarbondatesplacetheoccupationatAD80-550.ThemajorityoftheEarlyNascapotteryisNasca3and4,andthetwophasesarefoundtogetherinmostcontextssuggestingthattheyarecontemporary.TheMiddleNascapotteryisintheNasca5styleandisassociatedwithburialandritualareasandoftenmixedwiththeEarlyNascapottery.ArchitectureofthisperiodwasdifferentthanduringtheLateFormative.PeopleinbotherasusedagglutinatedcompoundsbuttheNascaarchitecturewasmoreregular,andtherewasuseofcutorshapedstoneinadditiontonaturalfieldstone,andthefirstuseofdoublecoursedwalls.Thereisalsoagreaterdealofarchitecturaldiversitywithdifferenttypesofarchitectureindifferentsectorsofthesite.Subsistenceevidence indicatesacontinuationofpractices from theLateFormativewith

farmingthecentralpartof theeconomy.Botanicalremains fromNascacontexts includecorn(Zeamays), limabean (Phaseolus lunatus ),peanut (Arachishypogaea ),pacay(IngaFeuillei ),yucca (Manihotesculenta),guava (Psidiumguajaba), sweetpotato(Ipomoeabatatas), squashes(Curcurbitamaxima,Curcurbitamoshata),huarango(Prosopissp. ),andindustrialplantssuchascotton (Gossypiumbarbadense),gourds (Langenariasiceraria),andreeds (Phragmitescomunis).Carbonandnitrogen isotopicanalysisofenamelandbonecarbonateonall of theexcavatedburialsatLaTizafoundthatC4plants,maizebeingthemostprevalent,madeupthemajorityofthefoodsourcesofpeoplelivingatthesite(Buzonetal.2011,2012).Farmingwassupplementedby the use of domestic animals primarily camelids and guinea pigswith the continuedconsumptionofshellfish.

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Figure6MapwiththeNascacultureunitsexcavatedatLaTiza.

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Giventhesizeof thesettlementduringEarlyNasca, irrigationagriculturewouldhavebeennecessary to farmtheareaandsupport thepopulation.BecauseofLaTiza's location in themiddlevalley, therewouldnothavebeenyear roundwateron the surfaceandameansofobtainingsubterraneanwaterwouldhavebeenessential.PreviousresearchhasestablishedthatasystemofhorizontalaqueductscalledpuquioswasconstructedbyNascapeopletobringtheyear-roundsubterraneanwatersupplytothesurface(SchreiberandLancho2003).SubterraneanwaterisrelativelyclosetothesurfaceinthispartofthevalleyandthenearbyOrconapuquioisoneoftheshallowestintheregionatfourmetersbelowtheriverbedatitsupperreach(SchreiberandLancho2003:94).Wellsandsurfacecanalswere likelyusedfor irrigationbutcanalswouldhavebeenshortbecauseof the lowvolumeofwater (SchreiberandLancho2003:32). It isalsopossiblethattheOrconapuquiowasfirstbuiltinEarlyNascabypeopleatLaTizainordertointensifyagriculturalproduction.DuringEarlyNascapeoplecontinuedtouse,manufacture,andtradevariousgoods.Ceramicschangeddramaticallywithaswitchtopolychromesandelaborate iconography.CeramicswerebeingproducedmorecentrallybyskilledartisanswhowereprobablybasedatCahuachi.Thepolychromeswerethedominanttypeofpotteryatallsites, includingsmallvillagesthatwerequiteadistancefromCahuachi.AtLaTiza53%ofthepotteryassemblageconsistedoffinewares(Noell2014).Thereweredifferent typesofhighstatuspottery includingheadjars (n=4), cupbowls(n=5),stirrupspoutvessels(n=1)andminiatures(n=4)allingreaternumbersthanfoundatothervillagesitesinthesouth(Figure7).INAAanalysisonasmallsampleofNascasherds(n=28)assigned46%toGroup1,whichwaspreviouslyidentifiedastheclaysourceusedinmuchoftheNascapolychromes,andassociatedwithasourcenearCahuachi(Vaughnetal.2006;VaughnandNeff2004).Anadditional25%werefromGroup1MacrothatisconsideredlocalfromaregionalperspectiveandrelatedtoGroup1.AllofthepolychromeswereassignedtoGroup1orGroup1Macro.Thereisevidenceoftextilemanufacturingintheformoftextilefragments,spindlewhorls,andbonetoolsthatwerelikelyusedinweaving.Althoughthesampleoftextilesfromthisperiodissmall,itdemonstrationsthatpeopleatLaTizamadeclothofcottonandcamelidfiber,andthatsomeofthecamelidfiberwasdyed.TheNascaexamplesweretypicaloftheoverallassemblagefromthesitewithcottonwarp-facedplainweavethemostcommontextiletype,andwithyarnsoverwhelminglyZspunandSplied (MillsandConlee2014).LithictoolscontinuedtobemadeofthesamematerialsastheywereintheLateFormativewiththemajoritymanufacturedfromobsidian.Overall,thereisagreateramountofobsidianfoundintheNascaunitsthaninearlierones indicating long-distance tradeof obsidian increased.Of theobsidian samplesanalyzedbyXRFfromthisperiod (n=55),onebifacecamefromtheminorPotreropampasource70kmfartherthanQuispisisa,andtherestwerefromQuispisisa(Eerkensetal.2010).Therewaslessbipolarreduction,atechniqueusedwhenthereisanintensivereuseofmaterial,indicatingthattherewas likelymoreaccess to thematerial in thisperiodthantheLateFormative (Johnson2009:57-58).Thepresenceofshellfishandfishatthesitesuggeststherewastradewithcoastalpopulationsorthefrequentdirectprocurementoftheseitems.

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Figure7HighstatusNascaculturepotteryfromLaTiza;a)fragmentofaheadjar;b)cupbowl;c)headjarfromheadlessburial.

InadditiontotheuseofLaTizaasadomesticsettlement,thesitewasanimportantburialandritual locationduringEarlyandMiddleNasca.ThereareburialscontemporarywiththeNasca3and4domesticareas,suchasachildfromUnit46(Burial8)whowasburiedinaseatedandflexedpositionwithafragmentofalargepolychromevessel.Thisisacommonburialstylefortheperiod.TherearenopublicritualspacesthatdatetoEarlyNascaalthoughthereisevidenceforhousehold level rituals evidencedby thepresenceofpairedofferingdeposits inhousefoundationsandpanpipes indomesticcontexts.Ritual locationswerefoundassociatedwiththesiteintheformofnearbygeoglyphs.Thereareaseriesofstraightlinegeoglyphsjustpasttheeasternboundaryofthesite.Alinecenterhasalsobeenrecordedfurthereastofthesettlement(Johnsonetal.2002:figure10.3) Inaddition,avery largetrapezoid isclearlyvisibleacrossthe

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valleytothesouthonanalluvialfanjustabovetheTierrasBlancasriver.There isaMiddleNascacomponentassociatedwithNasca5potterythat isprimarily foundwithburialsbuttherearenodocumentedMiddleNascadomesticareas(Figure8).ThehighestpercentageoffinewareatthesitewasinUnit8(81%),whereadecapitatedbodywasburiedinacircularstonelinedtombwithaNasca5headjar(Conlee2007).Theindividualwasmaleaged22-29yearsandstrontiumandoxygen isotopicanalysis indicateshewasfromthe localregion,andhisheadwaslikelymadeintoatrophyheadalthoughnotrophyheadshavebeenfoundatthesite (Conleeetal.2009).Adjacentdownslopewasanothertombofsimilarsize,shape,andconstruction,whichhadbeenlooted.Onlythefeetofthebodyburiedinthetombwereintactbutotherbonewasscatteredthroughoutthestructure.Itwasestimatedthattheindividualwas18-22yearsoldandpossiblyfemale(Buzonetal.2012).Becauseofthesimilarityinceramics,andtombtypes,thetwoburialswere likelycontemporary.Excavations furtherdownthe slope revealed thatthe tombswereplacedonan artificial terrace, andthat therewasprobablyaramp leadingup to them.Two eno rmous i n t a c tceramicvesselswerefoundthat appear to havebeenplacedwhentherampandterracewere constructed.Pairedofferingsare foundin other Nasca culturecontextsatthesiteandareinterpreted asdedicatoryofferings.Itisprobablethiswasanareawhereritualscontinuedafter the initialinterments. In addition tothe ritual area associatedwith these burials, therearetwoplazasinthelowerelevation of Sector I thatappear to date toMiddleNasca.Noexcavationswereconducted in the plazasbut the pottery found in Figure8TwoMiddleNascatombsfoundinSectorII;topUnit8withdecapitated

body;bottomUnit55withintactfeet.

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looterspitsandonthesurfacewasprimarilyNasca5.Inspectionofthelooterspitsrevealedthattheplazaareascontainedquiteabitofmaterialincludingashandorganics.Thissuggeststhesespaceswerethefocioffrequentandcontinuedactivity.Thereareseveral linesofevidence fromLaTiza thathave implications for thenatureofintegrationandsociopoliticalcomplexityof theNascaculture.Oneof themoststriking is thattheEarlyNascaoccupationofLaTizaspreadoverat least8ha,making it larger thanothercontemporaryhabitationsitesrecordedinthesouth.ItcontrastswithothersouthernsitessuchasMarcaya(1ha.),Upanca (5ha.)andUchuchuma(2ha) thatareconsideredvillages (Vaughn2009;Vaughn andLinares 2006). LaTizawas adifferent kind of settlement and couldbeconsideredatownduringthisperiod.ThelargesizeofLaTizaandthepresenceofadifferenttypeofarchitecture,andgreateramountofhighstatuspottery,indicatethesettlementwasthehomeofpeoplewithagreaterdegreeofsocialdifferentiationthanatthesmallvillageslocatedintheupperelevations.LaTizamayhavegrownlargerbecauseofitspositioninanareawithalotofarablelandandeasieraccesstogroundwater.TheconstructionofpuquiosorothercomplexirrigationsystemsbythepeopleofLaTizaduringEarlyNascamayhavecontributed to thedevelopmentofmoredifferentiationamongsettlements intheregionthanpreviouslyproposed.Moreinformationaboutfarmingandirrigationpracticesoftheperiodarenecessarytoassesthisideabut it isquitepossible thatpeopleheregainedmorewealthandprestigebecauseof theadvantageouslocationandintensifiedagriculturalpractices.Onaregional level, theresearchatLaTiza indicates thatEarlyNascapopulationhasbeenunderestimatedinthesouth.Particularly,sitesinthemiddlevalleysarehardtorecognizeandareprobablyunderreported. Ithasbeennotedthat theNascapeopleoftenburied theirdeadinearliersettlementsandthat tracesofhabitationaredestroyedby looters lookingfor tombs(Carmichael1995;Hecht2009:227;Silverman2002:46).Destructionofearlierhabitationwouldbeparticularlynotablewherehouseswereconstructedprimarilyofwattle-and-daub,whichmayhavebeenthecase inpartsof themiddlevalley. It is likelythatmanyplacesthathavebeenrecordedasNascacemeterieswereactuallydomesticsitesaswell,andthatpopulationhasbeenunderestimated.Inaddition,themiddlevalleysarewheremodernpopulationisconcentratedandhavebeenthemostimpactedbydisturbancefromexpandingtownsandmodernagriculture.LaTizawasnottheonly largersettlement inthesouththat likelyhadotherfunctionsthan

habitation.TherearesomelargersettlementssuchasCantalloq,Jumana,andPuebloViejothathavebeencharacterizedasceremonialcenters (Orefici2011a:87;Reindel2009:452;SchreiberandLancho2003:146)butwhoseroles in integrationof theregionremainunclear. Acloserexaminationof thesesiteswouldaid indevelopingaclearerviewofEarlyNascasociopoliticalorganization.The investigations atLaTiza indicate thatbesidesa largerpopulationandmorediversetypesof sites in thesouth than formerlyproposed, therewasalso likelyagreaterdegreeofinequalitythanpreviouslydescribed(Conlee2014).Therearealsoimplicationsfortheperceiveddifferencesbetweenthenorthernandsoutherndrainage.Thenorthhadfarmoresettlementsandmore locationswithcivic-ceremonial lociandthismayinpartbebecausethenorthwasmore

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heavilypopulatedduringthepreviousFormativewithsignificantmigrantpopulationssettlingthesoutherndrainageonlylateinthatperiod.Thesmallernumberofsiteswithcivic-ceremonialareasinthesouthisalsoprobablyduetothecloserproximityofthelargeceremonialcenterofCahuachi.However, theresearchatLaTizasuggeststhedifferencesbetweennorthandsouthmaynotbeaspronouncedashasbeenpreviouslyindicatedbyresearchers.Anexaminationof theregionasawholewouldsuggest itwasmore integratedthansimple

chiefdoms loosely tied throughreligionandpilgrimageactivitiesatCahuachi (Conlee2014).Thereisevidenceinthenorthforavarietyofsitetypesandregionalcivic-ceremonialcenters.Thesamecouldalsobesaid for thesouthwith thepresenceofmanysmallvillages,at leastonetown(LaTiza),threepotentialsmallceremonialcenters,andofcoursethesiteofCahuachiitself.Cahuachiwasundoubtedlyan importantcenterthat integratedtheNascaregionaswellasprobablyareastothenorth.Itwascertainlythemainreligiousandritualcenteralthoughthegeoglyphslocatedthroughouttheregionwerealsoimportantceremoniallocales.Thereseemstobesufficientevidencetosuggestlargescalecraftproductionandstorageofsurplus,alongwiththepresenceofvarioustypesofpeopleatCahuachi,whichindicatesitwasmorethanareligiouscenter,andalsoservedasaneconomicandpoliticalcenter(BachirBacha2007;IslaandReindel2006;Orefici2011a,b;Reindel2009).ItispossiblethatNascawasaconfederacywithaparamountleaderbasedatCahauchiwithanotherpowerfulleadercenteredinthenorthatLosMolinosinEarlyNascaandthenlateratLaMuñaduringMiddleNasca.Inthesouth,theproposedsmallercivicceremonialsitesmayhavebeenthehomesofsecondary leaders. ItseemspossibletherewerethebeginningsofstratificationandthattheregionwasdevelopingintoamorehierarchicaltypeofpoliticalintegrationwhentheNascaculturebegantodecline(Conlee2014).There isnoevidenceofLateNascaoccupationatLaTizashowingaseriousdisruptionatthistime,which iscuriousgiven its favorablegeographic location.Climatechange,specificallyincreasedaridity,hasbeencitedasamajorcauseofchangeandeventualcollapseoftheNascaculture (Eitel andMächtle2009;Eitel et al. 2005;Reindel 2009;SchreiberandLancho2003;SilvermanandProulx2002).InthefifththroughseventhcenturiesAD,duringMiddleandLateNasca, therewasan increase inaridityandtheriversbecamelessreliableanddroughtsmorefrequent.Another factor inthedeclineof theNascaculturewastheriseandexpansionof theWaristateinthecentralhighlandstotheeast.

Middle Horizon

ByAD650thesiteofLaTizawasinhabitedbyMiddleHorizonpeopleanditwasonceagainusedasadomestic site, andalsoasanextensiveburialground.At this timegreatchangesoccurred in termsofpoliticalorganizationandpowerrelationships.Nascawas incorporatedinto the largerWaristate,based in thehighlandsofAyachucho,andnewtypesofalliances,entanglements,andresistanceswerecreatedwith importantaspectsof localsocietyremainingintact.TherewasacloserelationshipbetweenthetworegionsgoingbacktotheperiodbeforeWariexpansionwhen in theEarly IntermediatePeriodHuarpapeopleadoptedmuchof the

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Nascaceramictradition (Cook1984-85;Knobloch1983;Menzel1964).TheWari imperialstylesalso incorporatedaspectsof thewide-spreadandprestigiousNasca styleandsuggests theyadoptedpartsoftheNascareligioustraditionaswell(Conlee2006;Menzel1964).InNascatherewasadiversityofresponsestoandinteractionswiththeWaristate.Notabledifferencesexistedbetweenthenorthandsouthvalleysinthenumberandtypeofsettlementsbothintermsoflocalsitesand intrusiveWarisites. In thesouth, in theNascaValleyproperthere isevidenceofafairlydirectrelationshipbetweenWariandlocalpeople.IntheupperelevationsnewWarisites,PataryaandIncawasi,wereestablishedthatmayhavefunctionedasimportantoutpostsalongamajorroadcontrollingtradebetweenthehighlandsandthecoast(Edwards2010;EdwardsandSchreiber2014;Schreiber2001). Inthelowervalley,notfarfromCahuachi, thesiteofPachecowasestablishedthatwasaritualcenterthatcontainedalargeceramicofferingdepositbutwasalsolikelyanadministrativesite(Menzel1964;Schreiber2001).AtLaTizatherewasasmallMiddleHorizonhabitationareameasuringaroundthreehectares

insizethatconsistsofmuchofSectorIVandasmallareaineasternSectorV(Figure9).Thedomesticstructuresarerectangularhousesbuiltonterracesandvariable insize.Thepotteryfound in thesecontextswas localMiddleHorizonandrestricted tostyles thatMenzel (1964)proposedwere from the firsthalf of theperiod.Newmortuarypracticeswereestablishedthatconsistedof familymausoleumsthatwereplasteredandpainted.Atotalof70havebeenidentifiedatthesiteandtheyspananareaofabout4hectaresbetweenSectorsIIIandV(Conlee2010,2011). Inthesetombsmultiple individualswereinterredincludingadultmenandwomen,children,and infants (Figure10).Elitegravegoods inthetombs includedSpondylus shell,finepottery,andtextiles.Also for the first timemetalartifactsmadeofarsenicbronzeorcopperwere foundat thesiteand includedshawlpins,ornaments, tweezers,andfigurineswithmostassociatedwiththisnewtombtype.Therewerealsoaccesswaysdocumentedinmanyofthesestructures.Tombswithmultiple internmentsarereported inotherareasofNascaatthistimeandthisbecameacommonnewburialtype(Carmichael1995; Isla2001).ElaboratetombswithmultipleburialsandevidenceofreentrytoplaceadditionalbodiesandgravegoodswerealsocommonintheWariheartland(Isbell2001,2004;IsbellandCook2002).Thesenewpracticesarethoughttobeindicatorsofancestorvenerationorworship,whichwasfocusedonthedeceasedelites(IsbellandCook2002:287–288).AneliteidentitymayhavedevelopedintheMiddleHorizonthatwassharedacrossavastareathatincludedNasca,andWari,andwasreflectedinthenewburialpractices.Strontiumandoxygen isotopicanalysissuggests therewereactual foreignerslivingatLaTizawhowereburied in themausoleumsduring thisperiod (Buzonetal. 2012;Conleeetal.2009).Twowomen in theirearly20swere identifiedasnonlocalandofpossiblehighlandorigin.TheymayhavemarriedintothecommunityasawayofestablishingalliancesbetweenthehighlandWaristateandlocalelites.OtherareasoftheNascadrainagehaddramaticallydifferentresponsestoWari.Inthenorth

therewerenoWarisitesandtherewasadecreaseinlocalsettlements,andthemajorityofthoseidentifiedarecemeterieswithlittleevidenceforhabitation(Browne1992;Reindel2009;Silverman2002).Despite the lowdensityofMiddleHorizonsites inthenorth, therewerenewmortuary

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Figure9MapwithMiddleHorizonunitsexcavatedatLaTiza.

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practicessimilar to thosedocumentedatLaTiza thatconsistedof largetombswithmultipleburialsofadultsandchildren,andsuggestsanewpoliticalandsocialorderthatwasinfluencedbyWari(Isla2001,2009).Intheveryfarsouthnewsettlements,includingthelargelocalsiteofHuacadelLorowereestablished indicatingthata factionof thepopulationmovedawayfromWarisites,perhapsresistedthestate,andnevercameunder itscontrol (ConleeandSchreiber2006;Schreiber2001).Evidence fromLaTizaandothersites intheregion indicatethatagriculturaland irrigationpracticesremainedstable in theMiddleHorizonwiththehealthanddietofpeoplerelativelysteadyalthough there is someevidence to suggest that atLaTizamaizeconsumptionandthedietarybreadthof thepopulation increased (Buzonetal. 2012;KellnerandSchoeninger2008).ThepuquiosconstructedduringtheNascaculturecontinuedtobe inuse in thesouth.Theabandonmentofmuchof thenorthmayberelatedtothe lackofapuquiosysteminthisarea,which leftpeoplereliantonsurface (asopposedtosurfaceandsubsurface)water,whichdecreasedstartingattheendoftheNascaculture.

Figure10MiddleHorizonmausoleum(Tomb34)andsampleofartifactsfoundinthistypeoftombatLaTizaincludingtupupins,metaltweezers,shellbeads,andpolychromepottery.

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EconomicincentivesprobablyplayedanimportantroleinWari'sinterestinNascawherecropsdesiredbythestate,suchascottonandcoca,weregrownandwhosecultivationinvolvedlocalpeople.Muchofthisagriculturemayhavebeenlocallymanagedsincethehighlandstatewouldhavehadlittleexperiencewithlocalcoastalfarmingpractices.Thereisevidenceforincreasedinteractionacross largeareasof theAndesduringtheMiddleHorizonwithWaripotteryandtextiles tradedandcopied inmanyregions.Duringthisperiod therewas intensified tradeofitemssuchasobsidianandSpondylus(Burgeretal.2000;Pillsbury1996).Metallurgyexpandedwiththedevelopmentofbronzealloysandmetalartifactswerealsotradedacross largeareas(Lechtman2005). Intensified tradeof these items is seenatLaTizawhere thequantityofobsidianincreasedfromtheNascacultureandtherewasevenlessbipolarreductionindicatingtheyhadgoodaccesstothematerial.AlloftheobsidiantestedfromthisperiodcamefromtheQuispisisasource,whichwaslocatedinWariterritoryandlikelyunderitscontrol.AnewpotterycompositionalgroupwasdefinedthroughINAAthatwasrestrictedtotheMiddleHorizonatLaTiza.ThisMicaTemperedgrouprepresents15%ofthetestedMiddleHorizonassemblage(n=54)andisdistinctiveforthehighquantityofmica,andwasnotpresentintheearlierNascacultureassemblagenorwasitfoundinthepotteryoflaterperiods.Wariappearstohave invested insomeareas, inparticulartheNascaValleyofthesouthern

drainage,andnot inothers.Herethestate likelyruledthrough local leadersandnewtypesofintermediateeliteswereestablishedwhoobtainedpowerthroughtheirassociationwithWari.ThepeopleofNascabecamepartofastate levelsociety for thefirst timeandwereexposedtopowerandpoliticalorganizationona largescale.The localpoliticalhierarchywaschangedto includenewtypesofeliteswhoacquiredpower indifferentwaysthanpreviouslyandthisprobablyforeverchangedthenatureoflocalsociopoliticalorganizationandpowerrelationships(Conlee2003,2006).Immigrantsareidentifiedintheregionduringthisperiodandintermarriagewithforeignerswasapracticepossiblynewlyestablished.ThedisintegrationandpoliticalcollapseofWaribyAD1000,combinedwithlocalissues,ledtogreatdisruptioninNascathatresultedinabandonmentoftheregion.Thelastcurrentlyknowndate for theMiddleHorizon in thenortherndrainage isAD820 (ReindelandWagner2009:Figure1.2)andinthesoutherndrainageit isaroundAD920withevidenceofsomeburialsaslateasAD1000(Conlee2011;Edwards2010).Itisunknownhowlongtheprocessofabandonmenttookplace,anditappearstobevariableindifferentareasofthedrainagewiththenorthhavingearlier abandonmentand reoccupationdates than the south.AtPatarya theWari sitewasceremoniallyclosed inaneventatwhichtimecorridorsweresealed,ceramicswereplaced incaches,fireswerelitincorners,andafinelayerofsandwasplacedoverthesurface.Thelatestradiocarbondatefromthesite isAD922andit isproposedthatafterthisperiodthesitewasabandoned(Edwards2010:44).ThereisnoevidenceatLaTizatosuggestasimilartypeofeventbut it toohadbeenabandonedbyAD1000. It isunclearwherepeoplemovedtoat this timealthoughitissuspectedthatmanymigratedtoareasinthehigherelevations,orfurthernorthupthecoastwheretheriversarelargerandhavemoreregularwater.Therelativelysuddenandseverechangethatoccurredastheresultofabreakdowninthe

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Waripolitical systemwas likelycoupledwithmore local issues, including increasedaridity.Paleoclimaticdata fromEiteletal. (2005) showthatbeginningaroundAD600until the14thcenturyinsomeareasofNascatherewasincreasedaridificationandthedesertmarginshiftedeast,whichlimitedagriculturalland.LakecoresfromLagunaPumacochaintheCentralAndesalso indicateaperiodof“markedaridity”fromAD900-1100(Birdetal.2011:8587). InstabilitywascreatedbytheseclimaticchangesandlocalsocialissuesthatincludedpossiblerejectionofthereligioussystemsinceitwasintertwinedwiththeWarireligion,anddistrustofsomelocalleaders,especially thosecloselyassociatedwithWari (Conlee2015).Thiscouldhave led toasituationwherecertainleadersandfamilieslostpowerandprestige,andledtofragmentationofthelocalpoliticalhierarchy,aprocessthathasbeennotedinotherareasaftercollapse(Faulseit2012:421).

Late Intermediate Period

After aperiod of 200years theNasca regionwas once again inhabited anddespite theseveredisruptiontherewasafluorescenceoflocalsociety.InnorthernNasca,settlementswereestablishedbyAD1155(ReindelandWagner2009:Figure1.2)andinthesouthbetweenAD1200and1300.Agreaternumberofsiteswereestablishedinthisperiodthaneverbeforeandmanyconsistedof largevillagesandtownsthatranged from8to25hectares (Browne1992;Conlee2003;Reindel2009;SchreiberandLancho2003).Settlementsweremorevariedinlocationwithsitesfoundonhillsides,hilltops,andthevalleybottom.Sitetypevariedfromlargesettlementswithseveralinternaldivisionstosmallerrelativelyhomogenoussettlements.Manysitesduringthisperiodareindefensivelocations,andlargewalls,andpilesofsling-stonesarecommon.Resettlementof thedrainageduring thisperiodmay inpartbedue to improvedclimaticconditions.Thisperiod isclassifiedassemi-aridwithreliablerainfall in thehighlandsas thesummermonsoonal rains increased (EitelandMächtle2009;Eiteletal. 2005:153;OrtloffandKolata1993).Thefavorableclimaticconditions ledtoanarrowingofthedesertandthis likelyplayedarole in therepopulationof theregionasagriculturebecamemoreviable.Fieldsandirrigationsystemsusedpreviouslywererevived.There issomeevidencethat thenumberofpuquiosincreasedduringthisperiodandreachedtheirmaximumnumber(SchreiberandLancho2003:150).Theirrigationsystemwouldhavebeencentralinreestablishingsuccessfulagriculturalyieldsandinthegrowthofpopulation.LaTizawasat its largest,at least15ha,duringtheLateIntermediatePeriod.Architectureextended into thehighestelevationsof thesiteandupthe largequebradas inSectorsVandII,whichweredenselyoccupied (Figure11).Bothof thesesectorscontained largewalls thatspannedthemiddleelevationsandprotectedareasofdomesticarchitecture.Therearepilesofsling-stonesassociatedwiththeLateIntermediatePeriodarchitectureinbothSectorsIIandV,andtheyareespeciallyabundantaroundUnit41aritual/lookoutareaatthetopofthesite.Inadditiontothesling-stones,astonemacehead(doughnutstone)possiblyusedasaweaponwasfound inUnit13. Thisallsuggestsmoreconflictor threatofconflictduringthisperiodthan

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Figure11MapwithLateIntermediatePeriodunitsexcavatedatLaTiza.

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previouserasatthesite.TherewasavarietyofarchitecturalstylesatLaTizaduringtheLateIntermediatePeriod,moreso than identifiedduringearlierperiods.Thedomesticareashaveageneral layoutofrectangularstructuresbuilton largeterraces.Non-domesticarchitecture is foundintheupperelevationsofthesiteandconsistsofplatformsandroundstructures.Thereweremanydifferentarchitecturalfeaturesandmasonrystyles.Featuresincludedstairways,externalsquarestoragebins,external largeroundstoragestructures,androundstoragebins found in the interiorofhouses.Patternsofmasonryvaryfromrelativelysimplestackedstone,todoublecoursedwallswithshapedstonesandrublefill.MudplasterwasfoundremaininginfewplacesinSectorVbuttherewaslikelywideruseofthismaterialthathassinceeroded.Itmustbenotedthoughthatthearchitectureofthisperiodismuchbetterpreservedsovariationiseasiertorecognize.SubsistencepracticesweresimilartothoseduringtheNascacultureandtheMiddleHorizonwiththesametypesofplantsbeingfarmed,animalsbeingraised,andwildresourcesprocured.ThecarbonandnitrogenisotopicanalysisoftheLateIntermediatePeriodburialsindicatesthedietremainedconstantwithalotofmaizeconsumed(Buzonetal.2012).Evidenceofhighmaizeconsumptionwasalsofoundinthecariesanddentalabscessesinanadultfemale(Burial3)andindicationsofinfectiousdiseasewasfoundinaninfant(Burial6)withorbitallesions.Therearesomeindicationsofsurplusproduction,perhapsofagriculturalproducts.This isevident intheincreaseinthenumber,type,andsizeofstorageareasatLaTizaduringthisperiod.Previousstudies indicatedthatneweconomicactivitiesandrelationshipsdeveloped in the

Late IntermediatePeriodwhenmanydifferentcommunitiesproducedgoodsandexchangedthemmoreintensivelythaninprevioustimes(Conlee2000,2003;Vaughnetal.2006).Therewasafocusontheproductionofutilitariangoodssuchasplainwarepottery,cottonyarn,andplaintextiles.Thiscontrastswithearlierperiodswhentherewas focusonfinepotteryandtextiles.Compositionalstudies(INAA)ofpotteryindicatethereweremoreclaysourcesbeingusedthanpreviouslyandmorecommunitiesproducingpottery.AtLaTizaanewPlainware/Utilitariancompositionalgroupwasdefinedandcomprised11%of the sample thatwasanalyzed. It ispossiblethatthisgroupcomesfromaclaysourcenearbyandmayhavebeenproducedatthesettlementbutmoredataisnecessarilytoassessthisidea.Obsidiancontinuedtobe themostcommonmaterialused forstonetoolsatLaTiza.Therewasadecrease inquantitiesofobsidianbuttherewas littleevidenceofbipolarreductionandtheassemblagewasdominatedby informaltoolssuggestingthattherewasasufficientsupplyof thematerial (Johnson2009).Allof thesamplesofobsidian testedusingXRF (n=27)werefromtheQuispisisasource.Spondyluscontinuedtobeobtainedthroughlong-distancetradeandwasassociatedwithahighstatushouseholdandaritualareaatLaTiza.TherewerenometalobjectsfoundinanyoftheLateIntermediatePeriodcontexts,incontrasttotheMiddleHorizonwhentheywerefoundinseveral tombsandsomedomesticareas.Overall, therewas lessself-sufficiencyamongcommunitiesandhouseholds,andmoreinvolvementinregionaltrade.ThisisapatternfoundthroughouttheCentralAndesatthistime.Manyof thereligiouspracticesassociatedwith theNascacultureand theMiddleHorizon

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culturewereabandoned in thisperiod.These include theelaborate iconography (includingdepictionofsupernaturalbeings)onpotteryandtextiles.IntheLateIntermediatePeriodartissimple,non-representational,andgeometric,andathreecolorschemeofblack,white,andredpredominates.There is littleevidencethatthepracticeoftrophyheadtakingcontinuedanditappearsthegeoglyphswerenolongerinuseinthenortherndrainage(Lambers2006)althoughthereissomeindicationoftheircontinueduseinthesouth(Clarkson1990).Therewerealsonolargeceremonialcenterswithmonumentalarchitecture. Instead, small ritualareasare foundatmanysiteswhereprimarilycommunityor familybasedactivities tookplace (Conlee2003).RitualactivitiesatLaTizaappear tobeconfined to small ridgeandhilltopstructures thatoverlookthevalleyandCerroBlanco(Units38,39,41,42).Oneroundstructure(Unit41)locatedat thehighestpointof thesettlementhadafirebox in thecenterwhichcontainedSpondylus .FromthisstructurethereareunobstructedviewsupanddownthevalleyaswellasofCerroBlanco. It seems likely thiswasbotha lookoutandaplace forritualactivity thatmayhaveinvolvedmountainworship.Anotherroundstructure(Unit39)alsowithexcellentviewsofthemountainandvalley,hadseverallargegrindingstonesinsideandnearby(Figure12).RidgetopsthroughouttheLateIntermediatePeriodsectorshadlargequantitiesofbrokenbowlsandjars.Burialpracticesreturnedtothelocalstyleofflexedindividualsburiedinpitswithminimalgrave

Figure12LateIntermediatePeriodritualstructure(Unit39)withgrindingstones.

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goodsthatwasusedbytheNascaculture.ThemultipleburialsandmausoleumsoftheMiddleHorizonwerenolongerapartofthemortuarytradition.TwodifferentdomesticareasofLaTizahavebeen identifiedas inhabitedbyhighstatus

people.InSectorII,Unit23wasawell-preservedhousewithstairwayandlargewallsthatwouldhavetakenmoretimeandskillinconstructionthanmostoftheotherhousesatthesite(Figure13).Thisstructurehadbeenkeptcleansotherewasnota lotofculturalmaterialbut itwasassociatedwithotherstructures (acookingarea,ritualarea,andstoragestructure) thatwereprobablyusedbythesamefamily,andwhichcontainedagreateramountofmaterial.Inaddition,thishouseandassociatedstructureswerelocatedhighupinSectorIIandinagooddefensibleposition. InSectorVthehouseassociatedwithUnit35 isnotablebecauseof theamountandkindsofculturalmaterial foundwithin it. It is theonlyplaceduring thisperiodbesides theritual/lookoutarea(Unit41)whereSpondyluswasfound, ithadthe largest faunalMNI, therewereantarafragments,apieceofawhistleortrumpet,afigurine(theonlyonefromthisperiod)andsixIcadishes(animportedpotterystyle),whichwasmorethananyotherunit.ItisproposedthatthishouseandassociatedstructureswerealsooccupiedbyahighstatusfamilyIntheLateIntermediatePeriodreligiousresourceswerenolongertheprimarymeanstobuild

poweras theywereduringtheNascaculture,possiblybecausesuchresourceswereseenasunstableandtoo intertwinedwiththebreakdownoftheWaripoliticalsystem.It is likelythatthesyncretismbetweenWariandNascaresultedinaseveredisruptiontotheNascaideologicalsystemwhenWaricollapsed.Thissituationmayhaveledfuturepopulationstorestructurethe

Figure13HighstatusLateIntermediatePeriodhousewithstairwayinupperareaofSectorII(Unit23).

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relationshipbetweenreligiousbeliefsandthepoliticalsystem(Conlee2006).Specifically, theremayhavebeenaconcertedefforttodisentanglereligiouspowerfrompoliticalpower.Thefallof theWariempirewouldhaveweakened thepowerful religioussystemthathadcoalescedaroundthestateandtheprestigiousolderreligioustraditionoftheNascaculture.ThisreligionisknowntohaveexpandedovermuchoftheCentralAndesduringtheMiddleHorizon.WiththebreakdownoftheWaripoliticalandeconomicstructurestheinfluenceofthereligionwouldhavewanedaswell.InsteadthereligionoftheLateIntermediatePeriodfocusedonmorepan-Andeanbeliefsandritualsincludingmountainworship.ThepoliticalandsocialhierarchywasalsotransformedintheLateIntermediatePeriod.On

aregionlevelthereweremajorcentersandsecondarycentersinboththenorthandsouthandtwo levelsofhierarchyabovethevillage level (Conlee2006).Urton (1990:195)hasdocumentedthatpeoplelivingintheNascaregionatthetimeofSpanishcontactweregroupedintoayllus ,parcialidades ,andmoieties.Hesuggeststhat in lateprehispanicandearlycolonial timestherewereat least fourparcialidades thatconsistedofmanyayllus . Theparcialidadeswere thengroupedintotwomoieties,oneinthenorthandoneinthesouth,eachwithacaciqueprincipal .Urtonalsoproposes that twoadditionalmoietiesexistedthatdividedupriveranddownriverayllusandcrosscut thenorth/southmoieties. The implications forprehispanicsociopoliticalorganizationarethattherewereatleastthreelevelsofintegratedorganizationduringthelateprehispanicandearlycolonialperiod(Urton1990:196).Giventhecomplexityofregionalsettlementpatterns,andgreaterlevelsofsocialdifferentiationat all sites, it appearsas if thenumberandkindsof statuses increasedduring thisperiod.Therewasanexpanded,andprobablydiffused,politicalhierarchyandelitesofdifferenttypesparticipatedinabroadrangeofactivitiessuchastheproductionofutilitarianitems,exchange,feasting,community/exclusiveritual,andwarfareanddefense(Conlee2003).Duringthisperiodtheresourcesofpowerweremorevariableresultinginamoresegmentedsocietywithdiversewaysofrankingandclassifyingpeople (Conlee2005a). Intheabsenceofreligionplayingsuchan importantcentralizingrole,expandedeconomicrelationshipsandregional trade,alongwithnewpolitical structuresworked to integrate the region.Overall, thepolitical structurewasfundamentallydifferentthanitwasduringtheNascacultureandtheMiddleHorizon.Oneof thekeyquestions in the resettlementofNasca in theLate IntermediatePeriod is

whetherthesepeoplewererelatedto thepeople that livedherebefore.RecentmitochondrialandY-chromosomalDNAresearch suggests thereweremajorchanges that occurredearlyin theLate IntermediatePeriod.GeneticdistinctionbetweencoastandhighlandpopulationswasverymarkedduringtheNascacultureandMiddleHorizon,andtherewerenosignificantgeneticchangesbetweenthesetwoperiodsasmeasuredbycoastalpopulationsinthenorthernNascadrainage (Fehren-Schmitzetal. 2010,2011). ComparisonsofMiddleHorizonandLateIntermediatePeriodhighlandpopulations(inareasadjacenttothenorthernNascadrainage)tomodernPeruvianpopulationsshowlowgeneticdistances,andthere isnodistinctionbetweenmodernPeruviancoastalandhighlandpopulations,whichsuggests therewassomepopulationprocess that ledto thehomogenizationof theregionstarting in theLate IntermediatePeriod

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(Fehren-Schmitzetal. 2011:279).Nocoastalpopulationsof theperiodhavebeenanalyzed forcomparisonsoitisunknownhowthesepopulationscomparetotheadjacenthighlandareasandwhatthesehomogenizationprocesseswere. Thegeneticevidencedoessuggestchange intheNascacoastalpopulationduringthisperiod,andgivenoveralldifferences insociety thatarefoundarchaeologically,itseemsquitepossiblethatthepeoplewhoresettledtheregionwerenotthedirectdescendantsofpreviousoccupants.

Late Horizon

ThereislittleevidenceofoccupationatLaTizaduringtheLateHorizon.OnedomesticareainthewesternpartofSectorVhadadateofAD1435-1624.Thiscontext,Unit13,wasinsideofalargestructureinanareasurroundedbyareaswithLateIntermediatePerioddates.TherewasagreatdealofdecoratedpotteryherecomparedtoothercontextsnearbybutotherthanthattheassemblagewassimilartotheLateIntermediatePeriodcontexts.NoIncastylepotterywasfoundhereoranywhereelseatthesettlement,andthiscontrastswiththefindingsatthesmallvillageofPajonalAltowhereoneIncastyleplatewas foundandseveralLateHorizondesignmotifswereidentified(Conlee2005b).ItmaybethatpeoplemovedawayfromLaTizaaftertheIncaconqueredtheregion.LaTizawasthelargestlocalsiteinthesoutherndrainageandlocatedacrossthevalley fromwheretheIncaestablishedtheirsettlementofParedones. It ispossiblethattheIncaresettledtheLaTizapopulationtoadifferentareainordertodiffusethepopulationand/ortakeadvantageofresourceselsewhere.TheVisitadeAcaríwritten in1593statesthatmitimaesfromNascawerelivinginAcarí,andNascamitimaeswerealsosaidtohavebeenfoundin thecoastalvalleysofArequipa (EspinozaSoriano1976;VisitadeAcarí1973 [1593]:186-187fromUrton1990).

Conclusion

TheevidencefromLaTizaandothersettlementsintheregionindicatealongdynamichistoryofsociopoliticalorganizationandpowerrelationshipsinNasca.Thetransformationsthatoccurredin theregionaremirrored inotherareasof theCentralAndesandat timesNascawasmoreconnectedtobroaderdevelopments thanothers.Complex internalandexternal factors led tothesechangesandcontinuedarchaeologicalinvestigationswillhelpustobetterunderstandthesefactorsandthedevelopmentofancientsocietyinNasca.

Acknowledgements

Fundingfor theprojectatLaTizawasprovidedbytheNationalScienceFoundationGrantBCS-0314273,aNationalGeographicSocietyCommittee forResearchandExplorationGrant,theH.JohnHeinzIIIFundGrantProgramforLatinAmericanArchaeology,andtheResearchEnhancementProgramatTexasStateUniversity. Iwould liketo thankAldoNoriega, theco-

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directorofProyectoLaTizaandallofthearchaeologistsandstudentswhohaveworkedontheproject.Permission toexcavateatLaTizawasgrantedby the InstitutoNacionaldeCulturaPeru,andassistance fromtheIcaregional INCandmuseumwasgivenbyRuebenGarciaandSusanaArce.Lastly,thanksgototwoanonymousreviewerswhoprovidedverytimelyandusefulcommentsonthepaper.

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