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ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS

PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLET

Taxonomy and nomenclatureFamily: Xanthorrhoeaceae (formerly Asphodelaceae)Synonym(s): Aloe candelabrum A. Berger (1906)Vernacular/ common names :(English): Red aloe, bitter aloe, cape aloe(French): Aloes du Cap

Distribution and habitatA. ferox is indigenous to South Africa and Lesotho, growing in the semi-arid open plains to rocky mountain slopes. In Kenya it is commonly cultivated in Nairobi gardens and its environs. It is distributed throughout the tropics and sub tropics where it grows as an ornamental or medicinal plant. It grows in a wide range of climatic conditions, but abundant on arid, rocky hillsides up to 1000 m altitude, where mean temperature ranges from 27-31

oC and annual rainfall is 50-300 mm.

UsesThere are two main useful products obtained from A. ferox. Aloe gel comes from the leaf parenchyma, the white inner fleshy part. It drains from the leaf when cut and is used for its cleansing, antiseptic, moisturizing and anti-inflamatory properties. Aloe bitters, the dark sap comes from between the green peel and the white jelly and are used as a laxative and to treat arthritis. A. ferox has more vitamins, minerals, amino acids and polysaccharides than A. vera.

Insecticidal - It repels insects when planted as a live fence. The leaf ash is also used as an insect repellent and can be dusted onto stored maize or cowpea at a concentration of about 5% w/w as reported for A. marlothii.

Medicinal - In humans it regenerates injured nerves and new skin cells, soothes sunburn, wounds, insect bites, eczema, ringworm, rashes, acne, reduces pain and swelling of arthritis and rheumatism and is used to treat opthalmia and syphilis. In cattle, it is used to treat jaundice, red water and expels worms.

Botanical descriptionA. ferox is a single-stemmed plant growing up to 2-5 m tall. The crown is a dense rosette of green to red-brown succulent leaves up to 1 m long and the stem is covered in persistent dried leaves. Each leaf has brown spines along the margins and often on the surfaces. The flowers are bisexual, about 10 cylindrical racemes on a branched panicle, long with dark orange stamens protruding from the mouth. Some forms can have bright red, yellow or white flowers.

Note: Always verify your plant specimen and deposit a voucher in a verified herbarium.

Fruit and Seed descriptionFruit is an ovoid capsule up to 3 cm long, many seeded. The seeds are about 9 mm long, broadly winged. The seeds storage of A. ferox is orthodox. The dry seeds survive without significant reduction in their viability and thus can be stored by long-term freezing.

Flowering and fruiting habitIn South Africa the striking flowers are seen in winter from May to October.

Aloe ferox Mill.

Seed storage behaviourSeed storage is orthodox. The seeds of A. ferox survive being dried without significantly reducing their viability, and are therefore amenable to long-term cold storage.

Growth and developmentThe flower morphology suggests pollination by birds and honey bees. It is self-incompatible and only a few flowers per raceme flower simultaneously. The stamens produce pollen in the morning and wither in the afternoon.

PropagationA. ferox is easy to cultivate. It grows best in free draining compost which should be soaked and allowed to dry out between watering and light watering in winter. It grows well in a cool/ warm glasshouse and put outside in summer. It can be propagated by seed and planting of the tops of old plants. It can also regenerate from root and embryo tissue.

HarvestingHarvesting of leaves is sustainable by cutting older ones and leaving younger ones and growing tips. The leaves are cut off transversely and exudates allowed to drain for 4-5 hours. Squeezing the leaves by warm or cold water retting will also drain the exudates. There are more exudates in wet rather than dry months. The gel is obtained by removing the outer tissues and/ or by scraping it from the leaf blade cut lengthwise. Two tonnes of A. ferox yield about 1 kg of gel powder, which is higher than for A. vera.

Conservation statusAloe ferox is common throughout its range in South Africa. Most of the material used in commercial products is wild-harvested; there are concerns that increasing demands will threaten the sustainability of this resource.

Safety measureAlways use gloves, protective clothing and caution when handling and applying plant materials to field crops or stored commodities and minimise exposure of consumers. Avoid contact with the skin. In case of accidental contact, immediately wash the affected area with clean running water.

Selected readingswww.kew.org.

www.sanbi.org/biodiversity/reddata.07/10/2009.

www.database.prota.org.

www.seedaholic.com.

Grace, O.M., Simmonds, M.S.J., Smith, G.F. & Van Wyk, A.E. (2009). Documented utility and biocultural value of Aloe L. (Asphodelaceae): a review. Economic Botany, 64, 167-178.Achiano, K.A., Giliomee, J.H., Pringle, K.L. 1999. The use of ash from Aloe marlothii Berger for the control of maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), in stored maize. African Entomology, 7, 169-172

Fourie, J.J., Fourie, L. J., Horak, I. G. (2005). Efficacy of orally administered powdered aloe juice (Aloe ferox) against ticks on cattle and ticks and fleas on dogs. Jls. Afri. Vet. Ass. 76 (4), 193-196.

Jellin, J.M., Gregory, P.J., et al. (2008). Pharmacist’s Letter/Prescriber’s Letter Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database. 10th Ed. Therapeutic Research Faculty, Stockton.

Reynolds, G.W. (1950). The Aloes of South Africa. Aloes Book Fund, Johannesburg.

Threatened Species Programme (2009). South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.

Authors: P. Anjarwalla, L. Mwaura, D. A. Ofori, R. Jamnadass, P. C. Stevenson, P. Smith.

ISBN 978-92-9059-340-9

Pesticidal plant leaflets are a series of species wise extension leaflets on botanical pesticides. Leaflets are compiled from existing literature and research available at the time of writing. In order to currently improve recommendations, ICRAF, MSBP and the University of Greenwich encourage feedback from users and researchers who have experience with the species. Comments, corrections, improvements and amendments will be incorporated into future edited leaflets. Please write your comments to: [email protected] or [email protected]


PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLETDysphania ambrosioides L.

Taxonomy and nomenclatureFamily: ChenopodiaceaeSynonym: Chenopodium ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & ClemantsVernacular/ common names:(English): Wormseed, Mexican tea(Maa): Ngaingunudero (Kipsigis): Kibirosit(Kamba): Muanzo/ Mwianzo

Photograph B T Wursten

Distribution and habitatIt is found throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, but mostly polymorphic in South America. It is found in a variety of disturbed habitats, gardens, cultivated fields, waste ground but most often on sand by rivers. Preferred altitude ranges between 550-1620 m. In Kenya, it is found in Tsavo East National Park, in Nyeri, Limuru, Thika, Machakos and Laikipia.

UsesPesticidal - Leaf decoction is used as a fumigant against mosquitoes and flies and kills snails. Also used as a fungi toxicant in post harvest grain protection. Added to fertilizers to inhibit insect larvae. Oil used as post-harvest grain protection as a fungi toxicant. Powdered leaves can be added to stored grain at around 0.5% w/w to control Bruchids in bean or up to 5% w/w for the control of maize storage pests including Sitophilus zeamais. Consumption of the leaf powder should be avoided on account of the potential harmful effects of the active ingredient ascaridole although this compound is volatile and will naturally escape stored products. Regular agitation of stored bags may help to reinvigorate the effects of the plant material. Winnowing off plant material before use will reduce risk.

Food - Leaves used as condiments in soups or tea. Soaked and cooked seeds are consumed in moderation.

Medicinal - Tea drunk to expel parasitic worms from the body of humans and livestock. Used as remedy for stomach pains, used to clean haemorrhoids, detoxify snakebites and other poisons, clean wounds. Oil used to treat athletes foot and insect bites.

Botanical descriptionD. ambrosioides is a hermaphroditic herb, usually annual, up to 180 cm high, upright, much branched, green. Leaves are mostly lanceolate (up to 4 cm long and 1 cm wide) and toothed. Flowers are small, green, in an elongated, dense, terminal cluster, petals none.


Fruits and seed descriptionThe bracts of the fruits are green or brown, often enclosed in infolded perianth. The fruit odour is strong, the taste pungent and bitter. Seeds are horizontal or vertical (rarely oblique), lenticular to subglobose, seed coat black, brown or reddish brown, embryo annular or horseshoe-shaped, surrounding copious farinaceous perisperm.

Flowering and fruiting habitIn Kenya, it flowers in July-August and the fruits are ripe in September.

HarvestingThe plant can be harvested by cutting the centre stem first, to encourage bushing. The plant can be pruned frequently to prevent flowering and assure continuing supply of leaves. Plants are cut for oil or dried for liquid extracts and powder. Leaves are also picked and used as required fresh.

Propagation and cultivationIt grows easily in most soils but prefers sandy loam and sunny dry zones and soil pH 5.2-8.3. Seeds germinate easily when sown fresh. Germination rates are good and seedlings appear within a few days of sowing the seed.

Safety measureAlways use gloves, protective clothing and caution when handling and applying plant materials to field crops or stored commodities and minimise exposure of consumers. Avoid contact with the skin. In case of accidental contact, immediately wash the affected area with clean running water

Caution: This plant can be invasive

Selected readingsUSDA Plants database. (http://plants.usda.gov).

Hammouda, F.M., Ismail, S.I., Abdel-Azim N.S., Shams K.A. and Batanouny K.H., (2005). A Guide to Medicinal Plants in North Africa. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation, Malaga, Spain.

Tapondjou, L.A., Adler, C.; Bouda, H. & Fontem, D.A. (2002). Efficacy of powder and essential oil from Chenopodium ambrosioides leaves as post-harvest grain protectants against six-stored product beetle. Journal of stored products research, 38, 395-402.

Selase, A.G. & Getu, E. (2009). Evaluation of botanical plants powders against Zabrotes haricot beans under laboratory condition. African journal of Agricultural Research, 4 (10), 1073-1079.

Sousa, Z.L., de Oliveira, F., da Conceiçã, A., Alberto, L., Silva ,M., Rossi, M., da S Santos, J. and Andrioli, J.(2012). Biological activities of extracts from Chenopodium ambrosioides lineu and Kiel meyera neglecta saddi. Annals of Clinical microbiology and antimicrobials, 11, 20.

Raintree’s Tropical Plant Database. (rain-tree.com).

Authors: P. Anjarwalla, D. A. Ofori, R. Jamnadass, P. C. Stevenson, P. Smith.

ISBN 978-92-9059-341-6




Taxonomy and nomenclatureFamily: EuphorbiaceaeVernacular/ common names :(English): Firesticks plants, Naked lady, Pencil tree, Milk bush(Maa): Oloilei (Kipsigis): Lechuangit(Kamba): Ndau (Swahili): Mtupa mwitu, Mwasi, Utupa

Euphorbia tirucalli

Distribution and habitatE. tirucalli is the most widespread of all the Euphorbia species. It is native in Angola, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zanzibar and can survive in a wide range of habitats. It can grow in tropical arid areas with low rainfall, on poor eroded soils, saline soils and high altitudes up to 2000 m but cannot survive frost. It grows wild, often in abandoned sites of homesteads. In Kenya for instance, it is found in Ruaka on the highway to Thikka and in Jilore forest station in Kilifi, in Baringo, Sigor, Makueni and Kitui.

UsesPesticidal uses - The plant’s latex can be used against aphids, mosquitoes, some bacteria and molluscs. However it is also toxic, due to phorbol based diterpenoids causing severe irritation from contact, emesis and purgation from ingestion. Used as a hunter’s tool in local fishing and arrow poisoning in tropical Africa. Dose-dependant latex toxicity to parasitic nematodes such as Haplolaimus indicus, Helicolylenchus indicus and Tylenchus filiformis in vitro.

Medicinal uses - In east Africa, latex used against sexual impotence, warts, epilepsy, toothache, hemorrhoids, snake bites, extraction of ecto-parasites and cough. In Malaysia, a poultice of roots and stems can be applied to nose ulceration, haemorrhoids and swellings. In India, it is a remedy for spleen enlargement, asthma, dropsy, leprosy, biliousness, leucorrhea, dyspepsia, jaundice, colic, tumours and bladder stones. Branch and root decoction used for colic. Ashes applied on open abscesses.

Use as an energy source - Latex of E. tirucalli is composed of petroleum-like hydrocarbons, largely C30 triterpenoids which on cracking yield high octane gasoline. Potential source of biodiesel as high biomass

and growth in marginal areas unfit for other crops. Ease of fermentation implies potential source of methane and biogas. Can be used as compost, charcoal and fuelwood, particularly in semi-arid areas devoid of forests and due to its fast growth rate, high productivity and quick acclimatization to an area and ease of drying.

Use for rubber - It contains hydrocarbon polymers which can be used for manufacturing of rubber substitutes. Its latex is an emulsion of terpenes and resins in water, which can easily be transformed into rubber at low cost. Used at the east African coast in local gum manufacture, for fastening knife blades to wood handles and spearheads to shafts. Can be used as wood-based glue and adhesives.

Use in conservation and Agroforestry - Its favourable feature of drought resistance makes E. tirucalli a good species to use in semi-arid areas for afforestation and reforestation for soil conservation- Success in Tanzania, Kenya and Sri Lanka. Used as hedge plant owing to the irritant properties of the latex to potential invasive animals of homesteads and fields, as an intercrop, as boundary demarcation and as a windbreak.

Use as ornamental - Popular as ornamental plants in pots or in lawns rendering favourable trade.

Botanical descriptionIt is a deciduous shrub or small tree which can reach 4-12 m high with brittle, succulent branches 7 mm thick, often in whorls, green with whitish latex. Leaves are few, fleshy and linear-lanceolate, 1.5-2 mm, present only at tip of branchlets. Cymes 2-6, congested at apices of branchlets, forking 2-4 times producing cluster of cyathia developing only male flowers, sometimes female.


Fruit and Seed descriptionFruit a glabrescent capsule, exerted on a tomentose pedicel to 1 cm long, subglobose, 8 x 8.5 mm. Seed ovoid, 3.5 x 2.8 mm, smooth, buff speckled with brown and dark brown ventral line; caruncle 1 mm across.

PropagationStem cuttings grow fast forming dense bushes which become naturalized and forms a small tree. Seed germination is epigeous.


Selected readingswww.nri.org/projects/adappt.

Orwa et. al., 2009, world agroforestry database.

Mwine Tedson Julius, PhD thesis, 2011- Evaluation of pesticidal properties of Euphorbia tirucalli L. (Euphorbiaceae) against selected pests. University of Gent.

Authors: P. Anjarwalla, L. Mwaura, D. A. Ofori, R. Jamnadass, P. C. Stevenson, P. Smith.

ISBN 978-92-9059-342-3



PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLETSolanum incanum L.

Taxonomy and nomenclatureFamily: Solanaceae. Synonym: Solanum panduriforme E.Mey, Solanum bojeri Dunal, Solanum campylacanthum Hochst, Solanum delagoense Dunal, Solanum lichtensteinii Willd, Vernacular/common names: (English) Bitter apple, snake apple, Sodom apple, thorn apple (Ndebele) Intume, umdulukwa Munhomboro (Shona) Munhundurwa.

Distribution and habitatSolanum incanum is abundant and common as a weed, around houses, in overgrazed grassland and on roadsides. It is also found at forest edges and in bushland and grassland, from sea-level up to 2500 m altitude. It is considered an indicator for low-fertility soils.

UsesPesticidal - S. incanum is effective for control of cattle ticks when used as water extracted concoction. The whole dry ripe fruits are crushed and extracted in water at 5% w/v for 24 h and this is then sprayed onto cattle (5L/animal). However it has shown acute toxicity when applied at high concentrations so users need to wear appropriate protective clothing, gloves and face mask when applying.

Medicinal - The fruit of S. incanum are used in Kenya for treatment of skin mycotic infections.

Other - The leaves and stems are used in compost.

Botanical descriptionSolanum incanum is a herb or soft wooded shrub up to 1.8 m in height with spines on the stem, /stalks and calyces and with velvet hairs on the leaves. Flowers pale to deep blue, mauve or purple. The leaves are alternate, egg-shaped in outline with broad end at base (ovate) with slightly wavy margins (especially on young leaves), with a grey-green upper surface and a green-white lower surface.


Fruit and Seed descriptionFruit are mottled or striped green and light green, yellow when ripe.

Seed: On average, there are 131,000 seeds/kg, depending on the provenance and the climatic conditions.

Flowering and fruiting habitThe flowers are often borne in the leaf axils, sometimes solitary or in clusters of a few flowers. The yellow or white calyx is fused, the purple corolla regular, bell- or wheel shaped with 5 stamens. The globular fruits are yellow at the beginning, becoming black later on. In Kenya, the species flowers from November to March.

Harvesting and extraction of seedsRipe yellow fruits are hand collected from the tree branches using secateurs. Fruits are dried under shade at a temperature of 30

oC-35

oC for two days. Seed

extraction is done as soon as the fruit turns brown. Fruits are squeezed between the fingers, crushed and seeds removed, the seeds are washed in running water to clear off the pulp and spread on open trays to dry for two to three days.

Storage and viabilitySeed storage behaviour is orthodox; viability can be maintained for over 1 year in air-dry hermetic storage at 5

oC at a moisture content of 6-8%.

Propagation and pre-treatmentIdeally, the seeds should be soaked for 24 hours before sowing as this will increase germination rate to above 75%. (unpublished data, ICRAF 2012).

Safety measureAlways use gloves, protective clothing and caution when handling and applying plant materials to field crops or stored commodities and minimise exposure of consumers. Avoid contact with the skin. In case of

accidental contact, immediately wash the affected area with clean running water.

Caution: This plant can be invasive.

Selected readingsKamanula, J., Sileshi, G.W., Belmain, S.R., Sola P., Mvumi, B.M., Nyirenda, G.K., Nyirenda, S.P and Stevenson, P.C. (2011). Farmers insect Pest management practices and pesticidal plant use in the protection of stored maize and beans in South Africa, Int. J. Pest Manage, 57, 41-49.

Madzimure, J., Nyahangare, E.T., Hamudikuwanda, H., Hove, T., Belmain, S.R., Stevenson, P.C., Mvumi, B.M. (2013) Efficacy of Strychnos spinosa (Lam.) and Solanum incanum L. aqueous fruit extracts against cattle ticks. Tropical Animal Health and Production. (in press).

Henderson, L. (2002). Problem plants in Ngorongoro Conservation Area. Final Report to the NCAA.

Fukuhara, K. and Kubo, I. (1991). Isolation of steroidal glycoalkaloids from Solanum incanum by two counter current chromatographic methods. Phytochemistry 30(2), 685-687.

Authors: L. Mwaura, P. Anjarwalla, D. A. Ofori, P. C. Stevenson, P. Smith and R. Jamnadass.

ISBN 978-92-9059-343-0




Taxonomy and nomenclatureFamily: LoganiaceaeVernacular/common names: (English): elephant orange, kaffir orange, monkey ball, monkey orange, Natal orange, spiny monkey ball, spiny monkey orange. (Swahili): mtonga, mpapa.

Distribution and habitatS. spinosa occurs in savannah forests all over tropical Africa and grows in open woodland and riverine fringes. Native: Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritius, Seychelles, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia. Exotic to: South Africa, United States of America. The tree can be found growing singly in well-drained soils. It is found in bushveld, riverine fringes, sand forest and coastal bush from the Eastern Cape, to Kwazulu-Natal, Mozambique and inland to Swaziland, Zimbabwe, northern Botswana and northern Namibia, north to tropical Africa. This tree prefers sandy soils and grows fast in rocky areas. Prefers full sun and requires moderate amount of water.

UsesPesticidal - S. spinosa is among plant species commonly used as pesticides in Southern Africa. Aqueous extracts of S. spinosa show potential as alternatives to synthetic pesticides but little is known about their level of toxicity. The unripe fruit pulp can be extracted and diluted in water to about 10% w/v and after filtering through muslin sprayed onto cattle (5L/animal). Medicinal - Compounds from the tree have been shown to have anti-trypanocidal activity. Other uses - The wood can be used for general carpentry. Timber from S. spinosa produces handles, fighting sticks and hut poles. It is also used for carving. Dried fruit, after the seeds are removed, are often used as sounding-boxes for musical instruments such as the marimba. They are also carved and sold as curios. The fruit is

Strychnos spinosa Lam.

edible and often sun dried as a food preserve. There is no evidence of the occurrence of strychnine in the plant although the chemistry of seeds has not been reported so they should be avoided as they may be poisonous or could have purgative effects.

Botanical description S. spinosa is a small to medium sized, spiny deciduous tree with leaves turning yellow in autumn. The canopy is flattish and irregular and the tree is heavily branched. Leaves simple, opposite, elliptic- ovate to almost circular, 1.5-9 x 1.2-7.5 cm, light to dark green and glossy at the base; veins pale green and curving along the margin; apex tapering to rounded, sometimes notched; base tapering, rounded or slightly lobed; margin entire, inclined to be wavy; petiole 2-10 mm long.


Fruit and flower descriptionFruit spherical, woody shelled, 5-12 cm in diameter, deep yellow to yellow-brown when mature, contains

many tightly packed flat seeds surrounded by a fleshy, edible covering pulp.

Flowers creamy green, up to 6 mm long, in compact heads about 3.5-4 cm, terminal on short lateral twigs, densely crowded together on short stalks about 10 mm long (September-February/Spring - summer).

Fruit collectionFruits are harvested when the color turns from green to yellow brown. Harvesting is by cutting the branches holding the fruit using a pair of secateurs. A canvas could be spread on the ground to hold the fruits during harvesting.

Processing and handling After collection, fresh fruits are soaked in water to soften the fresh pulp and are extracted by rubbing with hands to remove the pulp; they are then squeezed to release the seeds. Cleaned seeds are spread on open trays to dry under-shade. These are about 1800 seeds/kg.

PropagationThe species can be regenerated from root suckers and coppice or seeds. Seeds are soaked in hot water or the hard coat is burned to facilitate and improve germination. It can also be propagated vegetatively.

Storage and viabilitySeed storage behaviour is orthodox; long-term storage.

Conservation status The species is not selected or highlighted as potential taxa for conservation concern for detailed assessment and hence given an automated status as Least Concern in the red list of South African plants.


Selected readingsMadzimure, J., Nyahangare, E.T., Hamudikuwanda, H., Hove, T., Belmain, S.R., Stevenson, P.C., Mvumi, B.M. (2013) Efficacy of Strychnos spinosa (Lam.) and Solanum incanum L. aqueous fruit extracts against cattle ticks. Tropical Animal Health and Production. (in press).

Nyahangare, E.T., Hove, T., Hamudikuwanda, H., Belmain, S.R., Stevenson, P.C., Mvumi, B.M. (2012) Toxicity of the pesticidal plants Strychnos spinosa Lam., Bobgunnia madagascariensis (Desv.) J.H. Kirkbr. & Wiersama Vernonia amygdalina Del. and Cissus quadrangularis L. in BALB/c mice, Journal of Medicinal Plants Research. 6(13), 2674-2680.

Schmidt, E., Lötter, M. & McCleland, W. 2002. Trees and shrubs of Mpumalanga and Kruger National Park. Jacana, Johannesburg.

Authors: L. Mwaura, P. Anjarwalla, D. A. Ofori, R. Jamnadass, P. Stevenson, and P. Smith.

ISBN 978-92-9059-344-7




Taxonomy and nomenclatureFamily: AsteraceaeSynonym (s): Tagetes glandulifera, Tagetes gladulosa Vernacular/ common names :(English): Mexican marigold, stinkweed, Khaki weed(Maa): Ol’ bangi (Kikuyu) : Mubangi(Kamba) : Muvangi/ kivangi (Luo) : Nyanjaga(Luhya): Etakanyi

Distribution and habitatIt is an invasive weed on farms. Grows well in disturbed areas and cultivated beds, usually found in maize farms. Originally from South America but is now a widespread weed in Africa, South Europe, South Asia and Australia. In Kenya it is found in Nairobi, Taita Hills, Voi-Nairobi road, Kaimosi, Masai Mara, Gatundu, Gathiuru Forest in Nyeri, Machakos.

UsesInsecticidal - Powdered plants are effective against maize and Mexican beans weevils when mixed with grain but require relatively high concentrations. Plant extract is effective against aphid Brevicoryne brassicae and red spider mites in vegatables. Essential oil is used against ticks. Decoctions show effective control of intestinal parasites in domestic livestock. Secretions from roots are effective against nematodes, worms, insects, fungi and perennial weeds.

Medicinal - It is used to treat gastritis, indigestion and intestinal worms. Externally it is used to treat skin infections and haemorrhoids. The essential oil treats fungal infections like athlete’s foot and boosts the respiratory system. It has antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, cytophylactic, sedative, emollient, fungicide and hypertensive properties.

Tagetes minuta L.

Other uses - Used in perfumery and as flavour in beverages and food industry.

Botanical descriptionStrongly scented annual herb with stiff erect stems up to 2 m tall. Leaves stalked, opposite, light green, 7-15 cm long, pinnately dissected into 4-6 pairs of pinnae. Leaflets lanceolate, margins finely serrate. Undersurface of leaves bears sunken oil glands with liquorice-like aroma when ruptured. Glands also present on the stems and involucres bracts. Inflorescences terminal with numerous tube-like capitula of dull yellow florets.


Fruit and Seed descriptionBlack achenes, narrowly ellipsoid and hard seeds, 6-7 mm long, pilose, pappus of 1-2 setae to 3 mm long and 3-4 scales to 1 mm long with ciliate apex.

Flowering and fruiting habitIt flowers in February, June and November. The fruits are available in December-January, March-April and July-September.

HarvestingHarvesting of seeds is done in February, May and October. Harvesting of leaves and flower parts are done above the ground where leaves and inflorescence are desirable.

Processing and handlingMature fruits, black-brown in colour, are removed from stalks. Seeds are obtained by sieving dried fruits to remove husks. One pod has several seeds.

Propagation and cultivationSeeds germinate readily when sown fresh, without treatment. Seeds are sprinkled directly on soil or only just cover with soil. Germination takes place within one week. Seedlings can also be transplanted to pots. Grows well in disturbed areas, in heavy clay soils or sandy soils.


Caution: This plant can be invasive.

Selected readingswww.pfaf.org Weaver, D.K., Zettler, J.L., Wells, C.D., et al. (1997) Toxicity of fractionated and degraded Mexican marigold floral extract to adult Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: curculionidae) Journal Of Economic Entomology, 90, 1678-1683.

Tomova, B.S., Waterhouse, J.S., Doberski, J. (2005) The effect of fractionated Tagetes oil volatiles on aphid reproduction. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 115, 153-159.

Muzemu, S., Mvumi B.M., Nyirenda S.P.M., Sileshi, G.W., Sola P., Kamanula J.F., Belmain S.R. & Stevenson P.C. (2012). Pesticidal effects of indigenous plants extracts against rape aphids and tomato red spider mites. African Crop Sci Conf Proc, 10, 169 – 171.

Macedo, Iara T.F., Bevilaqua, Claudia M.L., de Oliveira, Lorena M B et al., (2012) In vitro activity of Lantana camara, Alpinia zerumbet, Mentha villosa and Tagetes minuta decoctions on Haemonchus contortus eggs and larvae Veterinary. Parasitology, 190, 504-509.

Tomova, B.S., Waterhouse, J.S., Doberski, J. (2005). The effect of fractionated Tagetes oil volatiles on aphid reproduction . Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 115, 153-159.

Authors: D. A. Ofori, P. Anjarwalla, L. Mwaura, R. Jamnadass, P. C. Stevenson and P. Smith.

ISBN 978-92-9059-345-4



PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLETTephrosia vogelii Hook. f

Taxonomy and nomenclatureFamily: FabaceaeVernacular/common names: (English): fish bean, fish-poison bean, vogel’s tephrosia (Lao (Sino-Tibetan)): hu kata (Swahili): kibaazi, kibazi, mibaazi, mtupa, utupa wa kibaazi, utupa wa kingindo, utupa wa mrima.

Distribution and habitatTephrosia vogelii is native to tropical Africa. It is found in widely varying habitats, including savanna-like vegetation, grasslands, forest margins and shrublands, waste lands and fallow fields. It occurs in climates with annual rainfall of 850-2650 mm and annual mean temperature of 12.5-26.2

oC and is found up to 2100 m

altitude. It is encountered most abundantly where cultivated.

UsesTephrosia vogelii is a known nitrogen-fixing species, cultivated as green manure in Indonesia and many other parts of Africa. It is also planted as a windbreak and as a temporary shade crop. Crude extract from leaves of Tephrosia vogelii is potentially used to control ticks and worms in the Ugandan animal production systems. It has also been used to control larval stages of mosquitoes and is effective against soft bodied insects and mites including aphids and red spider mites. Dried leaves have the potential to protect stored legume seeds from damage by the bruchids as used by farmers in Southern Africa. For control of weevils (less effective) and grain borer, mix 100-250 g powdered dry leaves to 100 kg of beans or cowpea. Before eating beans, wash thoroughly. Tephrosia vogelii plant extracts were once used as fish poison but now many countries term this as illegal. To make the insecticide, mix dry powdered leaves 10% w/v in water containing 1% liquid soap for 24 hours. Dilute 5-10 times to give 1-2% concentration and spray in the early evening to reduce exposure to sunlight and lessen effects against beneficial insects.

Botanical descriptionTephrosia vogelii is a soft, woody branching herb or small tree with dense foliage, 0.5-4 m tall, with velutinous to sericeous indumentum. Stems and branches tomentose with long and short white or rusty-brown hairs. Leaves arranged spirally, imparipinnate; stipules 10-22 x 3-3.5 mm, early caducous; rachis 5-25 cm long, 1.5-5 mm long including petiolule; leaflets in 5-14 pairs, narrowly elliptical to elliptical-oblanceolate, up to 7 x 2 cm, base acute to obtuse, apex rounded to emarginate, venation most distinct on lower surface, silky tomentose. Inflorescence a terminal or axillary pseudo-raceme, 8-26 cm long, rusty tomentose; basal bracts leaf like, peduncle stout, as long as pseudo-raceme; flower 18-26 mm long, fragrant when fresh, white, violet-purple or blue; pedicel up to 23 mm long; bracteoles sometimes present on calyx.


Fruit and Seed descriptionThe pod is linear, slightly turgid, measuring 5.5-14 cm x 0.8-1.8 cm, brown or green, woolly to sericeous and 6-18-seeded. The dark brown to black seed is ellipsoid to kidney-shaped and measuring 5-7 mm x 3-5 mm. Seedling is with epigeal germination. The cotyledons are rather thin, leaf-like, green and long persistent, where the first leaf is simple while the second is usually 3-foliolate.

Flowering and fruiting habitThe flowers are bisexual, borne in compact clusters. The stigma is receptive when pollen is released, and self-pollination occurs. Large carpenter bees (Xylocopa brazilianorum) have been reported as principal pollinators. Seed set is low.

Harvesting Harvesting is done by shaking the branches and pulling the pods with a hook in order to release them on canvas spread on the ground.

Processing and handlingPods should be dried in the sun for a few days, and then threshed in a gunny bag by using a stick. After extraction, the seeds are cleaned by sieving, winnowing or using a mechanical blower. Cleaned seeds are dried to moisture content between 6 and 10% prior to storage.

Storage and viabilitySeed storage behavior is orthodox; viability can be maintained for several years in hermetic storage at 10

oC.

Seed can also be stored for at least a year if kept dry and insect free.

Propagation and pre-treatmentThe seeds should be soaked in cold water for 24 hours before sowing to enhance germination. For maximum leaf yield sow 35,000 seeds per hectare.


Selected readingsBelmain, S.R., Amoah, B.A., Nyirenda, S.P., Kamanula, J.F. and Stevenson, P.C. (2012) Highly variable insect control efficacy of Tephrosia vogelii chemotypes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 60(40), 10055–10063.

Stevenson, P.C., Kite, G.C., Lewis, G.P., Nyirenda, S.P., Forest, F., Belmain, S.R, Sileshi, G., and Veitch, N.C. (2012) Distinct chemotypes of Tephrosia vogelii and implications for their use in pest control and soil enrichment. Phytochemistry, 78, 135-146.

World Agroforestry Centre: Species database.

Matovu, H. and Olila, D., (2007). Acaricidal Activity of Tephrosia vogelii Extracts on Nymph and Adult Ticks. International Journal of Tropical Medicine, 2: 83-88.

Authors: L. Mwaura, P.C. Stevenson, D.A. Ofori, P. Anjarwalla, R. Jamnadass and P. Smith.

ISBN 978-92-9059-346-1




Taxonomy and nomenclatureFamily: AsteraceaeSynonym: Mirasolia diversifolia Hemsl. Vernacular/ common names:(English): Mexican sunflower, tithonia, tree marigold(Kisii): Amaua maroro (Kikuyu): Maruru(Kamba): Ilaa (Luo): Maua makech, akech, maua madungo(Luhya): Maua amalulu

Distribution and habitatIt is a common shrub on field boundaries, grasslands and disturbed lands in East Africa. Initially introduced into Kenya from Central America as an ornamental plant, it is now found in Western and Central provinces, in coastal regions and parts of Rift Valley. It grows in regions of 550-1950 m altitude and mean annual temperature of 15-31

oC and mean annual rainfall of 100-2000 mm.

UsesPesticidal - Tithonia spp. are well known for sesquiterpene lactones and diterpenoids – some of which have biological activities against insects. Most bioassays have been conducted using extracts so are not specific about which compounds are responsible for effects. In Uganda, farmers use it in field and storage pest management although there is no published work to report evidence for these effects. Medicinal - Infusion suitable for constipation, stomach pains, indigestion, sore throat, liver pains and to treat malaria. Also reported activities as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimalarial, antiviral, antidiabetic, antidiarrhoeal, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, vasorelaxant and cancer-chemopreventive.Fodder - Leaves, soft branches, flowers. Have high nutritive-quality index.Fuel - Firewood to farmers.

Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsley) A. Gray

Botanical descriptionT. diversifolia is a woody herb or succulent shrub, 1.2-3 m tall. Opposite leaves (3-5), attenuate base, acute apex, crenate margin. Leaf size is 5-17 x 5-12 cm, densely pubescent beneath, palmate venation. Occasionally upper leaves are unloaded.Flowers are yellow, their ray size is 306 cm x 5-18 mm. The flower heads are solitary on a peduncle 6-13 cm long. Each mature stem may bear several flowers at the top of branches.The plant flowers and produces seeds throughout the year. The light weight seeds can be dispersed by wind, water and animals.


Seed descriptionThe ‘seeds’ (achenes) are 4-8 mm long and topped with a ring (pappus) of scales and two awns (about 5 mm long). These ‘seeds’ are covered in close-lying hairs (they are appressed pubescent), blackish in colour, and are somewhat four-angled.

PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLETFlowering and fruiting habitT. diversifolia flowers and produces seeds throughout the year and at different times in its separate habitats and mainly during the rainy seasons in east Africa. Tithonia diversifolia is a prolific seeder which retains its seeds until the plant dries in the dry season when the seeds disperse and are spread by wind, water and the movement of people, livestock and vehicles.

Propagation and cultivationT. diversifolia can be propagated from seeds and cuttings. Seeds germinate readily when sown fresh, without treatment, all year round. Seeds are sprinkled directly on soil or only just cover with soil. Stem cuttings of 20 to 40 cm length establish readily, regardless of the angle at which they are inserted into the soil. Cuttings buried horizontally in the soil will sprout, but they are less effective than cuttings inserted either upright or at an angle into soil. The cuttings should be planted into moist soil immediately after collection and not allowed to sun dry.


Caution: This plant is invasive.

Selected readingsAdayo, F., Mukalama, J.B., Enyola, M. (1997). Using Tithonia concoctions for termite control. ILEIA Newsletter, 13. (4), p.24.

Gachengo, C.N., Palm, C.A., Jama, B. and Othieno, C. (1999). Tithonia and senna green manures and inorganic fertilizers as phosphorus sources for maize in Western Kenya. Agroforestry Systems, 44, 21-36.

Chagas-Paula, D.A., Oliveira, R.B., Rocha, B.A., Da Costa, F.B. (2012). Ethnobotany, Chemistry, and Biological Activities of the Genus Tithonia (Asteraceae). Chemistry & Biodiversity, 9, 210-235.

Ambrosio, S.R., Arakawa, N.S. et al., (2008). Constituents of glandular trichomes of Tithonia diversifolia: Relationships to herbivory and antifeedant activity Phytochemistry, 69, 2052-2060.

Mwine J.,Van Damne P., Kamoga G., Kadumba, Nasuuna M., Jumba F. (2011). Ethnobotanical survey of pesticidal plant used in South Uganda. Case study of Masaka district. Journal of Medicinal Plants research. 5(7), 1155-1163.

Oyewole, I. O., Ibidapo, C. A., Moronkola, D.O., Oduola, A. O., Adeoye, G. O., Anyasor, G. N. & Obansa, J. A. (2008). Anti-malarial and repellent activities of TIthonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) leaf extracts. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 2(8), 171-175.

Authors: J. Kandungu, P. Anjarwalla, L. Mwaura, D. A. Ofori, R. Jamnadass, P. C. Stevenson and P. Smith

ISBN 978-92-9059-347-8



PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLETVernonia amygdalina Del.

Taxonomy and nomenclatureFamily: AsteraceaeSynonym: Gymnanthemum amygdalinum (Del.) Schultz-Bip.Vernacular/ Common names:(English): Bitter leaf (Luhya): Lisabakhwa(Luo): Olusia, Omoruroria

Distribution and habitatV. amygdalina occurs naturally along rivers and lakes, in forests margins, woodland and grassland up to 2800 m altitude, in regions where mean annual rainfall is 750-2000 mm. It requires full sunlight and prefers humid environment. It grows on all soil types but prefers humus-rich soils. In Kenya, it is found at Kona national reserve in Tana River district (420 m), in the eastern side of Mbololo forest in Taita (1400 m), in Narok (2100 m), in the Nguruman escarpment (900 m) and Ol Donyo Orok (1400 m).

UsesInsecticidal - Essential oil from the leaves is toxic to Sitophilus zeamais while the activity against bruchids suggests it is effective when mixed with Ocimum spp.Food - Bitter leaf eaten as raw vegetables and cooked in soups. Roots and twigs chewed as appetizer.Medicinal - It is used as a medicine for relieving fevers, stomach disorders, to treat hepatitis, malaria, bilharzias, spots on skin and nausea.Fodder - Leaves and shoots used as fodder.Fuel - The tree is used for firewood and charcoal.Apiculture - It produces very light honey.Timber - The termite-resistant branches are used as stakes to line plantations or live fence.

Botanical descriptionV. amygdalina is a small tree up to 10 m tall; bark light grey or brown; fissured, brittle branches. Leaves lanceolate oblong; up to 28 x 0 cm, but usually 10-15 x 4-5 cm. Leaf, medium to dark green, with or without sparse hairs above, with fine, soft, pale hairs below and conspicuous red-veining; apex and base tapering, base always almost symmetric, margin entire or very finely toothed; petiole usually very short but may be 1-2 cm long. Flower heads thistle like, small, creamy white, 10 mm long, grouped in dense heads, axillary and terminal, forming large flat clusters, 15 cm in diameter, sweetly scented.


Fruit and Seed descriptionFruit, a 10-ribbed achene, 1.5-3.5 mm long, pubescent and glandular, brown to black, crowned by the much longer pappus bristles; seedling with epigeal germination.

Flowering and fruiting habitThe tree flowers between December and March and in July-August. Fruits ripen in April-May and August-September. Flowers are bisexual.

HarvestingDuring rainy seasons, harvesting is by cutting of the leafy shoots allowing new shoots to grow, which can then be harvested a few weeks later. During dry seasons, only leaves are picked.

Processing and handlingFresh mature fruits appear yellow and ripen in various sizes. Fruits are dried at 30

oC to 35

oC for three to

four days, when fruit turns to brown colour, seeds are extracted by gently rubbing the fruit between fingers to squeeze out the mucus like paste that cushions the seeds, the seeds are then washed in running water to separate seeds from the pulp. Clean seeds are placed on open tray to dry under shade for a period of two to three days.

PropagationPropagation is possible by seed collected from dry flowerheads but mostly stem cuttings are used as they grow faster. Cuttings are planted erect or slanted at 450 to obtain more side shoots. Seeds can be broadcasted on nursery beds prepared of humus-rich soil, shaded from excessive heat or sunlight with regular supply of water to germinate. Seedlings can be transplanted 4-6 weeks after emergence. Commercial farmers prefer to plant new crop at the beginning of a season or after the second year. It can also be micropropagated in vitro.


Caution: This plant is invasive.

Selected readingsFAO- Species database.

World Agroforestry Centre- Species database.

Grubben, G.J.H., Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA).

Mugisha-Kamateresi, M., Deng, A.L., Ogendo, J.O., Omolo, E.O., Buyungo and Bett, P.K. (2008). Indigenous knowledge of field insect pests and their management around lake Victoria basin in Uganda. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 2 (8). 342-348.

Katende, A.B. (1995). Useful trees and shrubs for Uganda. Identification, Propagation and Management for Agricultural and Pastoral Communities. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA).

Aswalam, E.S., Emosairue, S.O., Hassanali, A., (2008), Essential oil of Ocimum grattisimum as sitophilous zeamais protectant. African Journal of Biotechnology, 7, 2957-2962.

Authors: D. A. Ofori, P. Anjarwalla, R. Jamnadass, P. C. Stevenson and P. Smith.

ISBN 978-92-9059-348-5


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