pharyngeal arch

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Pharyngeal arch

Pattern of the pharyngeal arches. I-IV pharyngeal arches,

1-4 pharyngeal pouches (inside) and/or pharyngeal

grooves (outside)

a Tuberculum laterale

b Tuberculum impar

c Foramen cecumd Ductus thyreoglossus

e Sinus cervicalis

Schematic of developing fetus with first, second,and

third arches labelled

Floor of pharynx of human embryo about twenty-six

days old

The pharyngeal arches are structures seen in the de-

velopment of vertebrates, are recognisable precursors

for numerous structures. The arches develop into the

branchial arches or gill arches in fish.

In the human embryo, the arches are first seen during thefourth week of development. They appear as a series of

outpouchings of mesoderm on both sides of the develop-

ing pharynx. The vasculature of the pharyngeal arches is

also known as the aortic arches.

In fish, the branchial arches support the gills.

1 Structure

In vertebrates, the pharyngeal arches are derived from

all three germ layers.[1] Neural crest cells enter these

arches where they contribute to features of the skull

and facial skeleton such as bone and cartilage.[1] How-

ever, the existence of pharyngeal structures before neu-

ral crest cells evolved is indicated by the existence of

neural crest-independent mechanisms of pharyngeal arch

development.[2] The first, most anterior pharyngeal arch

gives rise to the oral jaw. The second arch becomes

the hyoid and jaw support.[1] In fish, the other posterior

arches contribute to the branchial skeleton, which sup-

port the gills; in tetrapods the anterior arches develop

into components of the ear, tonsils, and thymus.[3] The

genetic and developmental basis of pharyngeal arch de-

velopment is well characterized. It has been shown thatHox genes and other developmental genes such as DLX

are important for patterning the anterior/posterior and

1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DLX_gene_familyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hox_genehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyoidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_pharyngeal_archhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_skeletonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skullhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_crest_cellshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aortic_archeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharynxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesodermhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_embryogenesishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_embryohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branchial_archeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinus_cervicalishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductus_thyreoglossushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foramen_cecum_(tongue)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculum_imparhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculum_lateralehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal_grooveshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal_grooveshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal_pouch_(embryology)


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2 2 FIRST ARCH

dorsal/ventral axes of the branchial arches.[4] Some fish

species have a second set of jaws in their throat, known

as pharyngeal jaws, which develop using the same genetic

pathways involved in oral jaw formation.[5]

During human and all vertebrate development, a series

of pharyngeal arch pairs form in the developing embryo.These project forward from the back of the embryo to-

ward the front of the face and neck. Each arch develops

its own artery, nerve that controls a distinct muscle group,

and skeletal tissue. The arches are numbered from 1 to 6,

with 1 being the arch closest to the head of the embryo,

and arch 5 existing only transiently.[6]

These grow and join in the ventral midline. The first arch,

as the first to form, separates the mouth pit orstomodeum

from the pericardium. By differential growth the neck

elongates and new arches form, so the pharynx has six

arches ultimately.

Each pharyngeal arch has a cartilaginous stick, a musclecomponent that differentiates from the cartilaginous tis-

sue, an artery, and a cranial nerve. Each of these is sur-

rounded by mesenchyme. Arches do not develop simul-

taneously but instead possess a “staggered” development.

Pharyngeal pouches form on the endodermal side be-

tween the arches, and pharyngeal grooves (or clefts) form

from the lateral ectodermal surface of the neck region to

separate the arches.[7] In fish the pouches line up with the

clefts, and these thin segments become gills. In mam-

mals the endoderm and ectoderm not only remain intact

but also continue to be separated by a mesoderm layer.

The development of the pharyngeal arches provides a use-

ful landmark with which to establish the precise stage

of embryonic development. Their formation and de-

velopment corresponds to Carnegie stages 10 to 16 in

mammals, and Hamburger-Hamilton stages 14 to 28 in

the chicken. Although there are six pharyngeal arches,

in humans the fifth arch exists only transiently during

embryogenesis.[8]

2 First arch

The first pharyngeal arch also mandibular arch (cor-

responding to the first branchial arch or gill arch of

fish), is the first of six pharyngeal arches that develops

during the fourth week of prenatal development.[9] It is

located between the stomodeum and the first pharyngeal

groove.

2.1 Processes

This arch divides into a maxillary process and a

mandibular process, giving rise to structures including the

bones of the lower two-thirds of the face and the jaw.The maxillary process becomes the maxilla (or upper

jaw), and palate while the mandibular process becomes

the mandible or lower jaw. This arch also gives rise to

the muscles of mastication.

2.2 Meckel’s cartilage

Meckel’s cartilage forms in the mesoderm of themandibular process and eventually regresses to form the

incus and malleus of the middle ear, the anterior ligament

of the malleus and the sphenomandibular ligament. The

mandible or lower jaw forms by perichondral ossification

using Meckel’s cartilage as a 'template', but the mandible

does not arise from direct ossification of Meckel’s carti-

lage.

2.3 Derivatives

The skeletal elements and muscles are derived frommesoderm of the pharyngeal arches.

Skeletal

• Malleus & Incus of the middle ear

• maxilla & mandible

• spine of sphenoid bone

• Sphenomandibular ligament

• palatine bone

• squamous part of temporal bone

• Anterior ligament of malleus

Muscles

• Muscles of mastication (chewing)

• Masseter

• medial & lateral pterygoid muscles

• Temporalis muscles

• Mylohyoid muscle

• Digastric muscle, anterior belly

• Tensor palati muscle

• Tensor tympani muscle

Other

Mucous membrane and glands of the anterior two thirdsof the tongue are derived from ectoderm and endoderm

of the arch.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endodermhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectodermhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterior_two_thirds_of_the_tonguehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterior_two_thirds_of_the_tonguehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucous_membranehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor_tympani_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor_palati_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digastric_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mylohyoid_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporalishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_pterygoid_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medial_pterygoid_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masseterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscles_of_masticationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterior_ligament_of_malleushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_bonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatine_bonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphenomandibular_ligamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spine_of_sphenoid_bonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mandiblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxillahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossificationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mandiblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphenomandibular_ligamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_earhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer#Mesodermhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meckel%2527s_cartilagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastication#Muscles_of_masticationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mandiblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxillahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandibular_processhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxillary_prominencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_pharyngeal_groovehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_pharyngeal_groovehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomodeumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatal_developmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal_archhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_embryogenesishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism#Vertebrateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburger-Hamilton_stageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_stageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesodermhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectodermhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endodermhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neckhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer#Ectodermhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal_groovehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer#Endodermhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal_pouch_(embryology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesenchymehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranial_nervehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartilagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericardiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomodeumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_pharyngeal_archhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryogenesishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal_jaws


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3.3 Nerve supply 3

2.4 Nerve supply

The mandibular and maxillary branches of the trigeminal

nerve (CN V) innervate the structures derived from the

corresponding processes of the first arch. In some lower

animals, each arch is supplied by two cranial nerves.The

nerve of the arch itself runs along the cranial side of thearch and is called post-trematic nerve of the arch.Each

arch also receives a branch from the nerve of the succeed-

ing arch called the pre-trematic nerve which runs along

the caudal border of the arch.In human embryo,a double

innervation is seen only in the first pharyngeal arch.The

mandibular nerve is the post-trematic nerve of the first

arch and chorda tympani (branch of facial nerve) is the

pre-trematic nerve.This double innervation is reflected in

the nerve supply of anterior two-thirds of tongue which

is derived from the first arch.[10]

2.5 Blood supply

The artery of the first archis the firstaortic arch,[11] which

partially persists as the maxillary artery.

3 Second arch

The second pharyngeal arch or hyoid arch, is the sec-

ond of six pharyngeal arches that develops in fetal life

during the fourth week of development[12] and assists in

forming the side and front of the neck.

3.1 Reichert’s cartilage

Cartilage in the second pharyngeal arch is referred to as

Reichert’s cartilage and contributes to many structures in

the fully developed adult.[13] In contrast to the Meckel’s

cartilage of the first pharyngeal arch it does not con-

stitute a continuous element, and instead is composed

of two distinct cartilagenous segments joined by a faint

layer of mesenchyme.[1] Dorsal ends of Reichert’s carti-

lage ossify during development to form the stapes of the

middle ear before being incorporated into the middle earcavity, while the ventral portion ossifies to form the lesser

cornu and upper part of the body of the hyoid bone. Cau-

dal to what will eventually become the stapes, Reichert’s

cartilage also forms the styloid process of the temporal

bone. The cartilage between the hyoid bone and styloid

process will not remain as development continues, but its

perichondrium will eventually form the stylohyoid liga-

ment.

3.2 Derivatives

Skeletal

From the cartilage of the second arch arises

• Stapes,

• Temporal styloid process,

• Stylohyoid ligament, and

• Lesser cornu of the hyoid bone.

Muscles

• Muscles of face

• Occipitofrontalis muscle

• Platysma

• Stylohyoid muscle

• Posterior belly of Digastric

• Stapedius muscle

• Auricular muscles

3.3 Nerve supply

Facial nerve

3.4 Blood supply

The artery of the second arch is the second aortic arch,[14]

which gives origin to the stapedial artery in some mam-

mals but atrophies in humans.

4 Muscles derived from the pha-

ryngeal arches

Pharyngeal muscles are striated muscles of the head and

neck. Unlike skeletal muscles that developmentally come

from somites, pharyngeal muscles are developmentally

formed from the pharyngeal arches.

Most of the skeletal musculature supplied by the cranial

nerves (special visceral efferent) is pharyngeal. Excep-

tions include, but are not limited to, the extraocular mus-

cles and some of the muscles of the tongue. These excep-

tions receive general somatic efferent innervation.

4.1 First arch

All of the pharyngeal muscles that come from the first

pharyngeal arch are innervated by the maxillary and the

mandibular divisions of the trigeminal nerve.[15] These

muscles include all the muscles of mastication, the ante-rior belly of the digastric, the mylohyoid, tensor tympani,

and tensor veli palatini.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor_veli_palatinihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor_tympanihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mylohyoid_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digastrichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscles_of_masticationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigeminal_nervehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal_muscleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_somatic_efferent_fibershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraocular_muscleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraocular_muscleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_visceral_efferenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somiteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_muscleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striated_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stapedial_arteryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aortic_archeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_nervehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stapediushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digastrichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylohyoidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platysmahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occipitofrontalishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_muscleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyoid_bonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_cornuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylohyoid_ligamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_styloid_processhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stapeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylohyoid_ligamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylohyoid_ligamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perichondriumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_styloid_processhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_styloid_processhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyoid_bonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_bonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_bonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_styloid_processhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stapeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyoid_bonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_earhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stapeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossificationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesenchymehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_pharyngeal_archhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meckel%2527s_cartilagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meckel%2527s_cartilagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neckhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatal_development#Week_4_.2822-28_days_from_fertilization.29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal_archhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxillary_arteryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aortic_archeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue#Innervationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorda_tympanihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigeminal_nervehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigeminal_nerve


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4 7 REFERENCES

4.2 Second arch

All of the pharyngeal muscles of the second pharyngeal

arch are innervated by the facial nerve. These muscles

include the muscles of facial expression, the posterior

belly of the digastric, the stylohyoid muscle, the auricular

muscle[15] and the stapedius muscle of the middle ear.

4.3 Third arch

There is only one muscle of third pharyngeal arch, the

stylopharyngeus. The stylopharyngeus and other struc-

tures from the third pharyngeal arch are all innervated by

the glossopharyngeal nerve.

4.4 Fourth & Sixth arches

All the pharyngeal muscles of the fourth and sixth arches

are innervated by the superior laryngeal and the recur-

rent laryngeal branches of the vagus nerve.[15] These

muscles include all the muscles of the palate (excep-

tion of the tensor veli palatini which is innervated by

the trigeminal nerve), all the muscles of the phar-

ynx (except stylopharyngeus which is innervated by the

glossopharyngeal nerve ), and all the muscles of the lar-

ynx.

5 In humans

Since no human structures result from the fifth arch, the

arches in humans are I, II, III, IV, and VI.[8] More is

known about the fate of the first arch than the remain-

ing four. The first three contribute to structures above

the larynx, whereas the last two contribute to the larynx

and trachea.

The recurrent laryngeal nerves are produced from the

nerve of arch 6, and the laryngeal cartilages from arches

4 and 6. The superior laryngeal branch of the vagus nerve

arises from arch 4. Its arteries, which project between the

nerves of the fourth and sixth arches, become the left-sidearch of the aorta and the right subclavian artery. On the

right side, the artery of Arch 6 is obliterated while, on the

left side, the artery persists as the ductus arteriosus; cir-

culatory changes immediately following birth cause the

vessel to close down, leaving a remnant, the ligamentum

arteriosum. During growth, these arteries descend into

their ultimate positions in the chest, creating the elon-

gated recurrent paths.[6]

6 See also

This article uses anatomical terminology; for an

overview, see Anatomical terminology.

• Branchial cleft cyst

• Congenital cartilaginous rest of the neck

7 References

[1] Graham A (2003). “Development of the pharyngeal

arches”. Am J Med Genet A 199 (3): 251–256.

doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.10980. PMID 12784288.

[2] Graham A, Smith A (2001). “Patterning the pharyngeal

arches”. BioEssays 23 (1): 54–61. doi:10.1002/1521-

1878(200101)23:13.0.CO;2-5.

PMID 11135309.

[3] Kardong KV (2003). “Vertebrates: Comparative

Anatomy, Function, Evolution”. Third edition. New York(McGraw Hill).

[4] Depew MJ, Lufkin T, Rubenstein JLR (2002). “Speci-

fication of jaw subdivisions by Dlx genes”. Science 298

(5592): 381–385. doi:10.1126/science.1075703. PMID

12193642.

[5] Fraser GJ, Hulsey D, Bloomquist RF, Uyesugi K,

Manley NR, Streelman T (2009). Jernvall, Jukka,

ed. “An Ancient Gene Network Is Co-opted for

Teeth on Old and New Jaws”. PLoS Biology 7 (2):

0233–0247. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000031. PMC

2637924. PMID 19215146.

[6] Larsen, William J. (1993). Human embryology. New

York: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 318–323. ISBN 0-443-

08724-5.

[7] “Lecture 24. Branchial Apparatus”. Retrieved 2007-09-

09.

[8] “Text for Pharyngeal Arch Development”. Retrieved

2007-09-09.

[9] William J. Larsen (2001). Human embryology. Edin-

burgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-06583-7

[10] Inderbir Sing,G.P Pal-Human Embryology

[11] McMinn, R., 1994. Last’s anatomy: Regional and applied

(9th ed).

[12] William J. Larsen (2001). Human embryology. Edin-

burgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-06583-7

[13] Sudhir, Sant, 2008.Embryology for Medical Students 2nd

edition

[14] McMinn, R., 1994. Last’s anatomy: Regional and applied

(9th ed).

[15] Sadler, Thomas W. (February 2009). Langman’s Medical

Embryology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 366–

369. ISBN 0781790697.

[16] “marshall.edu”. Retrieved 2007-09-09.

http://musom.marshall.edu/anatomy/grosshom/z_devbranc.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0781790697https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0443065837https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0443065837http://isc.temple.edu/marino/embryology/parch98/parch_text.htmhttp://www.med.howard.edu/anatomy/gas/wk7/Lecture%252024.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-443-08724-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-443-08724-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19215146https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2637924https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1371%252Fjournal.pbio.1000031https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2637924https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2637924https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12193642https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1126%252Fscience.1075703https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11135309https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1002%252F1521-1878%2528200101%252923%253A1%253C54%253A%253AAID-BIES1007%253E3.0.CO%253B2-5https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%252F1521-1878%2528200101%252923%253A1%253C54%253A%253AAID-BIES1007%253E3.0.CO%253B2-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12784288https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1002%252Fajmg.a.10980https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenital_cartilaginous_rest_of_the_neckhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branchial_cleft_cysthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terminologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligamentum_arteriosumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligamentum_arteriosumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductus_arteriosushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subclavian_arteryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrent_laryngeal_nervehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate_tracheahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larynxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nervehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylopharyngeushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigeminal_nervehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor_veli_palatinihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagus_nervehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nervehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylopharyngeushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stapediushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylohyoidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digastrichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_muscleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_nerve


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5

[17] Higashiyama H, Kuratani S (2014). “On the maxil-

lary nerve”. Journal of Morphology 275 (1): 17–38.

doi:10.1002/jmor.20193. PMID 24151219.

[18] Netter, Frank H.; Cochard, Larry R. (2002). Netter’s At-

las of human embryology. Teterboro, N.J: Icon Learning

Systems. p. 227. ISBN 0-914168-99-1.

[19] Kyung Won, PhD. Chung (2005). Gross Anatomy

(Board Review). Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams

& Wilkins. ISBN 0-7817-5309-0.

8 External links

• Graham A, Okabe M, Quinlan R (2005). “The role

of the endoderm in the development and evolution

of the pharyngeal arches”. J. Anat. 207 (5): 479–

87. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x. PMC

1571564. PMID 16313389.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16313389https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1571564https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1111%252Fj.1469-7580.2005.00472.xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x?cookieSet=1http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x?cookieSet=1http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x?cookieSet=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7817-5309-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-914168-99-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24151219https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1002%252Fjmor.20193https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier


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6 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1 Text

• Pharyngeal arch Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal_arch?oldid=715113737 Contributors: Bueller 007, Phil Boswell,

Diberri, HCA, Arcadian, Melaen, Dozenist, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Rui Silva, Choess, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Limulus, Thiseye, Rbarreira,

Epipelagic, DRosenbach, EncycloPetey, Delldot, J. Spencer, TheLimbicOne, James McNally, Ligulembot, Mattopaedia, Confuseddave,

IsaacD, Kaarel, Rlasanta, Jkokavec, Barticus88, WLU, Flaxmoore, Nono64, Rlee99p, LedgendGamer, Theespuja, Mikael Häggström,

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• File:Gray41.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Gray41.png License: Public domain Contributors:

Henry Gray (1918) Anatomy of the Human Body (See “Book” section below)

Original artist: Henry Vandyke Carter

• File:Gray979.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Gray979.png License: Public domain Contributors:

Henry Gray (1918) Anatomy of the Human Body (See “Book” section below)

Original artist: Henry Vandyke Carter

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CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Loki austanfell

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pharyngeal arch

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