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EFFECT OF VARIOUS GRAIN STORAGE STRUCTURES AND TEMPERATURE STRESS ON SEED QUALITY AND GERMINABILITY OF DIFFERENT WHEAT VARIETIES
PhD THESIS
BY
MAHMOODA BURIRO Reg. No. PhD-2K5-AG-18
DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY FACULTY OF CROP PRODUCTION
SINDH AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY TANDOJAM, SINDH, PAKISTAN
2011
EFFECT OF VARIOUS GRAIN STORAGE STRUCTURES AND TEMPERATURE STRESS ON SEED QUALITY AND GERMINABILITY OF DIFFERENT WHEAT VARIETIES
PhD THESIS
BY
MAHMOODA BURIRO Reg. No. PhD-2K5-AG-18
A THESIS SUBMITTED, THROUGH THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY, FACULTY OF CROP PRODUCTION, TO SINDH AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY, TANDOJAM IN CONNECTION WITH THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY(PhD)
IN AGRONOMY
2011
TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Particulars Page No.
APPROVAL CERTIFICATE BY SUPERVISORY
COMMITTEE i
RESEARCH CERTIFICATE ii
THESIS RELEASE FORM iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES v
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF PLATES viii
LIST OF APPENDICES ix
ABBREVIATION USED X
ABSTRACT xi
I INTRODUCTION 01
II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 05
III MATERIALS AND METHODS 34
IV RESULTS 46
V DISCUSSION 116
VI CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 126
VII REFERENCES 128
APPENDICES 155
i
EFFECT OF VARIOUS GRAIN STORAGE STRUCTURES AND TEMPERATURE STRESS ON SEED QUALITY AND GERMINABILITY OF DIFFERENT WHEAT VARIETIES
BY MAHMOODA BURIRO
APPROVAL CERTIFICATE BY SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE I. SUPERVISOR DR. FATEH CHAND OAD
Associate Professor Department of Agronomy Faculty of Crop Production Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam.
II. CO-SUPERVISOR-I DR.GHULAM HYDER JAMRO Professor (Rtd.) Department of Agronomy Faculty of Crop Production Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam.
III CO-SUPERVISOR-II DR. MOHAMMAD IBRAHIM KEERIO Professor Department of Crop Physiology Faculty of Crop Production Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam
DATE OF THE THESIS DEFENCE ________2011
ii
DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY FACULTY OF CROP PRODUCTION
SINDH AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY, TANDOJAM
RESEARCH CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the present research work entitled “Effect of
various grain storage structures and temperature stress on seed quality and
germinability of different wheat varieties” embodied in this thesis has been carried out
by Ms. Mahmooda Buriro under my supervision and guidance in connection with
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
(Agriculture) in Agronomy and that the research work is original.
Date _______________2011
Dr. Fateh Chand Oad Associate Professor
& Research Supervisor
iii
SINDH AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY, TANDOJAM
THESES RELEASE FORM I, Mahmooda Buriro hereby authorize the Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam
to supply copies of my thesis to libraries and individuals upon their request.
__________________ Signature
____________________ Dated
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work presented in this manuscript was accomplished under the
sympathetic attitude, fatherly behavior, animate directions, observant pursuit,
scholarly criticism, cheering perspective and enlightened supervision of Dr. Fateh
Chand Oad, Associate Professor Department of Agronomy, Sindh Agriculture
University, Tandojam. I deem it my utmost pleasure in expressing my cardise
gratitude with the profound benedictions to Dr. Ghulam Hyder Jamro, Ex. Professor,
Department of Agronomy and Dr. Mohammad Ibrahim Keerio, Professor, Department
of Crop Physiology, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, for providing me with
strategic command at every step. Their spirits of hard work and maintenance of
professional integrity besides other valuable suggestions always served as a beacon of
light throughout the course of my life. I also extend deep emotions of appreciations,
gratitude, indebtedness and valuable guidance to Dr. Shamsuddin Tunio, Professor,
Department of Agronomy, Dr. Saghir Ahmed Shaikh, Professor & Director, Institute
of Food Science & Technology, Dr. A.W Gandahi, Assistant Professor, Department
of Soil Science, Miss Vajanti Mala Pahoja, Assistant Professor, Department of Crop
Physiology, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Mr Nabi Bux Jamro, Soil
Chemist, Agriculture Research Institute, Tando Jam and Mr. Ghulam Sarwar Solangi,
Project Officer CABI South Asia Rawalpindi-Pakistan.
I owe an unpayable debt to my mother, father, husband, brothers, sister
and whole family members whose wishes, prayers and efforts motivated me for
higher ideas of academics.
MAHMOODA BURIRO
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Particulars Page No.
1 Rf value of amino acids standards by thin layer chromatography 40
2 Physical and chemical properties of seeds of wheat varieties, the means averaged across storage periods and storage sources
48
3 Effect of storage periods on physical and chemical properties of wheat seeds, the means averaged across varieties and storage sources
51
4 Effect of different storage sources on chemical properties of wheat seeds, the means averaged across varieties and storage periods
54
5 1000 grain weight (g), moisture and germination in seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources
57
6 Protein, starch, ash, gluten and lipids in seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources
62
7 pH, EC and falling numbers in seeds under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources
65
8 N, P and K content in seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources
68
9 1000 grain weight, moisture and germination of seeds under the interactive effect of storage periods x varieties
71
10 Protein, starch, ash, gluten and lipids content of seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x varieties
74
11 pH, EC and falling number in seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x varieties
77
12 N, P and K content in seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x varieties
80
13 1000 Grain weight, moisture and germination of seed under the interactive effect of storage sources x varieties
83
14 Protein, starch, ash, gluten and lipid content in seed under the interactive effect of storage sources x varieties
84
15 pH, EC and falling number in seed under the interactive effect of storage sources x varieties
85
16 N, P and K content in seed under the interactive effect of storage sources x varieties
86
17 Identification of free amino acids from water extract of different varieties of wheat seeds by two dimensional thin layer chromatography
88
18 Germination traits of different wheat varieties, means averaged across temperature regimes
93
vi
19 Germination traits of different Wheat varieties under the influence of different temperature regimes, the means averaged across varieties
95
20A Germination traits under the interactive effect of varieties x temperature regimes
102
20B Germination traits under the interactive effect of varieties x temperature regimes 103
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Particulars Page No.
1 Correlation between seed protein content and N content as affected by storage sources
90
2 Correlation between starch content and seed wet gluten as affected by storage sources
90
3 Correlation between seed starch content and seed K as affected by storage sources
91
4 Correlation between seed lipid content and seed P as affected by storage sources
91
5 Correlation between seedling shoot length and root length as affected by temperature regimes
105
6 Correlation between seedling fresh root weight and root dry weight as affected by temperature regimes
105
7 Correlation between seedling shoot weight and seed vigor index as affected by temperature regimes
106
8 Correlation between seed germination and seed vigor index as affected by temperature regimes
106
viii
LIST OF PLATES
Plate No. Particulars Page No.
1 Jute bags kept under open sky covered with plastic sheets 41
2 Jute bags kept in closed storage 41
3 Plastic bags kept in closed storage 42
4 Seed stored in earthen silo 42
5 Seed stored in iron bins 43
ix
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Particulars Page No.
I Mean square for 1000 grain weight, moisture and germination of seed of various wheat varieties, storage periods and storage sources
155
II Mean square for protein, gluten, ash and lipid content of seed of various wheat varieties, storage periods and storage sources
156
III Mean square for pH, EC and falling numbers in seed of various wheat varieties, storage periods and storage sources
157
IV Mean square for N, P and K content in seed of various wheat varieties, storage periods and storage sources
158
V Mean square for germination traits of various wheat varieties as affected by different temperature regimes
159
VI Wheat chemical properties under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties
160
VII Wheat chemical properties under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties
161
VIII Wheat chemical properties under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties
162
IX Wheat chemical properties under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties
163
X Agro-meteorological data of Tandojam 164
x
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE THESIS
Abbreviation Description % Percent
@ At the rate of
< Less than
< Less or equal
> Greater than
CGR Crop growth rate
cm2
DAH Square centimeter Days after harvest
EC FAO FN
Electric conductivity Food and Agriculture Organization Falling number
G Gram
IPGRI International Plant Genetic resources Institute
K Potassium
kg Kilogram
mg Milligram
N Nitrogen
NS Non-significant
P PASSCO
Phosphorus Pakistan Agricultural Storage and Services Corporation
RCBD Randomized complete block design
wt Weight
xi
AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF
Mahmooda Buriro For Doctor of Philosophy (Agriculture)
Major Agronomy
TITLE: EFFECT OF VARIOUS GRAIN STORAGE STRUCTURES AND
TEMPERATURE STRESS ON SEED QUALITY AND GERMINABILITY OF DIFFERENT WHEAT VARIETIES
Grains are among the most important staple food and Pakistan has made a significant advance in increasing grain yield through the introduction of high yielding genotypes including new packages of production technologies. However, care is to be taken for storage conditions and storage periods for maintaining nutritive values, seed viability and vigor. This study therefore was conducted to determine how storage sources, storage periods and temperature regimes affect physical and chemical properties, and germinability traits of seeds of various wheat varieties. Laboratory experiments were conducted at Department of Agronomy, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Pakistan, located at (25o25’60’N 68o31’60’E) during 2008 and 2009. The study on seed quality assessment of different wheat varieties in various seed storage structures consisted of five wheat varieties (Moomal- 2000, TJ-83, Imdad-2005, Abadgar-93 and Mehran-89), five storage sources (Jute bags kept under open sky covered with plastic, jute bags kept in closed storage, plastic bags kept in closed storage, earthen silos, and iron bins), and two storage durations (90 and180 days). The maximum seed index was observed for Imdad-2005 stored in iron bins. Seed moisture content was also higher in Moomal-2000 stored in iron bins, however, germination was superior in Moomal-2000 stored in earthen silos, and or plastic and jute bags kept in closed storage, or under open sky covered with plastic sheets. Higher protein content was found in Moomal-2000, TJ-83, Mehran-89 and Imdad-2005 stored in jute bags kept in closed storage or under open sky covered with plastic sheets. Wet gluten was greater in seeds of Mehran-89 and Abadgar-93 stored in jute bags kept in closed storage or under open sky covered with plastic sheets. Starch and ash contents were better in Moomal-2000 stored in jute bags kept under open sky covered with plastic sheets or in iron bins. Lipid content and falling number were more in TJ-83 stored in all types of storage sources. EC was higher in seed of Moomal-2000 stored in all types of storages. The seed N accumulation was more in TJ-83 and Mehran-89 stored in jute bags kept under open sky covered with plastic sheets or kept in closed storage, whereas, seed P and K contents were superior in Moomal-2000 stored in various storage sources. Minimum seed index was observed in variety TJ-83 stored in any type of storage source, moisture content in Mehran-89 kept in jute bags placed in open sky. However, lowest germination, protein and wet gluten percentage were recorded in variety Abadgar-93 stored in iron bins and jute bags stored in closed stores respectively, starch in Abadgar-93 stored in plastic bags, ash in TJ-83 kept in jute bags (covered with plastic sheets) and lipids in Mehran-89 stored in iron bins. The lower EC and falling number were noted in Mehran-89 and Abadgar-93 stored in jute bags and placed under open sky covered with plastic sheets and closed stores.
xii
The study on effect of different temperature regimes on the germinability of different wheat varieties revealed highest germination in Abadgar-93 kept at 30oC, shoot length in Moomal-2000 and Mehran-89 was higher when kept at 20 and 30oC, respectively. Root length, fresh shoot weight, fresh root weight, and dry root weight were recorded higher in variety Mehran-89 kept at 30oC. Seed vigor index is the concept where evaluation is made on the germination percentage and seedling growth within first 6-7 days and variety Mehran-89 proved more vigorous than rest of varieties. It is concluded that all the wheat varieties were found suitable for milling, bread, chapatti and yeast leavened bread containing adequate protein, starch, ash, wet gluten, lipids etc. The information obtained in this study is useful for researchers, farmers, millers, bakers and daily cereal users for the selection of suitable variety. Regarding storage sources, iron bins are recommended for seed storage for maintaining physico-chemical properties other than seed purpose. For the seed purpose, earthen silos, and or plastic and jute bags kept in closed storage, or under open sky covered with plastic sheets are appropriate seed storage sources. It is further recommended that temperature ranging between 20 and 30oC is the optimum temperature regime for wheat seed germination and related traits.
1
CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION Wheat as a staple diet for human beings contributes 20% food calories
of the world. It contains 70% carbohydrate, 12% water, 12% protein, 2.20% crude
fiber, 2% fat, about 1.80% minerals (FAO, 2002). Globally, it is the most important
human food grain and ranks 2nd in the total production as a cereal crop after maize,
the third being rice (FAO, 2006). Wheat grain is composed of the endosperm and
embryo enclosed by bran layers. The endosperm is mainly the starch (80%) and is
therefore used as energy food (Bonjean and Augus, 2001; Anderson, 2004). Wheat
bran, the rough outer covering, has very little nutritional value but plenty of fiber.
Wheat protein when balanced by other foods supplies amino acids which are an
efficient source of protein (Gibson and Benson, 2002). The function of amino acids
biochemically depends upon proteins which act as enzymes for growth and
maintenance of tissues, like cell division, transport of nutrients, and regulation of
water balance and source of energy (Srilakshmi, 2003). Protein content in the same
variety of wheat can vary from 7-20% depending upon growing environment
(Mattern, 1991). Thus, proteins are the most important components of wheat grains
governing end-use quality (Weegels et al., 1996). The variations in protein content
and composition significantly modify flour quality. Although grain protein
composition depends primarily on genotype, it is significantly affected by
environmental factors and their interactions (Graybosch et al., 1996; Triboi et al.,
2000; Zhu and Khan, 2001).
2
Starch is the main source of energy in the diet of human beings
(Manay and Shadaksharaswamy, 1987). The inner portion of wheat grain which is
called endosperm mainly consists of 80% starch and is consumed as energy food. The
outer layer of wheat grain (wheat bran) has very little dietary value, mostly contains
fiber. Starch is principle carbohydrate which serves as the potential food energy
source for germination (Anderson, 2004). The remainder of the carbohydrate in the
endosperm is made up of hemicelluloses, cellulose and free sugars (Becker and
Hanners, 1991). High temperatures during grain filling reduce starch deposition and
therefore badly affect yield. Starch content improves during grain development with a
maximum rate of buildup from 21 to 28 days whereas the crude protein and soluble
protein also increases during grain development (Gibson and Paulsen, 1999).
Grain storage occupies a vital place in the economies of developed and
developing countries (Ellis et al., 1992). In Pakistan, improper traditional and recent
methods of grain storage inflict lot of losses in terms of physical and chemical
qualities. Proper grain storage in developing countries plays an important role in the
maintenance of their economy. Most of the researchers noted reduction in germination
percentage from 5.2-10.7% if wheat seed is sown immediately after harvesting. Singh
et al. (2000) observed 5-17% reduction in seed germination when grain was stored
approximately for five months. They further noted that when seed is stored in
concrete bins, the seed germination was higher as compared to bins. However, Sinha
and Sharma (2004) observed maximum changes in wheat quality when stored in jute
bags as compared to bins.
The fluctuations in temperature and dampness during storage and its longevity
result in significant nutrient losses (Kumar and Singh, 1984; Onigbinde and Akinycle,
3
1988; South et al., 1991 and Shah et al., 2002). Prolonged storage period with high
seed moisture percentage also causes reduction in germination, seedling vigor,
accelerates seed aging, increases germination time, electrical conductivity, insect
infestation and finally loss in seed weight (Mersal et al., 2006).
Many researchers believe that before storing wheat grain, it must be floor
dried for obtaining appropriate moisture; otherwise many problems may occur in
germination and eating quality. Gu (2000), obtained up to 90.3% germination after
desiccating the grain at 20oC. Alternating temperatures during storage; the seed
germination can be enhanced as compared to constant low temperature (Ueno, 2003),
because quality of seed has direct link with temperature conditions during storage
(Kreyger, 1972).
Storage of cereal grains at elevated temperature and storage source
affected protein (Marshall and Chrastil, 1992), carbohydrate composition (Pajic et al.,
1992), and induced changes in physical characteristics (Kent, 1974), acidity and pH
(Huyguebaert and Schoner, 1999; Savich and Joldaspaeva, 1993; and Zhang et al.,
1997).
If favorable temperature and moisture contents are not present, the
germination in wheat varieties may differ significantly. Wheat with moisture contents
of 35, 29.8, 20.8 or 12.8% was stored at 5 or 20oC for 12 weeks, at 5oC germination
had decreased after 4 weeks' storage but then increased again until it was near to its
original level at 12 weeks and storage at 20oC germination was very low after 4 weeks
and although it increased again at 8 and 12 weeks it did not reach the original level
(Ohnishi et al., 1999). Al-Qasem et al. (1999) also reported that no germination
occurred at 5oC and total germination percentage for large seeds was significantly
4
higher than that for small seeds. This research, therefore, was set to determine how
different storage sources, storage periods, temperature regimes and wheat varieties can
alter seed quality and subsequent expression of grain quality in order to provide suitable
alternative storage information to farmers facing chronic problem of grain quality and
poor germination.
Objectives
1. To evaluate the physiochemical changes occurring in different wheat varieties under various storage sources.
2. To assess the nutritive losses of different wheat varieties stored in various
storage sources.
3. To determine the impact of storage period on the seed germinability of different wheat varieties.
4. To investigate the effects of various temperature regimes on germinability and
seedling vigor of different wheat varieties.
5
CHAPTER-II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE Significance of grain storage in Pakistan For constant availability of agricultural products used for food purpose,
and for stabilizing the economy of any country it becomes most important to maintain
continuity in supplying quality food grains to consumers. Storage and its sources have
always remained priority for every Government. In Pakistan grain storage comes
mainly under government domain and is the function of Pakistan Agricultural Storage
and Services Corporation (PASSCO) along with provincial food departments. For
becoming self-sufficient in food and its continuous supply, it is necessary to have a
good infrastructure and facilities. A present, storage and related facilities like
transportation and product safety are the major concerns of the present era. At
government and private level storage and other facilities are available but they are
insufficient to meet the requirements of food in terms of quality and quantity. Among
reasons causing shortage of food commodities, export of products related to
agriculture greatly vulnared due to non availability of up to date facilities of storage.
Inadequate knowledge of post harvest losses, the food and food products before reach
the destination not only they lose quantity but also their quality.
Losses caused due to storage conditions especially in case of wheat are of
significant nature. Surveys made by Nizamani (2010) indicate that losses in wheat are
mainly due to storage structures He also further emphasized that irrigated or unirrigated
agriculture had no impact on storage damages, but it is the storage structure where quality
losses in wheat grains go beyond 6.6% when stored in bags made up of jute, whereas
when stored in bins losses reduced to 2% when stored in iron bins.
6
Factors associated with kernels
Atwell (2001) while defining the morphology of wheat seed has stated,
that it is arched with the embryo. The endosperm contains maximum amount of starch
and sufficient amount of proteins which are utilized for the development of seedling.
The endosperm is composition of food reserves which are utilized for the
development of seedlings.
The grain filling stage is mainly dominated by starch and protein
synthesis. Rate and duration are the two variable components of grain filling that
display genetic and environmental influences. According to Jenner et al. (1990) grain
filling starts at about 10 to 15 days after anthesis and occupies the last 20 to 30 days
of the grain’s development until it ripens. The precursors for starch and protein
synthesis (i.e. sucrose for starch and amino acids for proteins) are supplied by the rest
of the plant and are transported into the grain in the phloem during grain filling.
According to Jenner (1970), the pool of precursors in the grain for starch synthesis is
less than required for one day’s grain filling at any point in time, whereas enough
amino acid is present to provide for one to two day’s protein synthesis (Ugalde and
Jenner, 1990). The supply of these precursors to the grain that regulate the rate of
deposition of dry matter differs for starch and protein (Jenner et al., 1990). Most of
the carbohydrate deposited in the grain is derived from CO2, fixed during the grain
filling period (Evans et al., 1975). The rate of starch deposition is influenced mainly
by sink-limited factors i.e. the capacity of the grain to utilize the substrate (Jenner et
al., 1990). Approximately 35 days after anthesis, starch synthesis ceases (Kumar and
Singh, 1980). According to Sofield et al. (1977) assimilated nitrogen is stored
throughout the plant, either as vacuolar nitrate or as protein. It is remobilized later to
7
provide nitrogen for deposition of protein in the grain (Austin and Nair, 1963). The
deposition of grain protein is mainly a source-limited process (Jenner et al., 1990) i.e.
an increase in nitrogen supply causes a direct increase in deposition. According to
Sofield et al. (1977) protein is deposited slightly faster than starch. Most nitrogen is
absorbed as nitrate from the soil, where the bulk is transported to the leaves. Here it’s
transformed to glutamate (utilized in the synthesis of protein) in the chloroplast
(Dalling, 1985). As the older leaves senesce, their protein is mobilized and utilized for
protein synthesis in younger leaves (Leopold, 1980).
During grain filling period largely starch and proteins are synthesized.
Genetic and environmental conditions mainly affect rate and duration of grain filling.
Jenner et al. (1990) have reported that after the lapses of nearly two weeks following
synthesis filling of grain starts which continues up to 30 days till the grain develops
fully and matures. They have further emphasized that substances like sucrose for
synthesis of starch and amino acids for proteins are provided to grain by plants and
are available through phloem during the stage of grain filling. According to Jenner
(1970) the group of precursors in the grain is available in minute quantity needed for
the synthesis of starch and is sufficient for one to two days only at any stage of grain
development. While during the same period of one to two days amino acids are
available in sufficient quantity for protein synthesis (Ugalde and Jenner, 1990).
Precursors which regulate the accumulation of dry matter are mostly different from
those which contribute for the synthesis of protein and starch (Jenner et al., 1990). As
stated by Evans et al. (1975), a good number of carbohydrates deposited in the grain
are derivatives of CO2 which are fixed at some stage during grain filling.
8
Kumar and Singh (1980) have concluded that about 35 days after
anthesis, starch synthesis stops and is mainly dominated by sink related factors that is
ability of grain to make use of substances. Assimilated nitrogen is stored all through
the plant, either as vacuolar nitrate or as protein. It is remobilized afterwards to supply
nitrogen for deposition of protein in the grain (Austin and Nair, 1963). Enhancement
of nitrogen availability is the main cause of increase in grain protein, as according to
Jenner et al., (1990), the availability of protein in grain is source- dependent process
Spiertz and Van de Haar (1978) and Blacklow et al. (1984) have observed
that due to drought and leaf senescence photosynthetic activities confines, whereas,
Jenner et al. (1990) have reported that sustention of growth carbohydrates available in
the internodes of wheat could be mobilized. Increased temperature stimulates leaf
senescence, this causes reduction in formation of carbohydrates and additional
accumulation of nitrogen, the amount of starch granules is also reduced. Wheat grain
size reduces due to increase in temperature because of shorter grain development
period (Tester et al., 1995), due to this nitrogen mobilization is affected in lesser
amount and simultaneously there will be increase in protein accumulation (Evans et
al., 1975).
William et al. (1986), have categorized grains as per their weight, as
according to them seed with a weight of 15-25 g comes under the category of very
small seeds, seeds possessing weight between 26-35 g (small), 36-45 g weight seeds
are medium, whereas seeds with 46-55 g and over 55 g weight seeds are large and
very large respectively. While according to Anjum et al. (2002) 1000 grain weight of
Pakistani wheat varieties ranges in between 31.4-37.3 g. Zanetti et al. (2001) while
9
examining 1000 kernel weight of 128 wheat varieties, concluded that kernel weight
ranged from 42.4-48.7 g.
Nutritive value of cereals
Wheat is one of the popular cereals that supply the basic nutritional
and energy requirements for human beings. Simmonds (1978, 1981) and Hanson et al.
(1982) have reported that wheat as grain crop is consumed up to 40% on protein basis
and is of basic requirement for more than forty countries consisting 35-40% of world
population. Whereas according to Schaafsma (2005) the quality of wheat grain protein
is of no high standard and amongst necessary amino acids lysine has negative impact
on wheat flour quality. Threonine and tryptophan are also in small proportion. The
quality assessment of protein intense foods is vital for the choice of particular protein
base or determining the usefulness of procedures used in the preparation of various
foods (Sogi et al., 2005). Whereas, Siddiqui (1972); Siddiqui and Doll (1973) and
Siddiqui et al. (1975) have concluded that protein content in wheat is a basic quality
factor that determines the appropriateness of wheat for a particular type of
product as it affects other factors including mixing tolerance, loaf size and water
absorption ability. Elgün and Ertugay (1992) have also observed that protein presence
in wheat grains determines water absorbing capacity, stability, resistance and elasticity
of flour.
Prattala et al. (2001) and Vlam (2005) are also supportive of same
ideas. Whereas, Casdagli (2000); Hilliam (2001) and Hay (1998) have reported that in
few countries including France sliced bread is also becoming more and more trendy.
According to Meuser et al. (1994), lesser calories, minimum salt and other additives
for good health is becoming first choice of the consumer in the world. Going farther
10
Lopez et al. (2001) have stated that ideal bread must possess minor glycaemic index,
tolerable dietetic fiber and a sufficient amount of vitamins including antioxidants and
trace elements. Due to making techniques there is a wide variation in bread products
round the globe and according to Martin (2004) and Sluimer (2005), this variation is
possibly due to addition of ingredients like cereal flour, water, yeast or a different
leavening representative. Possible ingredients can be supplementary to get better
processing or to bring uniqueness in bread quality which often has better nutritional
and significant value (Jackel, 1994; Sluimer, 2005).
Availabilities and levels of bioactive compounds in cereals at some
stage during bread making, fluctuate Slavin et al. (2001). Nutritional value of bread
and companion foods plays an important role in deciding nutritional value of bread
(Jenkins et al., 1981). According to Sluimer (2005), previously much effort has been
made to differentiate between arduous dough making and processing whereas at the
other side on proofing and baking. Cauvain (2004) has suggested for the application
of scientific knowledge to evolve innovative dough making processes for marketable
products.
The cereals play an important role in supply of nutritional food and a
balanced diet (Truswell, 2002). He further states that wheat (Triticum aestivum) an
essential crop occupies central position amongst all the cereal crops for bread making
due to its best baking ability. On the other hand, other cereals are also being used and
there are strong reasons for that (Eliasson and Larsson, 1993). According to Shelton
and Lee (2000), cereals comprise approximately 50-80% carbohydrates and their
presence is of considerable importance. The nutritive quality of bread could be
11
increased with the addition of other cereals like rye (Secale cereale), barley (Hordeum
vulgare) and oats (Avena sativa) into bread making formula.
Starch is a major component of most of the cereals and is responsible
in providing major amount of nutrients and vast amount of energy in the human food.
Carbohydrates can be classified into two extensive categories: available and
unavailable. Carbohydrates which can easily be digested and absorbed by humans are
categorized as available; whereas unavailable carbohydrates (mostly fibers) are
difficult to be digested by the endogenous secretion of the human digestive system
(Southgate, 1991). Whereas, Plaami (1997) has reported that amongst cereals wheat
contains ample quantity of insoluble dietary fiber. However, oats and barley are such
type of cereals which have a reasonable amount of dietary fiber (3-4%) in case of oat
and (4-5%) in case of barley. This presence is the main cause of slowing down of
glucose absorption and reduction of plasma cholesterol concentrations; therefore it is
helpful in management of diabetes as well as heart diseases.
As related to foremost source of nutritional food, Bean et al. (1998)
narrate that wheat amongst cereals contains 8-12 % proteins with extent of 70-80%
gliadins and glutelins (gluten), which at the cost of necessary amino acids mostly
lysine and to a smaller amount threonine possesses mostly proline and glutamine. On
the basis of after meal utilization of protenious food, Mariotti et al. (2001, 2002) and
Morens et al. (2003) have found that wheat protein (66%) is of lesser dietary value
other than milk, soybeans, peas, and lupins, as they have better dietary value and
contains protein to the extent of 74%, 71%, 70% and 74% respectively.
According to Hoffman and McNeil (1949), for indication of lower
nutritional values of proteins it is very crucial to decide that up to which level lysine
12
insufficiency is met by additional sources. As lysine is most important amino acid in
cereal protein its presence in wheat grain is sufficient to meet the requirement of
adults except for children. The lysine requirement for children could be meet by rye,
barley and oats (Klopfenstein, 2000). Whereas, protein digestibility could be
hampered due to presence of higher amount of dietary fiber (FAO/WHO, 1991;
Hopkins, 1981). Ruibal-Mendieta et al. (2004) have observed that cereal grains
comprise a meager amount of lipids (1.5-7.0%) containing a range of essential fatty
acids, fat-soluble vitamins and phytosterols. However, Chung and Ohm (2000) have
reported that wheat, rye and barley normally have a comparable fatty acid
composition and are rich in palmitic and linoleic acids, while rye is fairly higher in
linolenic acid. Both linoleic and linolenic acids are necessary fatty acids for humans.
Oats as well contain a substantial quantity of oleic acid. The intake of polar lipids may
contribute to decrease of cholesterol assimilation and improving the lower digestive
tract environment (Sugawara and Miyazawa, 2001), and major quantity of polar lipids
present in cell membrane are dominated by glycol- or galactolipids. Whole grains
supply major dietary amounts of numerous B vitamins, mainly thiamine, riboflavin,
niacin and pyridoxine (Bock, 2000). Wheat, barley and oats are as well moderate
sources of biotin (10-100 mg/100 g) and, jointly with rye, of folic acid (FA) (30-90
mg/100 g); as according to Truswell (2002), the significance of FA is, that its
presence in diet causes reduction in neural tube defects and cardiovascular disease
in babies.
According to Chung and Ohm (2000), the cereals are obviously short
in lipidsand they are likely to be short in the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.
Carotenoids, precursors of vitamin A, are very minor constituents in cereal grains.
Bock (2000) states that cereal grains are poor in pantothenic acid and have no
13
noticeable ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Many cereals possess approximately 1.5-2.5%
minerals and maximum in concentration i.e.16-22% of total ash content in cereals is
phosphorus which is generally coupled with calcium and magnesium phytates. They
further reported that different cereal oils contain up to 100 mg/100 g of vitamin D and
K. Kent (1975) reveals that in wheat there is about 25 mg/g of vitamin E. Whereas,
Qureshi et al. (1991 a, b) are of the opinion that tocol derivatives; mostly tocopherols
and tocotrienols are responsible for the vitamin E activity in cereal grains and can
restrain cholesterol biosynthesis.
Wheat, rye and oats are classified as rich sources of phosphorus (upto
1200 mg/100 g), while barley is considered as a moderate source (100-200 mg/100 g).
Potassium and sodium are minerals of concern in health care. The potassium levels
are high in wheat, rye, barley and oats, but no cereal grain is considered to be a high
or even moderate dietary source of sodium (before processing). According to Charlton
et al. (2007), a reduction in sodium, along with a simultaneous increase in potassium
and additional cations to the diet, on the whole leads to reduction in blood pressure
levels. Wheat, rye, barley and oats are also classified as modest sources of calcium
(100-200 mg/100 g), magnesium (100-200 mg/100 g), iron (1-5 mg/100 g), zinc (1-5
mg/100 g) and copper (0.1 mg/100 g) In addition to these, a huge number of other
elements are present in trace quantities (Kent, 1975). Wheat is a vital nutritional
source of selenium, an imperative micronutrient for humans with antioxidant, anti-
cancer and anti-viral properties (Lyons et al., 2005). Pandey et al. (2001) narratedthat
cereal grains are imperative sources of minerals and in addition contain phytic acid
(PA) or myo-inositol hexakiphosphate (IP6) (up to 4%) which is considered to be an
anti-nutritional factor (Lopez et al., 2000; Minihane and Rimbach, 2002).
14
According to Chavan and Kadam (1993) and Singh et al. (2001),
protein in wheat flour is poorer to that of other cereals and other protein sources.
Various attempts are therefore being made to supplement bakery products by adding
high quality non-wheat proteins. Eggs, milk and milk products show superb protein
quality and functional characteristics, but as these products are expensive and lack
dietary fiber, other protein sources such as legumes, oilseeds and non-wheat cereals
are used (Chavan and Kadam, 1993). Whereas, Barcenas et al. (2004) and Fik and
Surowka (2002) suggested that further research should be conducted for investigating
the impact of various protein sources on processing conditions on the quality of
bakery products.
Moisture effects on seed storage One of the sound reasons as elaborated by Ellis et al. (1986, 1988,
1989, 1990a, b) is that for longevity of stored seed, it must be stored with minimum
moisture percentage. They further emphasize that seed life duration could not be
extended with gradually drying; rather seed life period becomes limited. Vertucci and
Leopold, (1987b) and Vertucci and Roos (1990) further added that the lower moisture
content of grain where longevity of seed could not be enhanced was considered to be
critical moisture content.
The worldwide suggested standards are that seeds be dehydrated to
5±2% water prior to storage (FAO/IPGRI, 1994). However, experiments carried out
on number of dissimilar varieties have shown that longevity of seed could be
enhanced if seeds are dried to moisture level less than the suggested mean value (Ellis
et al., 1988, 1989, 1990b, 1995; Vertucci and Roos, 1990). It has thus been known
that the range of moisture contents as suggested by IPGRI and the Food and
15
Agriculture Organization are guiding principle, and the chemical composition of the
seed must be considered to attain the suitable water content for storage. Variation in
lipid content can be taken into account if seeds are equilibrated to a precise RH other
than moisture content (Ellis et al., 1989; Roberts and Ellis, 1989; Vertucci and Roos,
1990). Many ranges have been proposed by Ellis et al. (1989, 1990b) to equilibrate
seeds to 15% RH and 15°C. Whereas, Vertucci and Roos (1990, 1993) suggested 10%
RH and 20°C or equilibrate seeds to a moisture level that gives 20-25% RH at the
storage temperature.
Seed moisture content during storage plays an important role and also a
debatable issue. Researchers of two research sites i.e. University of Reading, UK and
from National Seed Storage Laboratory, USA are of the opinion that desiccating the
seed below a certain will not help in the conservation of its viability and longevity
(Ellis et al., 1988, 1989, 1990a, b; Vertucci and Roos, 1990). One of the more
commanding conclusions is that the water activity which corresponds to the
significant water content appears to be stable among species (Roberts and Ellis, 1989;
Ellis et al., 1989, 1990a, b; Vertucci and Roos, 1990). The Reading scientists
observed that by applying pragmatic approach for determining low-moisture-content
limit to the logarithmic relationship between water content and longevity of seed
(Roberts and Ellis, 1989; Ellis et al., 1989, 1990a, b). Vertucci and Leopold (1986,
1987a, b) and Vertucci and Roos (1990) have used a thermodynamic approach to
observe the role of water in biological systems and significant water contents for
physiological processes. It is also confirmed that value of critical water content
differentiates among species has an inverse relationship with the lipid content of the
seed (Ellis et al., 1989, 1990; Vertucci and Roos, 1990).
16
Moisture effects on seed longevity The effects of tremendously low moisture content on seed life and the
possible relations of moisture content and temperature are undecided (Ellis et al.,
1989, 1990, 1991, 1995; Hong and Ellis, 1996; Vertucci and Roos, 1990, 1993;
Vertucci et al., 1994). They further observe that the water content achieved by
maintaining seeds at 20°C and 10-13% relative humidity is vital to seed longevity.
According to them at water contents above the critical value, seed longevity is a
function of log water content. At water contents less than the critical value, seed
longevity is unaffected by water content (i.e. there is no benefit or detriment to
drying). On the other hand a damaging effect of drying seeds to low water contents
was observed by Vertucci and Roos (1990). They recommended that there should be
optimum water content for storage. Based on their findings they concluded that at
35°C, the optimum corresponded relative humidity should be between 19 and 27% for
seed storage purpose.
The germination percentage in the seeds stored at extremely low
temperature, was invastigated by Kosar and Thompson (1957), Nutile (1964),
Nakamura (1975), Woodstock et al. (1976) and Nishiyama (1977) and they stated
that the mechanism of damage was unclear as inadequate data were the main cause in
determining the primary impact of drying seeds at the lowest moisture content and/or
measures to be taken against imbibitional stress so that desiccation or imbibitional
damage can be avoided. After conducting experiments on many species Vertucci and
Roos (1990), Carpenter and Boucher (1992), Dickie and Smith (1995), Ellis et al.
(1995), Buitink et al. (1998), Chai et al. (1998), Hu et al. (1998a, b); Kong and Zhang
(1998)and Shen and Qi (1998) have reported that damaging effects on seeds stored at
17
low temperature initially are not visible but becomes apparent with a passage of time.
Additionally it can be said that under extreme dry conditions seeds become aged
more rapidly. This means that longevity is reduced when stored with extreme lower
moisture content. Findings of Rockland (1969) and Labuza (1980) also support above
statement where, according to them over-dried grains deteriorates more rapidly.
Water deficit effects on seed longevity had lower or no reaction on
water content beyond its critical range (Ellis et al., 1988, 1989, 1990a, b, 1992, 1995;
Kong and Zhang, 1998). However, various researchers (Kosar and Thompson, 1957;
Ellis et al., 1989, 1990a, b; Vertucci and Roos, 1990; Carpenter and Boucher, 1992;
Dickie and Smith, 1995; Buitink et al., 1998; Chai et al., 1998; Hu et al., 1998a;
Kong and Zhang, 1998; Shen and Qi, 1998) have also reported negative impact on
stored seed. The drying was beneficial towards low moisture percentage i.e. 1% for
chive by 40°C, (Kong and Zhang, 1998); 1.7% in case of yew, (Walters-Vertucci et
al., 1996); and 2% and for sesame at 50°C (Ellis et al., 1986). Research carried out by
Shen and Qi (1998) on the same group of species at the same temperature, they
obtained contradictory results i.e. unfavorable effects of storing Brassica pekinensis at
40°C and <3% moisture content. Whereas, Kong and Zhang (1998) observed no
impact of moisture contents for the similar species when stored at 40°C and moisture
contents ranged between 0.5 and 3.0%. There is a reasonable level of consensus
among researchers on the optimum RH for grain storage: either the water content
corresponding to 10% RH at 20°C (Ellis et al., 1989, 1990a), or the moisture content
parallel to 20% RH at the same storage temperature. They further reported that
reasonable RH must be roughly stable amongst storage temperatures.
18
Vertucci and Roos (1993a) and Ellis et al. (1989, 1990a, b, 1991) have
concluded that the value of significant moisture percentage is not likely to differ
significantly between dissimilar storage temperatures. Whereas, Vertucci and Roos
(1993); Vertucci et al. (1994); Walters Vertucci et al. (1996) and Buitink et al. (1998)
have observed that the moisture percentage possessing utmost longevity raised by
reducing temperature.
Temperature and storage effects on germination
Germination mostly relies on the quality of the seed to exploit its
reserves more efficiently (Rao and Sinha, 1993), because germination is the initial
stage of growth (Black, 1970). Germination and mobilization of seed reserves may
show a discrepancy in diverse temperature regimes (Penning de Vries et al., 1979).
As explained by Wanjura and Buxtor (1972), temperature is an
important aspect in germination because it can influence the rate of water and
additional substrates necessary for growth and development. The extent of disparity in
mobilization of seed reserves may also differ in various genotypes and higher seed
metabolic efficiency (SME) is a desirable quality under water stress situation when
germination is delayed due to inadequate soil moisture. In this regard, seed drying is a
processing practice that allows minimum changes in germination ability of wheat
seeds than some other drying methods i.e. heat treatment (Stoyanova, 1987, 1990).
Edje and Burris (1971) and Egli and TeKrony (1995) identified the factors on which
germination was dependent. Azam and Allen (1976) reported that it was influenced
by many environmental factors, but the availability of soil moisture had a major effect
on germination and subsequent emergence. Besides the reduction in total germination,
comparatively low soil moisture availability resulted in delayed emergence, a
19
criterion of particular importance in the vigor and subsequent yielding ability of many
crops.
The rate of decline in germination was found to be obvious by Ashraf
and Abu-Shakra (1978) and varied with crop species and cultivars. Brigg and
Aylenfisu (1979) concluded that the rate and degree of seedling establishment were
extremely important factors in determining both yield and time of maturity. Chin et
al. (1984) stated that loss of viability could be either due to the moisture content
falling below a certain critical value or simply a general physiological deterioration
with time. Evans and Bhatt (1977) expressed that storage proteins hydrolysis played
important role to supply energy for seedlings growth.
Temperature has significant effects on seed emergence. Al-Qasem et al.
(1999) stated that no germination occurred at 5oC. Total germination percentage for
large seeds was significantly higher than that for small seeds. At 10oC, the cumulative
germination percentage was significantly higher for F8 than Hourani-27. At 15oC, no
significant differences were found between the two genotypes, but at 20 and 30oC, the
cumulative germination percentage tended to be higher for Hourani-2.
According to Essemine et al. (2002), germination is very sensitive to
atmospheric conditions, mainly temperature. Physiological and biochemical responses
of wheat seed during germination time at various temperatures have shown that
optimal temperature favors a good aptitude to germinate, whereas low and high
temperature caused delay in germination. Nyachiro et al. (2002) conducted
experiment on germination for wheat seed under controlled atmosphere at
temperatures of 10, 15, 20 and 30°C in darkness, where a weighted germination index
was calculated. According to them the determination of weight germination index, for
20
each temperature, showed highly significant (p 0.01) genotype effects on
germination. Most genotypes decreased in weighted germination (increased
dormancy) as temperature was increased from 10 to 30°C. The greatest differences in
seed germination tended to be at 15°C and 20°C. The level of seed dormancy
depended on the genotype and germination temperature.
Germinability of mature grains of wheat had a significant reliance on
temperature. The best possible temperature for the total germination of each type of
grain starts from 20oC for the non-dormant genotypes Timgalen; below10oC for the
highly dormant red wheat RL 4137, while the best in terms of the shortest lag period
ranged from 25 to 15oC for the same varieties. Germinability gradually increased
during post-harvest storage and, for after-ripened grain, the optimum temperature for
both complete germination and shortest lag period was greater than 30oC.
Germinability could also be increased by pre-treating imbibing grains at temperatures
of 5, 10 or in some cases 15oC. These temperature regimes were useful only under the
conditions where grain moisture was >25% on the basis of dry weight, whereas in
case of re-desiccation the impact could not be changed. For higher rate of germination
pre-treatment temperature is necessary due to escalating seed dormancy. A pre
treatment for twenty four hours is necessary for the removal of total dormancy as
lesser duration causes delay in time in case of the resting genotypes. The impact of
findings for the exploitation of dormancy due to rise of sprouting damage before
harvest, use of resistant genotypes and their succeeding practices are also discussed
by them (Parera and Cantliffe, 1994).
Hummil et al. (1954) stored wheat grains inoculated with moulds and
without moulds at different temperatures and humidity levels. According to them
21
grain stored at 18% humidity level and higher died more faster, side by side
temperature of 35°C proved to be fatal. However when seed was stored near to 20°C,
the fatal characters of moulds mounting in grains caused lesser damage. In case of
absence of moulds as stated by Tuite and Christensen (1955) that barley stored with
moisture contents up to 18% had no impact on germination of seeds when stored at
the room temperature for 30 days and yet at the elevated moisture condition in case
there is no mould infestation.
Coarse rice containing moisture percentage 11-16.5 when stored in
cans for more than 6 months, Houston et al. (1957) observed quicker damages in case
of higher temperature and moisture contents. According to Roberts (1960) there was a
significant association amongst temperature and water for viability of cereal seeds.
There was a similarity for this association amongst other winter cereals. Kreyger
(1972) used percentage germination as an indicator of grain deterioration. He also
studied the effect of many levels of moisture content and temperature on the
germination percentage.
Temperature effects on growth and development of wheat
The impact of different temperature regimes during germination and
other processes i.e. physiological, growth, developmental and yield is still not very
clear. As reported by Chowdhury and Wardlaw (1978) that manipulation in
environmental temperature related to field conditions is a very difficult task, the
selection of crops therefore is often made on the basis of their response to the
temperature conditions of that area.
22
Some degree of heat resistance may therefore already exist in various
wheat genotypes, since selection for doing well in warm climatic conditions will have
screened out any varieties susceptible to high temperature.
A study of 40 wheat varieties planted under maximum temperatures,
revealed genetic variation amongst different wheat cultivars, Rawson (1986). He
recorded variation and negative effect on number of tested varieties and reduction in
their yield and yield components i.e. on maturity, tillering, number of spikelets per
spike, grains per spike and per plant yield. On the other hand no such findings were in
other heat tolerant genotypes. Paulsen (1994) explained difference for temperature
resistance among various genotypes, according to him development stage must be
considered on priority basis i.e. at what growth stage heat stress was given duration of
heat stress and the criteria used for evaluating tolerance. Whereas Shilper and Blum
(1991) by growing twenty one wheat varieties under warm irrigated condition
recommended that heat stress application must be imposed before anthesis as heat
stress was allied with more number of grains per earhead.
Under present circumstances where increase in population due to high
birth rate and emission of greenhouse gasses may cause an enormous increase in
global temperature upto 5.8°C by the end of 21st century (Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, 2007). Whereas, high temperature stress has negative impact both on
winter and spring wheat genotypes. The effect of maximum temperatures on growth
and development of cereals and various crops is well recognized (Porter and Gawith,
1999; Wheeler et al., 2000). It is now an established fact that in future climates will
not merely be linked with an increase in mean temperatures (Easterling et al., 1997)
23
but also with an increase in the occurrence of episodes of elevated temperatures
(Wheeler et al., 2000).
Under the present conditions we can foresee and predict higher warmth
during night hours in comparison to day time temperature. Easterling et al. (1997)
reported that global warming increased with an increase in daily minimum
temperature by more than twice as compared to maximum temperature over the
previous century. Recent findings have revealed that chronological output of rice
(Peng et al., 2004) and wheat (Lobell et al., 2005) were extremely correlated with
lowest (night time) temperatures more than daytime maximum temperatures.
Declining rice yields in rice growing countries like Philippines were associated to
increasing night time temperatures (Peng et al., 2004), and higher wheat yields in
Mexico were associated to decreasing night time temperatures (Lobell et al., 2005).
High temperatures damage photosynthetic membranes (thylakoids) and
cause chlorophyll loss (Al-Khatib and Paulsen, 1984), decrease leaf photosynthetic
rate, increase embryo abortion (Saini et al., 1983), lower grain number, and decrease
grain filling duration and rates resulting in lower grain yield (Wardlaw and Moncur,
1995; Wheeler et al., 1996; Ferris et al., 1998; Prasad and Allen, 2006) (Wardlaw et
al., 1989; Stone and Nicolas, 1994; Wheeler et al., 1996; Ferris et al., 1998; Gibson
and Paulsen, 1999). At the molecular level, high temperatures adversely affected cell
metabolism (Berry and Björkman, 1980; Levitt, 1980) and caused changes in the
pattern of protein synthesis (Lindquist, 1986; Vierling, 1991; Larkindale et al., 2005).
Supra-optimal temperatures suppress the synthesis of the normal complement of
cellular proteins and at the same time induce the synthesis and accumulation of many
new proteins including heat shock proteins (Vierling, 1991; Feder and Hofmann,
24
1999), Rubisco activase (Law and Brandner, 2001), chloroplast glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate dehydrogenase, and chloroplast protein synthesis elongation factor
(Bhadula et al., 2001).
Night and day time maximum temperature regimes have very little or
no effect on crop plants. Growth and development stages are influenced separately by
minimum and maximum temperatures (Lobell and Ortiz-Monasterio, 2007). They
further suggested that to understand response of crop plants to maximum night time
temperatures it is necessary to determine and minimize doubts in climate variation
and its impact appraisal, as the green house climatic changes is characterized by
increase in minimum temperature at night time other than maximum temperature at
day time. In case of rice, it is noted that high night time temperatures are more
damaging to grain formation than high daytime temperatures (Morita et al., 2002). A
research conducted by Lobell and Ortiz-Monasterio (2007) had shown that in Yanqui
Valley of Mexico, maximum yields were strongly linked with night time higher
temperatures but not day time higher temperatures.
Gluten Wheat gluten, a by-product of the wheat starch industry is a typical
water-insoluble protein. In the food industry, wheat gluten is mainly used as an
additive for improvement of baking quality of flour. Gluten comprises 80-85%
protein and 5% lipids; the majority of the remainder is starch and non-starch
carbohydrates (Wall, 1979; Wieser, 2007).
While making wheat dough, gluten protein molecules become hydrated
and interact to form a three-dimensional structure determining the elasticity, viscosity
and plasticity of dough (Li, et al., 2003 and Tsiami et al., 1997). A lot of research has
25
been conducted on increasing useful wheat gluten properties to enlarge its use.
Enzymatic hydrolysis has been determined to be able to improve the solubility and
increase the emulsifying and foaming properties of wheat gluten (Kato et al., 1991
and Linares et al., 2000).
The baking characters of wheat flour are changed to a substantial level
by the circumstances and period of its storage. In optimal storage circumstances the
baking properties of flour get better. The water assimilation of flour improves the
rheological properties of dough get better and its aptitude to keep gas and provide
volume to the bread increases (Wang and Flores, 1999). This advantageous change
appears primarily due to the oxidation of the gluten proteins that are extremely vital
constituent of wheat flour. During flour storage, a regular decrease is noted in the
content of the sulphydryl groups (-SH) as a consequence of the development of
disulfide bonds (-S - S-) among the polypeptide chains of gluten proteins (Chen and
Schofield, 1996 and Yoneyama et al., 1970). This leads to an enhancement in the
polymerisation degree of these proteins as the flour storage period increases (Wrigley
and Bekes, 1999). These processes are fasten noticeable and their effect strengthens
when the flour is kept in a higher temperature (Cenkowski et al., 2000, Srivastava and
Haridas, 1991 and Sur et al., 1993).
The oxidation processes which take place in stored flour also have an
effect on the physical properties of the gluten washed out from it. The findings of
Srivastava and Haridas (1991) showed a sizeable decline in the amount of gluten as a
result of the increase of the storage period. Influence of storage time on the sorption
and rheological properties of gluten, which affect directly the quality of dough and
bread, must be determined. If the oxidative substances are incorporated, parallel
26
effects are attainable more rapidly and the flour could be kept in stores for extended
periods. The sorption properties of gluten are frequently projected in an indirect
means by observing the water amalgamation of flour. However, this measurement
does not demonstrate clearly, which one amongst the components present in flour
(e.g., the starch or gluten) is responsible for the changes in the sorption properties of
flour, such possibilities are given by way of determining the quantity of water
absorbed by gluten in the course of its washing out (Mis, 2000). A usual and
completely programmed method of washing out is used with an aspiration
(International Association for Cereal Science and Technology, 1994) and constantly
protects the identical conditions of this course of action; the variations in the amount
of captivated water by the gluten totally depend on its sorption qualities.
The composition of water in gluten is calculated two times in the first
instance after washing it out and then after centrifugation. On this basis, the content in
freshly washed out gluten of non-absorbed water that lost owing to centrifugation is
also the content of absorbed water, which remains in the gluten after centrifuging is
determined. The value of the sorption indices defined in this way was confirmed by
the findings of Mis (2000) and Mis and Grundas (2001) who indicated that the non-
absorbed water content is a gluten characteristic particularly determined by the
genotype of the wheat. This characteristic is altered both at the time of seed ripening
and in the pre-harvest time and also results from the technological treatments used
such as drying the grain or moistening it prior to milling. At the same time the
content of water non-absorbed in the gluten affects its rheological properties
adversely.
27
Protein
Weegels et al. (1996) have described that protein is the important
quality character of wheat grains leading to end-use quality. Disparity in both protein
availability and composition considerably improves quality for bread-preparation
(Wall, 1979; Morrison, 1988; Weegels et al., 1996; Lafiandra et al., 1999; Branlard et
al., 2001). Presence or absence of precise proteins and protein subunits is connected
with bread making quality (Gupta et al., 1989; Johansson, 1996; Johansson et al.,
1993; Payne et al., 1987). In addition to that the quality depends on the ratio of
monomeric to polymeric proteins and quantity and size sharing of polymeric proteins
(Gupta and Shepherd, 1993; Johansson et al., 2001). Graybosch et al. (1996);
Huebner et al. (1997); Zhu and Khan (2001) have reported that although grain protein
composition depends mainly on varieties, it is considerably affected by ecological
factors and their interactions. Proteins are synthesized during fruit bearing phase of
the crop. The quantity and composition of the proteins in the wheat grain is influenced
by the presence of nitrogen in the fruiting period. If the nutrients are low, the proteins
decrease storage proteins to uphold the metabolic proteins. The weather conditions,
variety and environment influence the protein content in the wheat grain.
Environmental situation at the time of grain filling affects the buildup of protein in the
developing wheat kernel and can change the functional properties of the resulting
flour but the exact effects of environmental conditions on the synthesis of the chief
gliadins and glutenins are not well understood.
Quantitative studies of gene expression and protein accumulation
under various environmental circumstances are challenging since the complexity of
the dissimilar groups of genes and proteins makes it hard to differentiate and
recognize single components. Additionally, levels of gene expression and protein
28
accumulation must be examined within the context of grain development since
environmental factors such as temperature can change the timing of grain
development (Graybosch et al., 1996). The ratio of gliadin to glutenin proteins in
wheat is usually reported to increase in response to high temperatures at the time of
grain filling (Blumenthal et al., 1991; 1993; Stone et al., 1997) and increases in
gliadin: gluten ratios that have been found to be influenced by both genotype and
environment, particularly at the timing of heat stress.
Stone and Nicolas (1995; 1996) observed that a number of genotypes
showed higher proportion of gliadin:glutenin ratio when they were kept under heat
stress at the early stage of grain development as compared to implication of heat
stress at later stage. According to their explanations usually, gliadin buildup within
the wheat endosperm has been noted to be less susceptible to heat stress at the stage of
grain filling than glutenin accretion. Graybosch et al. (1995) and Stone et al. (1997)
reported that due to heat stress gliadin:glutenin ratio increases because of the decrease
in accumulation of glutenin as compared to gliadins (however gliadins also
decreases). This observation depends mostly on the findings that gliadins improved as
a ratio of entire flour protein improves, but their increase for every kernel is observed
to decrease in response to maximized temperature.
There are various reasons for the loss of dough vigor in response to
maximum temperature. In ripened seeds of wheat glutenin polymers volume reduces
due to high temperature stress, and it is suggested that this may be due to the
temperature sensitivity of the enzymes concerned in the construction of the disulphide
isomerase (Blumenthal et al., 1994). Heat stress therefore restricts the creation of the
diverse protein particles responsible for better-quality dough mixing properties
29
(Corbellini et al., 1997). The amount and range of subunits inside the glutenin
polymer are also affected by heat stress causing reduction in grain quality.
Wheat quality is mostly determined by presence of protein and its
composition (Olered and Johnson, 1986). Flour of wheat contains chiefly starch (upto
75%), water (10-14%) and proteins (upto 12%). Including these, non-starch
polysaccharides (3%), in particular arabinoxylans and lipids (1-2%) are significant
flour constituents pertinent for bread making and its excellence (Goesaert et al., 2005).
The grain of spring wheat possesses higher protein and is exceptionally valuable
addition of feed. Though agro-techniques can modify the grain quality; however,
genetic characters of the varieties play important role (Brzozowska et al., 1997;
Brzozowski et al., 2001; Fotyma, 2003; Frant and Bujak, 2004).
Variation in protein ratio is mostly due to variations in environmental
factors (Zeleny et al., 1961). In the preceding research, yet this proportion had a wider
range, i.e. 7-21% (Obuchowski and Bushuk, 1980; Korkut and Citak, 1992) and
Matuz et al. (1993). Wheat grain contains more protein than any other cereal crop in
case of world protein production (Harlan and Starks, 1980). Lang et al. (1998) further
reported that the grain protein concentration in wheat grain was mostly subjective to
varieties. However when same genotype I was cultivated under different
environmental conditions a variety of grain protein concentrationcould be obtained,
consequently producing grain with different end-use qualities and grain proteins
content in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) not only play a significant role for food and
energy, but also helps in the determination of bread preparation quality (Cooke and
Law, 1998). Cornell and Hovelling (1998) are of the opinion that wheat excellence
could be generally judged on the basis of the capability of the wheat flour to make
30
high standard yeast leavened bread. In addition they further observed that wheat flour
quality mostly depends upon varietal characters and agronomic practices and its
judgment can be made on the basis of tests including physical and chemical properties.
Starch Starch is the most vital reserve polysaccharide of many cereals. In
wheat, starch is the most plentiful component present in the grain endosperm
(Lineback and Rasper, 1988; Southgate, 1991). Bonjean and Augus (2001) have
reported that wheat grain is composed of the endosperm and embryo enclosed by bran
layers. The endosperm is mainly starch and as a result used as energy foodstuff.
Johnson et al. (1978) reported that wheat starch was easily digested like most wheat
protein. Oda et al. (1980) and Lee et al. (1987) explained that starch quality wasvery
important in producing saleable wheat for many purposes. Wheat varieties with high
paste viscosity produced Japanese and Korean white salted noodles with high-quality
texture. Rahman et al. (2000); and Slattery et al. (2000) found that whole grain on dry
weight basis contained 65-75% starch, whereas its endosperm on dry weight basis
accounted for approximately 80%. The ability of starch or flour is to take up water
and form a paste in the presence of heat. Difference in starch composition and paste
viscosity has been reported amongst Australian wheat varieties (Moss, 1967; Moss
and Miskelly, 1984; Lee et al., 1987). Rapid gelatinization of starch affects the
softness of Cantonese style noodles (Miskelly and Moss, 1985) is desirable for instant
noodle manufacture (Moss, 1983), and also for Japanese Udon noodles (Oda et al.,
1980). Quail et al. (1990) and Huang et al. (1994) have reported that starch quality is
important in Arabic bread production and Chinese steamed bread. With the recent
discovery of wheat varieties, Miura and Tanii (1994) and Yamamori et al. (1994)
highlighted on manipulating the starch composition and its quantity in wheat grain is
31
likely to gain importance. Furthermore, the recent development of fully waxy
endosperm wheat as according to Nakamura et al. (1995) may generate new
opportunities for the utilization of wheat starch in the food processing industry. High
starch content cultivars may become desirable for the production of grain ethanol and
biodegradable packaging materials (Wasserman et al., 1995).
Wheat contains minerals, vitamins and fats (lipids) when a small
quantity of animal or legume protein is added it becomes highly nutritious. Lasztity
(1984) observed that the chemical composition of mature wheat grain was dominated
by high starch content, usually about 72% of the total dry weight with protein content
between 6-16%. Belderok et al. (2000) from their research findings reported that the
albumin and globulin fraction covered about 25% of the total grain proteins.
Anderson (2004) has observed that most whole grain wheat kernels are composed of
80% endosperm, 15% bran and 5% germ wheat bran, the rough outer covering has
very little nutritional worth but plenty of fiber. During milling, the bran is detached
from the kernel. Main purpose of milling is isolation of starch protein matrix that is
separation of the endosperm from the high fiber bran and high lipid germ.
Ash
It is understood that for determination of wheat grain quality for
milling intention, importance should be given to its ash content, as reported by
Swanson (1932, 1948).For measurement of thoroughness of the separation of bran
from endosperm, indicates the amount of of ash plays important role. He further
stated that defective milling or long extraction was the results of higher ash content in
the wheat grain. Difference in ash content of grain endosperm may be due to
genotypic variation or seasonal and soil conditions. The usefulness of ash resides in
32
fact is that the outer layer of wheat grain contains maximum ash in comparison to
central endosperm which is on the order of 0.25-0.35%.
Environmental impact on ash content has been reported by Cubadda et
al. (1969). Whereas, according to Peterson et al. (1986) there is a vital impact of
genotypes on ash content. Fares et al. (1996) are of the opinion that genotype and
climate interaction has strong relation in sense of ash content they further stated that
under favorable climatic conditions ash content increased in wheat grain as plants are
able to extract higher quantity of minerals from the soil. Swanson (1932, 1948);
Posner (1991); Posner and Hibbs (1997) are also of same opinion. According to them,
if genotypes differ in ash content, obviously there should be an important role of
climatic conditions.
Nordgren and Andrews (1941) observed a wide variation in ash
content of wheat. They noted that six wheat verities when planted at four sites of
Minnesota the ash content varied from 1.63 to 2.28, whereas in varieties ash content
ranged from 1.82 to 2.02%. As per their statement, four winter wheat varieties
cultivated at four sites in Kansas and Nebraska possessed 1.57-1.77% (cultivar
means), and 1.56-1.85% ash (site means). Seven hard red spring wheat varieties
cultivated in Winnipeg had ash content of 1.44-1.81%.
Ayoub et al. (1994) conducted field experiment in Quebec Canada at
two sites on four hard red spring wheat varieties during two years to evaluate the
impact of different doses of N fertilizers on ash content. They observed that N
fertilization reduced ash content in three out of four site-years with individual
treatment mean values of 1.9-3.8% (high N, site 1, 1991 vs. zero N, site 2, 1990).
33
Varietal means in case of four site-years and fertilizer regimes were observed as 2.16-
2.40% ash, with considerable differences in three out of four site/years.
Lipids
Even though lipids contain approximately 1.5-7.0% of cereal grains,
they comprise a array of components such as important fatty acids, fat-soluble
vitamins and phytosterols (Ruibal-Mendieta et al., 2004). Dough and loaf size during
the course of bread-making as described by MacRitchie (1983), is mainly affected by
flour lipids whereas loaf size is negatively affected by the free fatty acids in non-polar
(NP) lipids while glycolipids in polar lipids have positive impact on the loaf
volume in addition, loaf volume is affected positively and negatively by polar and
NP lipids correspondingly (McCormack et al., 1991). Pomeranz et al. (1991) and
Papantoniou et al. (2004) have stated that level of softness of bread and biscuits
prepared on steam are usually affected by lipids. Whereas, Prabhasankar and Rao
(1999) are of the opinion that presence of lipids helps determining the eminence of
wheat flour and its suitability for various bakery foodstuffs.
Morrison (1988, 1995) and Carr et al. (1992) have described that
wheat flour lipids are entirely flour lipids or non starch lipids depending on the
procedure of extraction. Lipids extracted from wheat flour under conditions that help
starch granule enlargement or breakdowns are total flour lipids since they include
lipids that are strongly linked with the starch particle matrix. On the other hand, flour
lipid extraction under conditions that do not favor starch granule swelling or
breakdown yields non starch lipids that do not include lipids strongly associated with
the starch particle matrix.
34
CHAPTER-III
MATERIALS AND METHODS The investigations were carried out for quality analysis and
germinability of various wheat varieties, under various storage sources, storage
periods and temperature regimes at Department of Agronomy, Sindh Agriculture
University Tandojam. The wheat seed was obtained from Agriculture Research
Institute (ARI) Tandojam having the same lot. Climatic conditions for the
experimental years 2008-2009 during growth period were approximately same
(Appendix-X). The seeds of various varieties used in this study were grown and
harvested from the field provided with same recommended growing conditions. To
avoid insect attack during storage necessary precautions were taken by applying
insecticides viz. Phostoxin tablets.
Experiment1 Seed quality assessment of different wheat varieties in various seed storage structures
The experimental details for treatment are as under:
Experimental design = RCBD (Factorial arrangement)
Replications = 03
Factor (A) = Varieties (V) = 05
V1= Moomal-2000
V2= T J-83
V3= Imdad-2005
V4= Abadgar-93
V5= Mehran-89
Factor (B) = Storage Structures (S) = 05
S1= Jute bags kept under open sky covered with plastic
S2= Jute bags kept in closed storage
S3= Plastic bags kept in closed storage
S4= Earthen silo
S5= Iron bins
35
Factor (C) = Periods (P) = 02
P1=90 DAH
P2=180 DAH
Data on following parameters of grain were recorded
Observations on grain
1. Seed index (g)
2. Moisture (%)
3. Germination (%)
4. Protein (%)
5. Starch (%)
6. Ash (%)
7. Wet gluten (%)
8. Lipid (%)
9. pH
10. EC
11. Falling number
12. Nitrogen (%)
13. Phosphorus (%)
14. Potassium (%)
15. Identification of free amino acids by thin layer chromatography
36
Methods of determination Seed index (g) From each treatment, the randomly selected 1000 grains were weighed
on top loading digital balance.
Moisture content (%)
The moisture content was determined through the procedure of
AACC (2000), method No. 44-15 A.
Moisture content (%) = Wt. of wet grain sample - Wt. of dried grain sample/Wt. of grain sample x 100
Germination The 25 randomly selected wheat seeds from each treatment were placed
on double layer of Whatman filter paper No.1 in petri dish having diameter of 13.5 cm
and placed in the germinator at 20oC.
Protein
Protein was calculated as follows: N% x 5.7 Starch
Starch was found through gluco-amylase method.
Ash
The ash content in each treatment was determined following the
procedure given in AOAC (2000) method No. 08-01.
Ash content % = Weight of ash/ Weight of sample x 100
Wet gluten
Wet gluten content was determined by hand washing method as
detailed in AACC (2000) method No.38-10. Dough was made by adding 15ml of
water in a bowl. The dough was allowed to stand for one hour and then kneaded
gently under a stream of cold tap water, letting the washings passed through a fine
37
sieve until all starch and soluble matter were removed. Starch removal was tested
by squeezing a little water from the ball in to beaker and clear, cold water;
cloudiness indicated presence of starch. The ball was kept in cold water for an hour
and water was squeezed with hands. Then the ball was placed in a tarred, flat-
bottomed dish and weighed as moist wet gluten.
Lipid
The 10 gram seeds of each wheat variety were extracted in diethyl
ether. The solvent was removed from the residue by distillation and the residue was
dried in air. Total lipid obtain were weighed and percentage was calculated.
Preparation of water extract The 20 grams of defatted wheat seed samples were ground with 30 ml
distilled water, using pestle and mortar. The suspension was centrifuged at 4000 x g.
The supernatant was transferred to 100 ml volumetric flask. This procedure was
repeated twice and volume was made upto 100 ml with distilled water.
pH and EC For determination of pH and EC in the seeds, a method of AOAC
(2000) was used.
Falling number
Falling number was measured in each treatment sample by taking
triplicate samples of 7 g each and 25 ml of distilled water (25°C) was added in
tubes and run the samples in Falling Number apparatus, Model No. 1600
38
consisting dispenser No. 1025 (Perten Instruments, North America Inc., Reno, NV,
USA) according to AACC (2000) method No 56-81B.
Nitrogen
The Kjeldhal's method as described in AACC (2000) method No.
46-10 was used to determine the nitrogen content in each flour sample by digesting
the sample with concentrated H2SO4 in the presence of catalysts. During digestion
the organic compounds were as oxidized and the nitrogen was converted to
ammonium sulphate. In a distillation apparatus in an alkaline media the
ammonia was liberated which was collected in a flask containing 4 % boric acid
solution using methyl red as an indicator. The nitrogen content in each sample was
determined by titrating against 0.1N H2SO4 solution and the crude protein
percentage was calculated by multiplying the nitrogen percent with a conversion
factor 5.7.
Phosphorus The 0.25 g of ground sample of wheat grain was added in 10 ml
Perchloric and nitric acid (HCLO3:HNO3) in ratio 1:5 for dissolving. Then it was
covered with funnel and left for overnight. The digested samples were kept on hot
plate for 20-25 minutes and mixed thoroughly. The white fumes were collected in 100
ml conical flask. After cooling the samples, few drops of distilled water were added
and volume made to 50 ml. Ten ml extract and color solution along with 10 ml D.W
was taken for analyzing phosphorus on spectrophotometer.
Potassium In 0.25 g ground sample of wheat grain, 10 ml Perchloric nitric acid
(HCLO3:HNO3) in ratio 1:5 was added. Contents were covered with funnel and left
for overnight. Digested samples were kept on the hot plate for 20-25 minutes. White
39
fumes were collected in 100 ml conical flask. After cooling the sample, few drops of
distilled water was added and volume was raised to 50 ml and filtered. Ten ml extract
and color solution along with 10 ml D.W was taken for analyzing potassium on flam
photometer.
Identification of free amino acids by thin layer chromatography
The free amino acids in the water extract were identified by two
dimensional thin layer chromatography. Total 30 gram of silica gel G-60 was
suspended in 60 ml distilled water. Gel suspension was spread on the glass plates with
applicator adjusting the layer thickness of 0.25 mm.
Procedure Thin layer gel plates were activated by heating in an oven, at 110oC for
30-40 minutes before applying the samples. A 20 μl wheat extract sample and amino
acid standards were applied on the one corner of each plate. These plates were
developed first with butanol, acetic acid and water (4:1:1 v/v/v) and then with phenol
and water (4:1 w/v). After drying the plates the spots were visualized with freshly
prepared ninhydrin (0.25 g in 100 ml acetone) solution and dried in an oven for 5
minutes at 80oC. Individual separated spots of test samples were identified by its Rf
value by comparing with the Rf of standard amino acids are shown in Table 1.
40
Table 1. Rf value of amino acids standards by thin layer chromatography
S.No. Amino acids Rf values
1 Asparatic acid 0.503
2 Tryptophan 0.716
3 Alanine 0.506
4 Arginine monohydrochloride 0.396
5 Proline 0.524
6 Cysteine 0.664
7 Glutamic acid 0.564
8 Glycine 0.467
9 Histidine monohydrochloride 0.352
10 Hydroxy-proline 0.474
11 Leucine 0.778
12 Iso-leucine 0.657
13 Tyrosine 0.760
14 Valine 0.678
15 Lysine monohydrochloride 0.309
16 Methionine 0.669
17 -phenylalanine 0.631
18 Serine 0.468
19 Threonine 0.503
20 L-ornithine monohydrochloride 0.237
21 3-4 dihydroxy phenylalanine 0.847
22 D-L-nor Leucine 0.715
23 2-amino butyric acid 0.679
41
Plate 1. Jute bags kept under open sky covered with plastic sheets Plate 2. Jute bags kept in closed storage
42
Plate 3. Plastic bags kept in closed storage Plate 4. Seed stored in earthen silo
43
Plate 5. Seed stored in iron bins
44
Experiment 2. Effect of different temperature regimes on the germinability of various wheat varieties
The experimental details for treatments are as under:
Experimental Design = RCBD (Factorial arrangement)
Replications = 03
Factor (A) = Varieties (V) = 05
V1= Moomal-2000
V2= T J-83
V3= Imdad-2005
V4= Abadgar-93
V5= Mehran-89
Factor (B)= Temperature regimes (T) = 3
T1= 10oC
T2= 20oC
T3= 30oC
Observations
1. Germination (%)
2. Shoot length (cm)
3. Root length (cm)
4. Fresh shoot weight (mg)
5. Dry shoot weight (mg)
6. Fresh root weight (mg)
7. Dry root weight (mg)
8. Seed vigor index
45
Method of determination Germination
The randomly selected fifty seeds were placed in 13.5 cm petri dishes
(25 seeds in each Petri dish). The seeds were placed on double layer of Whatman filter
paper No.1 and placed in the germinator at 10, 20 and 30oC, moistened when necessary.
The germination was recorded after 48 hours.
Shoot and root length The shoot and root length of the 50 seedlings was recorded after 7 days. Shoot fresh and dry weights The fresh and dry weight (mg) of the 50 seedlings was determined
after 7 days of germination.
Root fresh and dry weights The fresh and dry weight (mg) of the 50 seedling was determined after
7 days.
Seed vigor index
Seed vigor index was calculated after determining germination
percentage and seedling length of the same seed lot. Seed vigor index was calculated by
multiplying germination (%) and seedling length (cm).
Statistical analysis The Data were statistically analyzed through MSTATC computer
software. The LSD value for mean comparison was calculated only if the general
treatment F test was significant at a probability of ≤ 0.05 (Gomez and Gomez, 1984).
46
CHAPTER-IV
RESULTS
Experiment 1. Seed quality assessment of various wheat varieties in various seed storage structure
Physical characteristics of wheat varieties
Seed index (1000 grain weight g)
Statistical analysis for seed index is presented as Appendix I.
Analysis of variance showed significant differences for wheat varieties, storage
sources, interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources, storage periods x
varieties, and storage sources x varieties. However, storage periods and interactive
effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties were non-significant.
Wheat varieties significantly differed for seed index. Among the
wheat varieties, Imdad-2005 significantly had maximum (44.7 g) seed index
followed by Mehran-89 (43.4 g). The minimum (39.2 g) seed index was found in
Moomal-2000 (Table 2).
Wheat grain stored for two periods viz. 90 and 180 days showed
significant differences. Seed index reduced when stored for long period of 180 days
compared to 90 days storage (Table 3).
Seed stored in different sources showed significant differences in
respect of seed index. The maximum seed index (41.6 g) was noted in iron bins
followed by 41.1 g seed index in earthen silo and closed storage (plastic bags)
47
compared to lower seed index of 40.7 and 40.6 g in closed storage (jute bags) and
jute bags kept under open sky covered with plastic sheets, respectively (Table 4).
Interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources exhibited
significantly higher seed index (41.7 and 41.4 g) when seed was stored in iron bins
for 90 and 180 days respectively. However, lower seed index (40.2 and 40.3 g) was
recorded in the jute bags kept under open sky covered with plastic sheets and jute
bags kept in covered storage respectively (Table 5).
Interactive effect of storage periods x varieties showed significant t
results for seed index. The greater seed index (44.8 and 44.6 g) was observed in
Imdad-2005 kept for 90 and 180 days. However, rest of varieties x storage periods
recorded seed index value between 36.5 and-44.0 g (Table 9).
Interactive effect of storage sources x varieties revealed significant
differences for this trait. The maximum seed index (45.2 g) was found in Imdad-
2005 stored in iron bins followed by 44.8 and 44.7 g seed index in same variety
stored in earthen silo and or jute bags kept in closed storage, respectively.
However, minimum seed index (36.3 g) was noted in TJ-83 stored in jute bags
kept in closed storage (Table 13).
48
Table 2. Physical and chemical properties of seeds of wheat varieties, the means averaged across storage periods and storage sources
In each row, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
Parameters Wheat varieties
Moomal- 2000
TJ-83 Imdad-2005
Abadgar- 93
Mehran-89
LSD (5%)
SE
1000 grain weight (g) 39.2 d 36.6 e 44.7 a 41.1 c 43.4 b 0.12 0.042
Moisture (%) 11.6 a 10..2 b c 10.4 b 10.2 c 10.0 c 0.20 0.073
Germination (%) 95.5 a 91.7 b 85.3 c 81.6 d 91.2 b 0.55 0.197
Protein (%) 13.4 b 13.5 ab 13.2 c 13.1 c 13.6 a 0.17 0.062
Starch (%) 68.5 a 66.9 c 67.6 b 64.2 e 65.6 d 1.10 0.036
Ash (%) 1.6 a 1.3 c 1.5 b 1.6 a 1.5 b 0.02 0.002
Wet gluten (%) 25.0 d 26.6 c 26.5 c 28.1 a 27.6 b 0.35 0.127
Lipids (%) 1.58 b 1.67 a 1.49 c 1.35 d 1.32 e 0.02 0.002
Ph 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.2 - 0.016
EC (µs) 44.0 a 39.8 c 38.0 d 42.9 b 36.0 e 0.10 0.038
Falling number 303.4 d 678.2 a 466.2 c 245.8 e 646.9 b 10.75 3.830
N (%) 2.35 b 2.36 ab 2.32 c 2.30 c 2.38 a 0.03 0.011
P (%) 0.72 a 0.62 b 0.48 e 0.52 d 0.56 c 0.02 0.002
K (%) 0.45 a 0.40 c 0.41 b 0.41 b 0.37 d 0.02 0.002
49
Moisture
Moisture content of wheat seed is very important in relation to
storage, milling and handling properties of wheat. Statistical analysis of
variance for wheat varieties, storage sources, interactive effect of storage periods x
storage sources, storage periods x varieties, and storage sources x varieties showed
significant differences for moisture content. However, storage periods, and
interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties were non-
significant (Appendix I).
Moisture content in seeds of various wheat varieties varied
significantly. Among the varieties, higher moisture content (11.63%) was noted in
Moomal-2000 followed by 10.4% moisture content in Imdad-2005. However, both
Abadgar-93 and Mehran-89 had lower moisture content of 10.2 and 10.0%,
respectively (Table 2).
Seed storage periods had non-significant effect on seed moisture
content across varieties and storage sources and ranged between 10.2 and10.7% in 180
and 90 days seed storage periods (Table 3).
Seed storage sources had significant effect on seed moisture content of
wheat. Seed stored in iron bins had higher moisture content (11.5%) followed by
10.5% moisture content in the seed stored in earthen silo or plastic bags kept in closed
storage. The results further revealed that moisture content was lower (9.8-10.0%) when
the seed was stored in jute bags kept in closed storage and or under open sky covered
with plastic sheets (Table 4).
50
Interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources showed
significant effect on seed moisture content. The maximum seed moisture content
(11.8%) was observed in iron bins kept for 90 days, followed by 11.3% in same
storage source when seed was kept for 180 days. The minimum seed moisture
content (9.6-9.8%) was noted in jute bags kept under open sky covered with
plastic sheets and or jute bags kept in closed storage (Table 5).
Interactive effect of storage periods x varieties showed significant
effect on seed moisture content. Maximum moisture content (12.1%) was found in
the seed of Momal-2000 stored for 90 days followed by 11.2% moisture content in
the same variety stored for 180 days. However, minimum moisture content (9.8%)
was noted in the seed of Mehran-89 stored for 180 days (Table 9).
Interactive effect of storage sources x varieties also revealed
significant effect on seed moisture content. Among the varieties and storage
sources, higher moisture content (12.4%) was observed in the seed of Moomal-
2000 stored in iron bins followed by 12.1% moisture content in same variety
stored in plastic bags put in closed storage. The lower moisture content was noted
in the seed of Mehran-89 stored in jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
sheets. In Pakistan, most of the farmers now a days are using plastic bags which
seem to be cheaper than the jute bags. This causes increase in moisture content of
the seed, which might be major cause of seed quality reduction as well as
reduction in seed germination. Similarly, the findings of this study show that seed
storage in plastic bags increased moisture content of the seed as compared to jute
bags (Table 13).
51
Table 3. Effect of storage periods on physical and chemical properties of wheat seeds, the means averaged across varieties and storage sources
Parameters Storage periods
(Days after harvest) SE
90 180
1000 grain weight (g) 41.2 40.8 0.027
Moisture (%) 10.7 10.2 0.046
Germination (%) 89.4 88.6 0.124
Protein (%) 13.6 13.1 0.039
Starch (%) 66.7 66.9 0.023
Ash (%) 1.4 1.5 0.012
Wet gluten (%) 26.9 26.6 0.080
Lipids (%) 1.49 1.48 0.002
pH 6.3 6.3 0.010
EC (µs) 40.17 40.17 1.516
Falling number 472.3 463.8 2.422
N (%) 2.39 2.29 0.007
P (%) 0.58 0.58 0.002
K (%) 0.41 0.41 0.001
52
Germination Germination is important factor in agriculture for plant stand per unit
area. Statistical analysis of variance for wheat varieties, storage sources,
interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources, storage periods x varieties,
and storage sources x varieties showed significant differences for germination
percentage. However, storage periods, and interactive effect of storage periods x
storage sources x varieties were non-significant (Appendix I).
Varietal performance for seed germination was significant. Among
the tested varieties, Moomal-2000 gave the highest seed germination (95.5%)
followed by TJ-83 and Mehran-89 (91.7 and 91.2%, respectively). The
germination record was lower in Imdad-2005 and Abadgar-93 (Table 2).
Germination as affected by storage periods showed non-significant
differences; however, values were slightly greater (10.7%) when seed was stored
for 90 days compared to 180 storage days (Table 3).
The results for seed germination in different storage sources across
varieties and storage periods showed significant differences. The maximum
germination (89.7%) was observed in all the storage sources except iron bins
(Table 4).
Germination of seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x
storage sources showed significant differences among the treatments. Maximum
germination (90%) was noted when seed was stored in earthen silo. The mean
germination values (89.2-89.6%) were non-significant in all the treatments except
interactive effect of iron bins x 180 storage days (Table 5).
53
Interactive effect of storage periods x varieties resulted significant
differences for the seed germination. Higher germination (96.2%) was found in the
seed of Moomal-2000 stored for 90 days followed by same variety (94.7%) stored
for 180 days. The lower germination (81.6%) was observed regardedthe seed of
Abadgar-93 stored for 90 or 180 days (Table 9).
The results of this study revealed that longer storage period (180
days) or shorter seed storage did not affect on the seed germination of different
wheat varieties.
Interactive effect of storage sources x varieties showed significantly
different results for seed germination. The overall results for this trait showed
81.1-96.5% germination, being higher in the seed of Moomal-2000 stored in
earthen silo, and or plastic and jute bags kept in closed storage, or under open sky
covered with plastic sheets. The lower seed germination was observed in case of
seed of Abadgar-93 stored in various storage sources (Table 13).
The increase in germination of Moomal-2000 might be due to
appropriate retention of moisture in earthen silo as compared to iron bins and
plastic bags covered with plastic sheets. The suitability of better germination could
be storing wheat seeds in local sources viz. earthen silo. This storage source is
cheaper, and in the reach of the poor farming community.
54
Table 4. Effect of different storage sources on chemical properties of wheat seeds, the means averaged across varieties and storage periods
Parameters
Storage source
Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
Jute bags kept in closed storage
Plastic bags kept in closed storage
Earthen silo
Iron bins
LSD (5%)
SE
1000 grain wt. (g) 40.6 c 40.7 c 41.1 b 41.1 b 41.6 a 0.12 0.042
Moisture (%) 9.8 c 10.0 c 10.4 b 10.5 b 11.5 a 0.20 0.073
Germination (%) 89.5 a 89.2 a 89.5 a 89.7 a 87.2 b 0.55 0.197
Protein (%) 13.5 b 13.7 a 13.2 c 13.3 c 13.0 d 0.10 0.062
Starch (%) 67.1 a 66.2 b 66.7 b 66.7 b 67.3 a 1.10 0.056
Ash (%) 1.6 a 1.6 a 1.6 a 1.4 b 1.4 b 0.02 0.050
Wet gluten (%) 27.3 b 27.8 a 27.4 b 27.1 b 24.2 c 0.35 0.127
Lipids (%) 1.44 b 1.50 a 1.49 a 1.50 a 1.49 a 0.02 0.018
pH 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 - 0.016
Ec (µs) 40.2 40.1 40.1 40.1 40.1 - 0.011
Falling number 452.7 b 463.2 b 485.1 a 480.9 a 458.5 b 10.75 3.830
N (%) 2.35 b 2.36 a 2.32 c 2.30 c 2.38 a 0.03 0.011
P (%) 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 - 0.002
K (%) 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 - 0.002
In each row, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
55
Chemical properties of wheat varieties
Protein
Statistical analysis for protein content is presented as Appendix II.
Analysis of Variance showed significant differences for wheat varieties, storage
sources, interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources, storage periods x
varieties, and storage sources x varieties. However, storage periods, and
interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties were non-
significant.
Wheat varieties significantly differed for protein content. Among the
wheat varieties, Mehran-89 had maximum (13.6%) protein content followed by TJ-
83 (13.5%) and Moomal-2000 (13.4%). The minimum (13.1-13.2%) protein content
was found in Imdad-2005 and Abadgar-93 (Table 2).
Wheat grain stored for two periods viz. 90 and 180 days statistically
showed non-significant differences for this trait. Protein content slightly reduced
(13.1%) when stored for long period of 180 days compared to 90 days storage
(13.6%) (Table 3).
Seed stored in different storage sources showed significant
differences. The maximum protein content (13.7%) was noted in jute bags kept in
closed storage, followed by 13.5% protein content in jute bags kept under open sky
covered with plastic sheets as compared to lower protein content of 13.2-13.3% in
seed stored in jute bags under closed storage and earthen silo, respectively (Table 4).
56
Interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources produced
significantly higher protein content (113.8%) when seed was stored in jute bags kept
in closed storage for 90 days. However, lower protein content (12.6%) was noted in
the iron bins where seed was stored for 180 days (Table 6).
Interactive effect of storage periods x varieties showed significantly
different results for protein content of seed. The greater protein content (13.7%)
was observed in the seeds of Moomal-2000, TJ-83 and Mehran-89 kept for 90
days, followed by seeds of Mehran-89 (13.4%) kept for 180 days. However,
minimum protein content (12.8%) was found in the seed of Abadgar-93 when
stored for 180 days (Table 10).
The lower protein content might be the reason for long storage period
(180 days); however, difference in wheat varieties might be genetic potential of the
cultivar.
Interactive effect of storage sources x varieties recorded significant
differences for this trait. The maximum seed protein content (13.8%) was found in
TJ-83 and Mehran-89, Moomal-2000 and Imdad-2005 stored in Jute bags stored in
closed storage or under open sky covered with plastic sheets. However, minimum
seed protein (12.9%) was noted in Imdad-2000 stored in jute bags kept in closed
storage or iron bins (Table 14).
57
Table 5. 1000 grain weight, moisture and germination in seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources
Source of variation 1000- grain
weight (g) Moisture (%) Germination
(%)
Storage period x storage source
90 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
40.93 e 10.09 ef 89.5 ab
Jute bags kept in closed storage 41.10 de 10.25 de 89.2 ab
Plastic bags kept in closed storage 41.28 bc 10.48 d 89.6 ab
Earthen silo 41.20 cd 10.85 c 90.0 a
Iron bins 41.74 a 11.80 a 89.0 b
180 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
40.36 f 9.60 g 89.6 ab
Jute bags kept in closed storage 40.26 f 9.80 fg 89.2 ab
Plastic bags kept in closed storage 41.06 de 10.44 d 89.4 ab
Earthen silo 41.08 de 10.22 de 89.5 ab
Iron bins 41.44 b 11.30 b 85.5 c
SE 0.060 0.103 0.278
LSD (5%) 0.16 0.29 0.78
In each column, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
58
Wet gluten
Seed wet gluten content in wheat is very important in relation to
milling properties of the flour. Statistical analysis of variance for wheat varieties,
storage sources, interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources, storage
periods x varieties, and storage sources x varieties showed significant differences
for seed wet gluten content. However, storage periods, and interactive effect of
storage periods x storage sources x varieties were non-significant (Appendix II).
Wet gluten content in seeds of various wheat varieties varied
significantly. Among the varieties, higher seed wet gluten content (28.1%) was
recorded in Abadgar-93 followed by 27.6% wet gluten content in the seed of Mehran-
89. However, Moomal-2000 had lower seed wet gluten content of 25% (Table 2).
Seed storage periods had non-significant effect on seed wet gluten
content across varieties and storage sources and ranged between 26.6 and 26.9% in
180 and 90 days seed storage periods (Table 3).
Seed storage sources had significant effect on seed wet gluten content
of wheat. Seed stored in jute bags under closed storage had higher seed wet gluten
content (27.8%) followed by 27.1-27.4% gluten content in the seed when stored in
various storage sources except iron bins (Table 4).
Interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources showed
significant effect on seed gluten content. The maximum seed wet gluten content
(28%) was noted in jute bags put under closed storage for 90 days followed by
27.1-27.7% seed wet gluten content in other storage sources and storage days
59
except earthen silo and iron bins which recorded minimum seed wet gluten
content of 26.8 and 24.3%, respectively (Table 6).
Interactive effect of storage periods x varieties had significant effect
on seed wet gluten content. Maximum seed wet gluten content (283%) was found
in the seed of Abadgar-93 stored for 90 days, followed by 27.6-27.9% seed wet
gluten content in Mehran-89 and Abadgar-93 stored for 180 days. However, the
minimum seed wet gluten content (24.9 and 25.1%) was noted in the seed of
Moomal-2000 stored for 180 and 90 days, respectively (Table 10).
Interactive effect of storage sources x varieties also showed
significant effect on seed wet gluten content. Among the varieties and storage
sources, higher seed wet gluten content (29.9%) was observed in the seeds of
Mehran-89 and Abadgar-93 stored in jute bags kept in closed storage or under
open sky covered with plastic sheets followed by 29.0-29.3% seed wet gluten
content in Abadgar-93 stored in jute and plastic bags kept in closed storage or iron
bins. The lower seed wet gluten content (23.3-23.6%) was noted in the seed of
Abadgar-93 and Mehran-89 stored in iron bins (Table 14).
60
Starch
The properties of starch mainly influence the eating quality of wheat
flour especially noodles and chapatti. Some small amount of damaged starch is
desirable in bread making flours, but highly undesirable in cookie and cake making
flours. This is the reason why the cookie and cake industries use soft wheat varieties.
Whereas, Pakistani wheat varieties are hard wheat varieties.
Statistical analysis for starch content of seed is presented as Appendix II.
Analysis of variance showed significant differences for wheat varieties, storage
sources, interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources, storage periods x
varieties. However, storage periods, and interactive effect of storage periods x
varieties were non-significant.
Wheat varieties significantly differed for starch content. Among the
wheat varieties, Moomal-2000 had maximum (68.5%) starch content followed by
Imdad-2005 (67.6%), TJ-83 (66.9) and Mehran-89 (65.6). The minimum (64.2%)
starch content was found in Abadgar-93 (Table 2)
Wheat grain stored for different periods showed non-significant
differences for starch content. The starch content had slightly higher values (66.9%)
when stored for period of 180 days as compared to 90 days storage (Table 3).
Seed stored in different storage sources showed significant differences.
The maximum starch content (67.3 and 67.1) was noted when seed was stored in iron
bins and jute bags and kept under open sky covered with plastic sheets. However, rest
61
of storage sources recorded non-significant differences in the mean starch content
values (Table 4).
Interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources recorded
significantly higher starch content (67.4%) when seed was stored in iron bins for 180
days. However, lower starch content (65.9%) was observed in the jute bags kept in
closed storage for 90 days (Table 6).
Interactive effect of storage periods x varieties showed significantly
different results for starch content of seed. The greater starch content (68.5%) was
observed in the seed of Moomal-2000 stored for 90 or 180 days followed by seeds of
Imdad-2005 (68.0%) stored for 180 days. However, minimum starch content (65.1%)
was found in the seed of abadgar-93 kept for 90 days (Table 10).
Interactive effect of storage sources x varieties was found significant
differences for starch content. The maximum starch content (69.7%) was noted in
Moomal-2000 stored in jute bags covered with plastic sheets or in iron bins. However,
minimum starch content (64.6-64.8%) was observed in Abadgar-93 and Mehran-89
when stored in jute and plastic bags, respectively (Table 14).
Overall results of the study indicated that Moomal-2000 retained more
starch as compared to rest of wheat varieties. Among the storage periods and sources,
seed stored in iron bins for a period of 180 days had greater starch in the seed.
62
Table 6. Protein, starch, ash, wet gluten and lipids in seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources
Source of variation Protein
(%) Starch (%)
Ash (%) Wet gluten (%)
Lipids (%)
Storage period x storage source
90 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
13.6 ab 67.1 b 1.46 e 27.57 ab 1.44 d
Jute bags kept in closed storage
13.8 a 65.9 e 1.46 de 28.02 a 1.50 abc
Plastic bags kept in closed storage
13.5 b 66.6 d 1.46 de 27.62 ab 1.50 abc
Earthen silo 13.6 ab 66.6 d 1.46 e 27.40 b 1.50 a
Iron bins 13.5 b 67.1 b 1.47 d 24.32 d 1.50 ab
180 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
13.5 b 67.1 b 1.57 c 27.17 bc 1.44 d
Jute bags kept in closed storage
13.6 ab 66.6 d 1.60 a 27.7 ab 1.50 abc
Plastic bags kept in closed storage
12.9 c 66.8 c 1.59 b 27.37 bc 1.49 c
Earthen silo 12.9 c 66.7 c 1.58 b 26.84 c 1.49 abc
Iron bins 12.6 d 67.4 a 1.57 c 24.15 d 1.49 bc
SE 0.087 0.051 0.025 0.179 0.002
LSD (5%) 0.24 0.14 0.07 0.50 0.02
In each column,, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
63
Ash
Statistical analysis of variance for wheat varieties, storage sources,
interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources, storage periods x varieties,
and storage sources x varieties showed significant differences for seed ash content.
However, storage periods, and interactive effects of storage periods x storage
sources x varieties were non-significant (Appendix II).
Varietal performance for seed ash content was significant. Among
the tested varieties, Moomal-2000 and Abadgar-93 produced the highest ash
content in the seed (1.6%) followed by Imdad-2005 and Mehran-89 (1.5%). The
seed ash content was lower (1.3%) in TJ-83 (Table 2).
Seed ash content as affected by storage periods showed non-
significant differences, however, values were slightly greater (1.5%) when seed
was stored for 180 days as compared to 90 storage days (Table 3).
The results for seed ash content in storage sources across varieties
and storage periods showed significant differences. The maximum seed ash
content (1.6%) was observed in jute and plastic bags stored in closed storage or
under open sky covered with plastic sheets; whereas, minimum (1.4%) seed ash
content was noted in earthen silo or iron bins (Table 4).
Seed ash content under the interactive effect of storage periods x
storage sources showed significant differences among the treatments. Maximum
seed ash content (1.6%) was noted when seed was stored in jute bags under closed
storage for 180 days. The minimum ash content (1.3%) was observed in the seed
64
stored in jute bags stored in closed storage, earthen silo and iron bins for 90 days
(Table 6).
Interactive effect of storage periods x varieties showed significant
differences for seed ash content. Higher seed ash content (1.71%) was found in the
seed of Moomal-2000 stored for 180 days followed by Abadgar-93 (1.69%) stored
for 180 days. The lower seed ash content (1.30%) was observed from the seed of
TJ-83 stored for 90 days (Table 10).
Interactive effect of storage sources x varieties showed significantly
different results for seed ash content. The results showed 1.30-1.65% seed ash
content, being higher in the seed of Abadgar-93 stored in any type of storage
source. The lower seed ash content was observed from the seed of TJ-83 stored in
plastic bags kept in closed storage or earthen silo (Table 14).
Overall results of the study indicated that increasing storage period
from 90 to 180 also increased ash content of the varieties. Among the varieties,
Abadgar-93 retained greater ash content. However, ash content was within the
standard limits of wheat grain for edible purpose. This might be genetic
potentiality of the varieties to accumulate ash. With regard to storage sources, no
significant differences were found.
65
Table 7. pH, EC and falling numbers in seeds under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources
Source of variation pH EC
(µs) Falling number (sec)
Storage period x storage source
90 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
6.3 40.1 463.1 c
Jute bags kept in closed storage 6.3 40.2 444.8 d
Plastic bags kept in closed storage 6.3 40.2 490.6 a
Earthen silo 6.3 40.1 492.3 a
Iron bins 6.3 40.1 470.9 dc
180 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
6.3 40.2 442.3 d
Jute bags kept in closed storage 6.3 40.1 481.7 ab
Plastic bags kept in closed storage 6.3 40.1 479.6 ab
Earthen silo 6.3 40.2 469.4 bc
Iron bins 6.2 40.1 446.1 d
SE 0.023 0.540 5.416
LSD (5%) - - 15.20
In each column, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
66
Lipids
Although a very small amount of lipids is present in wheat but these
are necessary for proper gluten development of flour, yet because of its nature wheat
oil oxidizes easily and turns rapidly, limiting the shelf life of flour.
Statistical analysis for lipid content of seed is presented as Appendix
II. Analysis of Variance showed significant differences for wheat varieties, storage
sources, interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources, storage periods x
varieties, and storage sources x varieties. However, storage periods, and interactive
effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties were non-significant.
Wheat varieties significantly differed for seed lipid content. Among
the wheat varieties, TJ-83 had maximum (1.67%) seed lipid content followed by
Moomal-2000 (1.58%) and Imdad-2005 (1.49%). The minimum (1.32%) lipids were
found in Mehran-89 (Table 2).
Wheat grain stored for two periods viz. 90 and 180 days statistically
showed non-significant differences for this trait. Seed lipid content slightly reduced
(1.48%) when stored for period of 180 days compared to 90 days storage (Table 3).
Seed stored in different storage sources showed significant differences.
The maximum seed lipid content (1.49-1.50%) was noted in all the storage sources
except jute bags kept under open sky covered with plastic sheets, which had minimum
(1.44%) seed lipid content (Table 4).
67
Interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources gave
significantly higher seed lipid content (1.49-1.50%) when seed was stored in different
storage sources for 90 or 180 days except seed stored in jute bags under open sky
covered with plastic sheets which had lower (1.44%) lipid content in seed stored for
90 or 180 days (Table 6).
Interactive effect of storage periods x varieties showed significantly
different results for seed lipid content. Higher seed lipid content (1.67%) was
observed in the seeds of TJ-83 stored for 90 or 180 days followed by seeds of
Moomal-2000 also stored for 90 or 180 days. However, minimum seed lipid content
(1.32%) was found in the seed of Mehran-89 kept for 180 days (Table 10).
Interactive effect of storage sources x varieties revealed significant
differences for this trait. Higher seed lipid content (1.68-1.69%) was observed in the
seeds of TJ-83 stored in each type of storage source. However, the minimum seed
lipid content (1.32%) was noted in Mehran-89 stored iron bins (Table 14).
Overall results of the study revealed that storage periods viz. 90 and
180 days showed non-significant difference in lipids content of wheat seeds. Among
the tested varieties, TJ-83 was efficient in accumulating more lipids in its seeds. The
seeds stored in various storage sources showed that iron bins were less efficient in
recording lower values of lipids in wheat grain.
68
Table 8. N, P and K content in seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources
Source of variation N (%) P (%) K (%)
Storage period x storage source
90 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
2.38 abc 0.58 0.41
Jute bags kept in closed storage 2.42 a 0.58 0.41
Plastic bags kept in closed storage 2.40 ab 0.58 0.41
Earthen silo 2.39 abc 0.58 0.41
Iron bins 2.35 c 0.58 0.41
180 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
2.36 bc 0.58 0.41
Jute bags kept in closed storage 2.38 abc 0.58 0.41
Plastic bags kept in closed storage 2.26 d 0.58 0.41
Earthen silo 2.27 d 0.58 0.41
Iron bins 2.20 e 0.58 0.41
SE 0.0160 0.0040 0.0036
LSD (5%) 0.04 - -
In each column, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
69
pH
Statistical analysis for seed pH content is presented as Appendix III.
Analysis of variance showed non-significant differences for wheat varieties,
storage periods, storage sources, interactive effect of storage periods x storage
sources, storage periods x varieties, storage sources x varieties and interactive
effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties.
Seed pH content in various varieties, storage periods, storage sources,
storage periods x storage sources, storage periods x varieties, storage sources x
varieties ranged between 6.2 and 6.3 (Tables 2, 3, 4, 7, 11 and 15).
EC
Statistical analysis of variance for wheat varieties, interactive effect
of storage periods x storage sources, storage periods x varieties, and storage
sources x varieties revealed significant differences for EC (µs). However, storage
periods, storage sources and interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources
x varieties were non-significant (Appendix III).
Varietal performance for EC (µs) was significant. Among the tested
varieties, Moomal-2000 had highest EC in the seed (44.0 µs) followed by Abadgar-
93 and TJ-83 (42.9 and 39.8 µs, respectively). The EC was lower in Imdad-2005
and Mehran-89 (Table 2).
EC as affected by storage periods showed non-significant
differences and with 40.1 µs in 90 and 180 storage days (Table 3).
70
The results for EC in storage sources across varieties and storage
periods showed non-significant differences. In all the storage sources EC ranged
between 40.1 and40.2 µs, being slightly higher in the seed stored in jute bags kept
under open sky covered with plastic sheets (Table 4).
EC of seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage
sources showed non-significant differences among the treatments. EC ranged
between 40.111-4022 in the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources
(Table 7).
Interactive effect of storage periods x varieties was found
significant differences for the EC. Higher EC (44.0 and 43.9 µs) was observed in
the seed of Moomal-2000 stored for 90 and 180 days, respectively followed by
Abadgar-93 (43.0 and 42.9 µs) stored for 90 and 180 days, respectively. The lower
EC (35.9-36.0 µs) was found from the seed of Mehran-89 stored for 90 or 180
days (Table 11).
Interactive effect of storage sources x varieties showed significantly
different results for seed EC. The results for this trait revealed higher EC of 44.0
µs in the seed of Moomal-2000 stored in all type of storage sources and periods
The lower EC (36.0 µs) was observed in the seed of Mehran-89 (Table 15).
71
Table 9. 1000 grain weight, moisture and germination of seeds under the interactive effect of storage periods x varieties
Source of variation 1000 grain wt. (g)
Moisture (%)
Germination (%)
Storage periods x Verities
90 DAH Moomal-2000 39.36 g 12.1 a 96.2 a
TJ-83 36.73 i 10.4 c 92.4 c
Imdad-2005 44.90 a 10.4 c 85.6 e
Abadgar-93 41.28 e 10.3 cd 81.6 f
Mehran-89 44.00 c 10.1 cde 91.4 d
180 DAH Moomal-2000 39.04 h 11.2 b 94.7 b
TJ-83 36.53 j 10.0 de 91.0 d
Imdad-2005 44.60 b 10.2 cd 84.9 e
Abadgar-93 40.96 f 10.0 de 81.6 f
Mehran-89 42.96 d 9.8 e 91.0 d
SE 0.0605 0.1035 0.2788
LSD (5%) 0.16 0.29 0.78
In each column, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
72
Falling number
Falling number indicating the starch damage in addition to enzymatic
activity increased over the storage duration. It has considerable significance, since
there is a direct relationship between enzyme activity and finished product attributes
(bread crumb quality, loaf volume etc). The falling number is an indicator of α-
amylase activity in wheat flour.
Statistical analysis of variance for wheat varieties, storage sources,
interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources, storage periods x varieties,
and storage sources x varieties showed significant differences for falling number.
However, storage periods, and interactive effect of storage periods x storage
sources x varieties were non-significant (Appendix III).
Falling number of various wheat varieties varied significantly. Among
the varieties, the highest falling number (878.2 seconds) was noted in TJ-83 followed
by 846.9 seconds in Mehran-89, and 666.2 seconds in Imdad-2005. However,
Abadgar-93 had lower values of falling number (Table 2).
Seed storage periods had non-significant effect on falling number
across varieties and storage sources and ranged between 663.8 and672 seconds in 90
and 180 days of seed storage periods (Table 3).
Seed storage sources had significant effect on falling number of wheat.
Falling number was higher (680.9-685.1 seconds) when the seed was stored in plastic
bags under closed storage or in earthen silo followed by 663.2, 658.5 and 652.7
73
seconds in the seed stored in jute bags kept in closed storage, iron bins and jute bags
under open sky covered with plastic, respectively (Table 4).
Interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources had
significant effect on falling number. The maximum falling numbers (692.3 and
690.6 seconds) were noted in earthen silo and in plastic bags kept in closed storage
for 90 days, followed by 698.7 and 679.6 seconds from the seed stored in jute and
plastic bags kept in closed storage. The minimum falling number (646.1 and 642.3
seconds) was counted in the seed stored in earthen silo and jute bags under open
sky covered with plastic sheets for 180 and 90 days respectively (Table 7).
Interactive effect of storage periods x varieties had significant effect
on falling number. Higher falling numbers (885.0 and 871.4 seconds) were found
in the seed of TJ-83 stored for 90 and 180 days respectively, followed by 847.1
and 846.7 seconds in Mehran-89 stored for 90 and 180 days. The minimum falling
number 455.7 seconds was noted in Abadgar-93 where seed was stored for 90 days
(Table 11).
Interactive effect of storage sources x varieties also showed
significant effect on falling number. Among the varieties and storage sources,
higher values of falling number (886.3 seconds) were noted in the seeds of TJ-83
stored in various storage sources. The lower falling number (435.6 seconds) was
noted in the seed of Abadgar-93 stored in jute bags and kept in iron bins (Table
15).
74
Table 10. Protein, starch, ash, gluten and lipids content of seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x varieties
Source of variation Protein
(%)
Starch (%)
Ash (%)
Wet Gluten (%)
Lipids (%)
Storage period x varieties
90 DAH Moomal-2000 13.7 a 68.5 a 1.48 g 25.1 e 1.58 b
TJ-83 13.7 a 67.0 d 1.30 j 27.0 c 1.67 a
Imdad-2005 13.4 b 67.3 c 1.41 h 26.7 cd 1.50 c
Abadgar-93 13.3 bc 65.1 h 1.60 d 28.3 a 1.36 e
Mehran-89 13.7 a 65.5 g 1.51 f 27.6 b 1.32 g
180 DAH Moomal-2000 13.1 cd 68.5 a 1.71 a 24.9 e 1.58 b
TJ-83 13.2 bcd 66.9 e 1.32 i 26.2 d 1.67 a
Imdad-2005 13.0 de 68.0 b 1.66 c 26.4 d 1.49 d
Abadgar-93 12.8 e 65.4 g 1.69 b 27.9 ab 1.35 f
Mehran-89 13.4 b 65.8 f 1.53 c 27.6 b 1.32 g
SE 0.0879 0.0517 0.00258 0.1792 0.00258
LSD (5%) 0.24 0.14 0.02 0.50 0.02
In each column, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
75
Nitrogen
Statistical analysis for nitrogen content in seed is presented as
Appendix IV. Analysis of variance showed significant differences for wheat
varieties, storage sources, interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources,
storage periods x varieties, and storage sources x varieties. However, storage
periods, and interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties were
non-significant.
Wheat varieties significantly differed for seed N content. Among the
wheat varieties, Mehran-89 accumulated maximum (2.38%) nitrogen in seed,
followed by TJ-83 (2.36%) and Moomal-2000 (2.35%). The minimum (1.30 and
1.32%) N accumulation was found in Imdad-2005 and Abadgar-93, respectively
(Table 2).
Wheat grain stored for 90 and 180 days showed non-significant
differences for N content of seed. Seed N content slightly reduced (2.39%) when
stored for short period of 90 days compared to long period of 180 storage days
(Table 3).
Seed stored in different storage sources showed significant differences
for N content. The maximum seed N accumulation (2.38 and 2.36%) was found in
iron bins and jute bags kept in closed storage respectively, followed by 2.35% when
seed was stored in jute bags under open sky covered with plastic sheets. The
minimum (2.32 and 2.30%) seed N content was observed in the seed stored in plastic
bags kept in closed storage and earthen silo, respectively (Table 4).
76
Interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources recorded
significantly higher seed N content (2.42%) when seed was stored in jute bags put in
closed storage for 90 days, however, lower N content (2.20%) in seed was noted
when seed was stored in iron bins for long period of 180 days (Table 8).
Interactive effect of storage periods x varieties showed significantly
different results for seed N content. Higher seed N accumulation (2.41%) was
observed in the seeds of TJ-83 and Mehran-89 stored for short period of 90 days,
however, the minimum seed N content (2.24%) was found in the seed of Abadgar-
93 kept for long period of 180 days (Table 12).
Interactive effect of storage sources x varieties recorded significant
differences for this trait. Higher seed N content (2.42%) was observed in the seeds
of TJ-83 and Mehran-89 when stored in jute bags and kept under open sky covered
with plastic sheets or kept in closed storage. However, the minimum seed N
content (2.26%) was also observed from the seed of Abadgar-93 stored iron bins
(Table 16).
Overall results of the study showed that Mehran-89 had greater
nitrogen in the seed. Nitrogen in seed was higher when stored for a period of 90
days, however, it decreased when seed was kept for 1180 days. Among the storage
sources, higher seed accumulation for nitrogen was found when stored in jute
bags.
77
Table 11. pH, EC and falling number in seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x varieties
Source of variation pH Ec (µs) Falling numbers
Storage period x varieties
90 DAH Moomal-2000 6.30 44.0 a 291.8 f
TJ-83 6.30 39.8 c 685.0 a
Imdad-2005 6.30 38.0 d 482.1 c
Abadgar-93 6.30 43.0 b 255.7 g
Mehran-89 6.29 36.0 e 647.1 b
180 DAH Moomal-2000 6.30 43.9 a 315.0 e
TJ-83 6.30 39.9 c 671.4 a
Imdad-2005 6.30 38.0 d 450.2 d
Abadgar-93 6.30 42.9 b 235.9 h
Mehran-89 6.30 35.9 e 446.7 b
SE 0.0234 0.0541 5.416
LSD (5%) - 0.15 15.20
In each column, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
78
Phosphorus
Statistical analysis of variance for wheat varieties, storage periods x
varieties, and storage sources x varieties showed significant differences for seed
phosphorus content. However, storage periods, storage sources, interactive effect
of storage periods x storage sources and storage periods x storage sources x
varieties were non-significant (Appendix IV).
Varietal performance for seed phosphorus content was significant.
Among the tested varieties, Moomal-2000 had maximum phosphorus content in
the seed (0.72%), followed by TJ-83 (0.62%), Mehran-89 (0.56%) and Abadgar-93
(0.52%). The seed phosphorus content was minimum (0.48%) in Imdad-2005
(Table 2).
Seed phosphorus content under the influence of storage periods
showed non-significant differences and recorded 0.58% seed phosphorus content
when seed was stored for 90 or 180 days (Table 3).
Seed phosphorus content in various storage sources across varieties
and storage periods showed non-significant differences in all storage sources
recorded 0.58% phosphorus content in the seed (Table 4).
Phosphorus content of the seed under the interactive effect of
storage periods x storage sources had non-significant differences among the
treatments and exhibited 0.58% seed phosphorus content in all the interaction
treatments (Table 8).
79
Interactive effect of storage periods x varieties recorded significant
differences for seed phosphorus content. Higher seed phosphorus content (0.71%)
was found in the seed of Moomal-2000 when stored for 90 or 180 days, followed
by TJ-83 (0.62%) also stored for 90 or 180 days. The lower seed phosphorus
content (0.48-0.49%) was observed in the seed of Imdad-2005 stored for 90 or 180
days (Table 12).
Interactive effect of storage sources x varieties showed significantly
different results for seed phosphorus content. The results for this trait showed
0.71% seed phosphorus content in Mehran-89 followed by 0.61-0.63% in TJ-83
across storage sources. The lower seed phosphorus content was observed from the
seed of Imdad-2005 stored in jute bags and kept under open sky covered with
plastic (Table 16).
Overall results of the study showed that Moomal-2000 was found
with greater phosphorus content in the seed. Phosphorus in seed was higher when
stored for a period of 90 or 180 days. Both of these storage periods had
statistically non-significant change in the values of seed phosphorus content.
Storage sources also recorded non-significant influence on the seed phosphorus
content.
80
Table 12. N, P and K content in seed under the interactive effect of storage periods x varieties
In each column, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
Source of variation N (%)
P (%)
K (%)
Storage period x varieties
90 DAH Moomal-2000 2.40 ab 0.71 a 0.45 a
TJ-83 2.41 a 0.62 b 0.40 d
Imdad-2005 2.35 c 0.49 f 0.41 c
Abadgar-93 2.36 bc 0.53 e 0.42 b
Mehran-89 2.41 a 0.56 d 0.37 e
180 DAH Moomal-2000 2.29 e 0.71 a 0.45 a
TJ-83 2.31 de 0.62 b 0.40 d
Imdad-2005 2.28 ef 0.48 f 0.41 c
Abadgar-93 2.24 f 0.52 e 0.41 bc
Mehran-89 2.35 cd 0.57 c 0.37 e
SE 0.0160 0.0040 0.0036
LSD (5%) 0.04 0.02 0.02
81
Potassium
Statistical analysis for seed potassium content is presented as
Appendix IV. Analysis of variance showed significant differences for wheat
varieties, storage periods, storage sources, interactive effects of storage periods x
storage sources, storage periods x varieties, and storage sources x varieties.
However, the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties was
non-significant.
Wheat varieties significantly differed for seed potassium content.
Among the wheat varieties, Moomal-2000 had maximum (0.45%) seed potassium
content followed by Imdad-2005 and Abadgar-93; both had 0.40% potassium
content in the seed. The minimum (0.37%) seed potassium content was found in
Mehran-89 (Table 2).
Wheat grain stored for two periods viz. 90 and 180 days showed
statistically non-significant differences and seed potassium content was 0.41% for
both of the storage periods. Similar values were also found in various storage
sources and interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources (Table 3 and 4).
Interactive effect of storage periods x varieties showed significantly
different results for seed potassium content. The greater seed potassium content
(0.45%) was observed in Moomal-2000 when stored for 90 and 180 days, followed
by Abadgar-93 (0.42%) when kept for 90 days. However, the lower (0.37%) seed
potassium content was noted in Mehran-89 stored for 180 days (Table 12).
82
Interactive effect of storage sources x varieties recorded significant
differences for this trait. The maximum seed potassium content (0.44-0.46%) was
found in Moomal-2000 and minimum seed potassium content (0.37-0.38%) was
recorded in Mehran-89 stored in all types of storage sources (Table 16).
Overall results of the study revealed higher potassium content in
Moomal-2000 variety as compared to TJ-83, Imdad-2005, Abadgar-93 and
Mehran-89.
Storage periods had non-significant effect on the seed potassium
content. However, potassium content of seed reduced when seed was kept for 180
days.
Among the storage sources, viz. Jute bags under open sky covered
with plastic, jute bags kept in closed storage, plastic bags kept in closed storage,
earthen silo and iron bins showed also non-significant change in the values of seed
potassium content.
83
Table 13. 1000 grain weight, moisture and germination of seed under the interactive effect of storage sources x varieties
Source of variation 1000 Grain wt. (g)
Moisture (%)
Germination (%)
Storage source x varieties
Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
Moomal-2000 38.70 l 11.13d 96.00 a
TJ-83 36.61 n 9.56 hij 92.00 b
Imdad-2005 44.20 cd 9.68 hij 86.00 e
Abadgar-93 40.51 i 9.61 hij 81.83 g
Mehran-89 43.05 e 9.20 j 92.00 b
Jute bags kept in closed storage
Moomal-2000 39.20 k 11.45 cd 96.20 a
TJ-83 36.30 o 9.71 hij 91.50 bc
Imdad-2005 44.70 b 9.80 ghi 85.66 e
Abadgar-93 41.10 h 9.81 ghi 81.16 g
Mehran-89 42.10 f 9.40 ij 91.66 bc
Plastic bags kept in closed storage
Moomal-2000 39.25 k 12.10 ab 96.50 a
TJ-83 36.45 no 10.10 fgh 92.10 b
Imdad-2005 44.95 ab 10.31 fg 85.50 e
Abadgar-93 41.25 gh 9.86 ghi 82.00 g
Mehran-89 43.96 d 9.85 ghi 91.50 bc
Earthen silo Moomal-2000 39.10 k 11.01 de 96.50 a
TJ-83 36.56 no 10.31 fg 92.50 b
Imdad-2005 44.80 b 10.38 f 85.83 e
Abadgar-93 41.25 gh 10.40 f 82.00 g
Mehran-89 44.00 d 10.56 ef 92.00 b
Iron bins Moomal-2000 39.75 j 12.40 a 92.30 b
TJ-83 37.20 m 11.35 cd 90.33 c
Imdad-2005 45.20 a 11.73 bc 83.50 f
Abadgar-93 41.50 g 11.15 d 81.70 g
Mehran-89 44.30 c 11.11 d 89.00 d
SE 0.0956 0.1635 0.4409
LSD (5%) 0.26 0.45 1.20 In each column, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
84
Table 14. Protein, starch, ash, gluten and lipid content in seed under the interactive effect of storage sources x varieties
Source of variation Protein
(%)
Starch
(%)
Ash
(%)
Wet Gluten
(%)
Lipids
(%)
Storage source x varieties
Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
Moomal-2000 13.8 a 69.7 a 1.59 cd 24.75 l 1.51 ef
TJ-83 13.8 a 66.3 h 1.30 d 28.30 de 1.62 b
Imdad-2005 13.3 cde 67.7 e 1.55 g 25.63 jk 1.48 h
Abadgar-93 13.0 de 65.3 jk 1.64 a 29.91 a 1.30 m
Mehran-89 13.7 ab 66.7 g 1.50 i 28.25 de 1.30 m
Jute bags kept in closed storage
Moomal-2000 13.8 a 68.5 bc 1.60 b 25.26 kl 1.61 bc
TJ-83 13.8 a 67.1 f 1.33 a 27.16 gh 1.69 a
Imdad-2005 13.7 ab 66.2 h 1.56 fg 27.80 efg 1.49 gh
Abadgar-93 13.4 c 64.6 l 1.65 a 29.16 abc 1.40 i
Mehran-89 13.8 a 64.6 l 1.53 h 29.98 a 1.31 m
Plastic bags kept in closed storage
Moomal-2000 13.1 de 68.0 d 1.61 b 25.73 jk 1.60 c
TJ-83 13.3 cde 67.1 f 1.30 l 26.90 hi 1.69 a
Imdad-2005 13.0 de 68.0 d 1.56 ef 27.38 fgh 1.50 ef
Abadgar-93 12.9 de 65.5 j 1.65 a 29.00 bcd 1.34 k
Mehran-89 13.7 ab 64.8 l 1.50 i 28.46 cde 1.34 k
Earthen silo
Moomal-2000 13.3 cde 67.9 de 1.59 c 25.78 jk 1.58 d
TJ-83 13.3 cde 67.1 f 1.30 l 26.26 ij 1.68 a
Imdad-2005 13.1 de 68.3 c 1.56 fg 26.11 ijk 1.51 e
Abadgar-93 13.1 de 65.1 k 1.65 a 29.30 ab 1.37 j
Mehran-89 13.7 ab 65.1 k 1.50 i 28.10 ef 1.34 k
Iron bins Moomal-2000 13.1 de 68.6 b 1.57 de 23.66 m 1.62 b
TJ-83 13.1 de 67.1 f 1.33 k 24.65 l 1.68 a
Imdad-2005 12.9 de 67.9 de 1.46 j 26.00 jk 1.49 fg
Abadgar-93 12.9 e 65.8 i 1.65 a 23.36 m 1.36 j
Mehran-89 13.1 de 66.9 f 1.58 de 23.50 m 1.32 l
SE 0.138 0.081 0.004 0.284 0.004
LSD (5%) 0.39 0.22 0.011 0.79 0.011 In each column, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
85
Table 15. pH, EC and falling number in seed under the interactive effect of storage sources x varieties
Source of variation pH EC (µs)
Falling number (sec)
Storage source x varieties
Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
Moomal-2000 6.3 44.0 a 281.1 g
TJ-83 6.3 39.9 c 473.0 a
Imdad-2005 6.3 37.9 e 436.8 e
Abadgar-93 6.3 43.0 b 230.8 i
Mehran-89 6.2 36.0 f 641.8 bc
Jute bags kept in closed storage
Moomal-2000 6.3 44.0 a 264.3 gh
TJ-83 6.3 39.9 c 680.3 a
Imdad-2005 6.3 38.0 e 475.0 d
Abadgar-93 6.3 42.9 b 235.6 i
Mehran-89 6.3 36.0 f 661.0 ab
Plastic bags kept in closed storage
Moomal-2000 6.3 44.0 a 349.5 f
TJ-83 6.3 39.9 c 686.3 a
Imdad-2005 6.3 38.0 e 480.0 d
Abadgar-93 6.3 43.0 b 239.1 hi
Mehran-89 6.3 36.0 f 670.8 a
Earthen silo Moomal-2000 6.3 44.0 a 345.5 f
TJ-83 6.3 39.9 c 681.8 a
Imdad-2005 6.3 38.0 e 459.5 de
Abadgar-93 6.3 42.9 b 282.6 g
Mehran-89 6.3 36.0 f 435.0 c
Iron bins
Moomal-2000 6.3 44.0 a 276.6 g
TJ-83 6.3 39.6 d 669.5 a
Imdad-2005 6.3 38.0 e 479.6 d
Abadgar-93 6.2 43.0 b 240.8 hi
Mehran-89 6.3 36.0 f 626.0 c
SE 0.037 0.856 8.564
LSD (5%) - 0.24 24.04 In each column, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
86
Table 16. N, P and K content in seed under the interactive effect of storage sources x varieties Source of variation N
(%) P (%)
K (%)
Storage sources x varieties
Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
Moomal-2000 2.41 ab 0.71 a 0.44 b
TJ-83 2.42 a 0.63 b 0.40 fgh
Imdad-2005 2.33 defgh 0.47 f 0.41 cde
Abadgar-93 2.28 efgh 0.52 d 0.41 cde
Mehran-89 2.40 abc 0.56 c 0.38 i
Jute bags kept in closed storage
Moomal-2000 2.41 ab 0.71 a 0.45 ab
TJ-83 2.42 a 0.62 b 0.40 efgh
Imdad-2005 2.40 abc 0.48 ef 0.41 cdef
Abadgar-93 2.35 abcde 0.53 d 0.42 c
Mehran-89 2.42 a 0.56 c 0.37 i
Plastic bags kept in closed storage
Moomal-2000 2.30 efgh 0.71 a 0.45 ab
TJ-83 2.35 bcdef 0.62 b 0.41 cde
Imdad-2005 2.28 efgh 0.48 ef 0.41 cdefg
Abadgar-93 2.32 defgh 0.53 d 0.42 cd
Mehran-89 2.40 abcd 0.57 c 0.37 i
Earthen silo Moomal-2000 2.33 defgh 0.71 a 0.45 ab
TJ-83 2.33 cdefg 0.62 b 0.39 h
Imdad-2005 2.30 efgh 0.49 ef 0.40 defgh
Abadgar-93 2.29 efgh 0.52 d 0.41 cde
Mehran-89 2.40 abc 0.56 c 0.37 i
Iron bins Moomal-2000 2.30 efgh 0.71 a 0.46 a
TJ-83 2.28 fgh 0.61 b 0.39 gh
Imdad-2005 2.27 gh 0.49 e 0.41 cde
Abadgar-93 2.26 h 0.53 d 0.42 cd
Mehran-89 2.29 efgh 0.56 c 0.37 i
SE 0.025 0.006 0.005
LSD (5%) 0.07 0.01 0.01 In each column, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
87
Identification of free amino acids through thin layer chromatography Arginine was found only in Moomal-2000, Imdad-2005, Mehran-89,
however, it was not traceable in rest of wheat varieties
Cystein hydrochloride was noted in Imdad-2005, Abadgar-93 and
Mehran-89; however, it was not found in Moomal-2000 and TJ-83.
Glutamic acid was present in only Abadgar-93, whereas, it was absent
in rest of wheat varieties.
Glycine was observed in two wheat varieties viz. TJ-83 and Imdad-
2005 and absent in other wheat varieties.
Histidine was noted in Moomal-2000 and Abadgar-93, whereas it was
absent in rest of wheat varieties.
Hydroxy-proline was traced in TJ-83 and Mehran-89, however, it was
absent in Moomal-2000, Abadgar-93 and Imdad-2005.
Valine was present in Moomal-2000 and Mehran-89. It was absent in
Abadgar-93, TJ-83 and Imdad-2005.
β-phenylalanine was observed in three varieties viz. TJ-83, Imdad-
2005 and Abadgar-93 only.
L-ornithine monohydrochloride was found in Moomal-2000, Imdad-
2005 and Mehran-89 and was absent in Abadgar-93 and TJ-83.
The 3-4 dihydroxyphenyl-alanine was noted in Moomal-2000 and
Abadgar-93.
The unknown amino acids were seen in TJ-83, Abadgar-93 and
Mehran-89 (Table 17).
88
Table 17. Identification of free amino acids from water extract of different varieties of wheat seeds by two dimensional thin layer chromatography.
Periods (days) Amino
acids Arg Cys Glu Gly His Hyd Val -ph L-or 3-4 d 0thers
90 DAH
Structures Varieties Rf Value 0.396 0.624 0.564 0.467 0.352 0.474 0.678 0.631 0.237 0.847 -
Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
Moomal 0.385 - - - 0.346 - 0.655 - 0.231 0.856 -
TJ-83 - - - 0.436 - 0.472 - 0.643 - - 0.293
Imdad 2005 0.372 0.607 - 0.434 - - - 0.629 0.234 - -
Abadgar-93 - 0.619 0.565 - 0.357 - - 0.636 - 0.495 0.286
Mehran-89 0.387 0.589 - - - 0.471 0.677 - 0.237 - 0.153
Jute bags kept in closed storage
Moomal 0.384 - - - 0.346 - 0.655 - 0.231 0.856 -
TJ-83 - - - 0.436 - 0.473 - 0.642 - - 0.293
Imdad 2005 0.372 0.607 - 0.433 - - - 0.629 0.234 - -
Abadgar-93 - 0.619 0.565 - 0.357 - - 0.637 - 0.495 0.286
Mehran-89 0.387 0.588 - - - 0.471 0.677 - 0.237 - 0.153
Plastic bags kept in closed storage
Moomal 0.384 - - - 0.346 - 0.654 - 0.231 0.856 -
TJ-83 - - - 0.436 - 0.473 - 0.642 - - 0.293
Imdad 2005 0.372 0.607 - 0.434 - - - 0.629 0.234 - -
Abadgar-93 - 0.619 0.565 - 0.357 - - 0.636 - 0.495 0.286
Mehran-89 0.387 0.588 - - - 0.471 0.678 - 0.237 - 0.153
Earthen silo Moomal 0.384 - - - 0.346 - 0.655 - 0.231 0.856 -
TJ-83 - - - 0.436 - 0.473 - 0.642 - - 0.293
Imdad 2005 0.372 0.607 - 0.434 - - - 0.629 0.234 - -
Abadgar-93 - 0.619 0.565 - 0.357 - - 0.636 - 0.495 0.286
Mehran-89 0.387 0.588 - - - 0.471 0.677 - 0.237 - 0.153
Iron bins Moomal 0.384 - - - 0.346 - 0.655 - 0.231 0.856 -
TJ-83 - - - 0.436 - 0.473 - 0.642 - - 0.294
Imdad 2005 0.372 0.607 - 0.434 - - - 0.629 0.234 - -
Abadgar-93 - 0.619 0.565 - 0.358 - - 0.636 - 0.495 0.286
Mehran-89 0.387 0.588 - - - 0.472 0.677 - 0.237 - 0.155
180 DAH
Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
Moomal 0.384 - - - 0.346 - 0.655 - 0.231 0.856 -
TJ-83 - - - 0.436 - 0.473 - 0.642 - - 0.293
Imdad 2005 0.372 0.607 - 0.434 - - - 0.629 0.234 - -
Abadgar-93 - 0.619 0.565 - 0.357 - - 0.636 - 0.495 0.286
Mehran-89 0.387 0.588 - - - 0.471 0.677 - 0.237 - 0.153
Jute bags kept in closed storage
Moomal 0.384 - - - 0.346 - 0.655 - 0.231 0.856 -
TJ-83 - - - 0.436 - 0.473 - 0.642 - - 0.293
Imdad 2005 0.372 0.607 - 0.434 - - - 0.629 0.234 - -
Abadgar-93 - 0.619 0.565 - 0.357 - - 0.636 - 0.495 0.286
Mehran-89 0.387 0.588 - - - 0.471 0.677 - 0.237 - 0.153
Plastic bags kept in closed storage
Moomal 0.384 - - - 0.346 - 0.655 - 0.231 0.856 -
TJ-83 - - - 0.436 - 0.473 - 0.642 - - 0.293
Imdad 2005 0.372 0.607 - 0.434 - - - 0.629 0.234 - -
Abadgar-93 - 0.619 0.565 - 0.357 - - 0.636 - 0.495 0.286
Mehran-89 0.387 0.588 - - - 0.471 0.677 - 0.237 - 0.153
Earthen silo Moomal 0.384 - - - 0.346 - 0.655 - 0.231 0.856 -
TJ-83 - - - 0.436 - 0.473 - 0.642 - - 0.293
Imdad 2005 0.372 0.607 - 0.434 - - - 0.629 0.234 - -
Abadgar-93 - 0.619 0.565 - 0.357 - - 0.636 - 0.495 0.286
Mehran-89 0.387 0.588 - - - 0.471 0.677 - 0.237 - 0.153
Iron bins Moomal 0.384 - - - 0.346 - 0.655 - 0.231 0.856 -
TJ-83 - - - 0.436 - 0.473 - 0.642 - - 0.293
Imdad 2005 0.372 0.607 - 0.434 - - - 0.629 0.234 - -
Abadgar-93 - 0.619 0.565 - 0.357 - - 0.636 - 0.495 0.286
Mehran-89 0.387 0.588 - - - 0.471 0.677 - 0.237 - 0.153
89
Correlation of various wheat varieties under the influence of storage sources
Extent of relationship (r)
The extent of relationship (Figure 1-4) showed that seed protein
content of wheat was positively associated with nitrogen (r=0.98), wet gluten with
starch (r=0.70), potassium with starch (r=0.57), and phosphorus with lipids (r=0.53).
However, the rest of the traits showed non-significant relationship with each other.
Coefficient of determination (R2)
The coefficient of determination showed that total variation in seed
protein content was due to its association with nitrogen (97%), wet gluten with starch
(49%), potassium with starch (33%), and phosphorus with lipids (28%).
Correlation coefficient (b)
The correlation coefficient indicated a unit increase in nitrogen content
resulted in corresponding increase of seed protein content by 5.48%, unit increase in
wet gluten correspondingly increased starch by 0.49%, unit increase in potassium
increased starch by 32.23%, and unit phosphorus increased lipids by 0.90%.
Student T value
The calculated Student T value was observed for seed protein content
vs nitrogen (23.93), wet gluten vs starch (4.70), potassium vs starch (3.41), and
phosphorus vs lipids (3.025), all being greater than book value at 5% level of
probability, which shows that correlation is statistically significant.
90
y = 5.4858x + 0.532
R2 = 0.97
12.80
13.00
13.20
13.40
13.60
13.80
14.00
2.24 2.26 2.28 2.30 2.32 2.34 2.36 2.38 2.40 2.42 2.44
N (%)
Pro
tein
(%
)
Figure 1. Correlation between seed protein content and seed N content as affected by storage sources
y = -0.4964x + 80.147
R2 = 0.49
64.0
65.0
66.0
67.0
68.0
69.0
70.0
20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0
Gluten (%)
Sta
rch
(%
)
Figure 2. Correlation between starch content and seed wet gluten as affected by storage sources
91
y = 32.23x + 53.519
R2 = 0.33
64.00
65.00
66.00
67.00
68.00
69.00
70.00
0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48
K (%)
Star
ch (
%)
Figure 3. Correlation between seed starch content and seed K as affected by storage sources
y = 0.9045x + 0.9592
R2 = 0.28
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75
P (%)
Lip
ids
(%)
.
Figure 4. Correlation between seed lipid content and seed P as affected by storage sources
92
Experiment 2. Effect of different temperature regimes on the germinability of different wheat varieties
Germination (%) The statistical results for germination showed significant effects of
different wheat varieties, temperature regimes, and interactive effect of varieties x
temperature regimes (Appendix V).
The mean data for the varietal performance revealed that varieties
Moomal-2000 and Mehran-89 recorded higher germination (93.3 and 92.0 %). Both
cultivars showed non-significant differences with each other. The lower germination
(84.0%) was observed in Abadgar-93 (Table 18).
The results of the study for temperature regimes revealed that optimum
temperature (20oC) recorded significantly higher germination (94.0%) followed by
higher temperature of 30oC (89.6%). The minimum germination (86.0%) was noted in
lower temperature regime of 10oC (Table 19).
The interactive effect of varieties x temperature regimes for this
character showed highest germination of 97% in Abadgar-93 treated at 30oC, 96% in
TJ-83 and Imdad-2005 treated at 10 and 20oC, respectively. Values of these treatment
combinations were non-significant with each other. The results further revealed lower
germination (82 and 80%) in Mehran-89 and TJ-83 treated at 20 and 30oC,
respectively (Table 20A).
93
Table 18. Germination traits of different wheat varieties, means averaged across temperature regimes
Parameters
Wheat varieties LSD
(5%)
SE
Moomal- 2000
TJ-83 Imdad-2005
Abadgar-93
Mehran-89
Germination (%) 93.3 a 90.3 b 89.0 b 84.0 c 92.0 a 1.60 0.554
Shoot Length (cm) 8.5 d 10.6 b 9.0 c 10.6 b 10.8 a 0.18 0.623
Root length (cm) 6.4 e 7.6 c 6.9 d 7.9 b 8.3 a 0.10 0.034
Fresh shoot wt. (mg) 3444.0 d 3471.7 c 3545.4 b 3298.6 e 3694.3 a 1.16 0.402
Dry shoot wt. (mg) 217.6 d 221.4 c 227.2 b 212.2 e 233.1 a 1.27 0.438
Fresh root wt. (mg) 306.3 d 306.0 d 311.5 b 309.3 c 327.2 a 1.27 0.441
Dry root wt. (mg) 107.8 c 107.3 c 112.1 b 108.2 c 113.8 a 1.62 0.561
Seed vigor index 796.6 d 971.8 b 804.6 d 892.1 c 1006.2 a 20.10 7.080
In each row, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
94
Shoot length (cm) The shoot length data were subjected to analysis of variance. The
statistical analysis showed significant differences for tested wheat varieties,
temperature regimes, and their interactive effects (Appendix V).
The results of the experiment exhibited significantly higher shoot
length (10.5 cm) in Mehran-89, followed by Abadgar-93 and TJ-83 both recorded
equal (10.6 cm) shoot length. The minimum shoot length (8.5 cm) was noted in
Moomal-2000 (Table 18).
Shoot length significantly increased with unit increase in temperature.
Maximum shoot length (12.7 cm) was found under 30oC, followed by 20oC (9.8 cm).
Shoot length decreased with temperature fall and was minimum (7.2 cm) in 10oC
(Table 19).
The interactive effect of varieties x temperature regimes recorded
higher shoot length (14 cm) in Moomal-2000 and Mehran-89 when treated with 20
and 30oC, followed by 13.5 cm in TJ-83 treated at 30oC. The lower values of shoot
length (6.5 cm) were noted in Moomal-2000 when treated at 10oC (Table 20A).
95
Table 19. Germination traits of different wheat varieties under the influence of different temperature regimes, the means averaged across varieties
Parameters Temperature regimes LSD
(5%)
SE
100C 200C 300C
Germination (%) 86.0 c 94.0 a 89.6 b 1.24 0.429
Shoot Length (cm) 7.2 c 9.8 b 12.7 a 0.13 0.048
Root length (cm) 6.1 c 7.5 b 8.6 a 0.07 0.027
Fresh shoot wt. (mg) 3105.6 c 3510.1 b 3856.8 a 0.90 0.311
Dry shoot wt. (mg) 196.1 c 242.6 a 228.2 b 0.98 0.339
Fresh root wt. (mg) 287.0 c 314.8 b 334.4 a 0.98 0.341
Dry root wt. (mg) 96.8 c 111.8 b 121.0 a 1.20 0.434
Seed vigor index 620.1 c 922.6 b 1140.2 a 15.60 5.484
In each row, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
96
Root length (cm) The statistical analysis of variance for root length of wheat varieties as
affected by different temperature regimes and their combined interactive effects
exhibited significant differences (Appendix V).
The root length was found higher (8.3 cm) in Mehran-89 followed by
Abadgar-93 (7.9 cm), TJ-83 (7.6 cm) and Imdad-2005 (6.9 cm). The lower root length
(6.4 cm) was noted in Moomal-2000 (Table 18).
Temperature regimes significantly affected root length of wheat.
Increase in temperature significantly increased root length. Maximum root length (8.6
cm) was observed where plants were kept at 30oC, followed by 7.5 cm root length at
20oC. The lower temperature regime of 10oC recorded minimum root length (6.1 cm)
(Table 19).
Interaction effect of wheat varieties x temperature regimes had
significant effect on root length. Seeds of Mehran-89 treated at higher temperature of
30oC significantly produced more root length (9.6 cm), followed by Moomal-2000
when treated at 20oC. However, lower root length (5.8 cm) was found in Moomal-
2000 and TJ-83 treated at 10 and 20oC respectively (Table 20A).
97
Seed vigor index Statistical analysis for seed vigor index of different wheat varieties,
temperature regimes and their interactive effect are presented as Appendix V. The
results for seed vigor index showed significantly different for varieties, temperature
and interaction of varieties and temperature.
In case of varieties, variety Mehran-89 showed maximum seed vigor
(1006.22) followed by variety TJ-83 (971.89) where as minimum seed vigor index
(796.67) was noted from variety Moomal-2000 (Table 18).
Results for temperature regimes impact on seed vigor index showed
that at temperature 30oC the seed vigor index was maximum (1140.2) followed by,
922.60 at temperature 20oC. Whereas, at temperature 10oC the lowest seed vigor
index (620.13) was recorded (Table 19).
The interactive effect for included that maximum seed vigor index
(1291.33) was obtained from the interaction of temperature 20oC and variety
Moomal-2000. Whereas, at the same temperature i.e. 20oC the lowest value of seed
vigor index (594.67) was found in variety TJ -83 (Table 20A).
Overall results of the study revealed higher seed vigor index in
Mehran-89 as compared to Moomal-2000, TJ-83, Imdad-2005, and Abadgar-93.
However, different temperature regimes significantly affected seed vigor index. It was
found higher when seeds were sown at 30oC.
98
Fresh shoot weight (mg) Statistical analysis of variance for fresh shoot weight of different wheat
varieties, temperature regimes and their interactive effect is displayed as Appendix V.
The statistical results for fresh shoot weight showed significant differences among
varieties, temperature regimes, and varieties x temperature regimes.
The results for performance of wheat varieties for fresh shoot weight
showed that Mehran-89 was efficient variety and produced greater fresh shoot weight
(3694.3 mg), followed by Imdad-2005 (3545.4 mg) and TJ-83 (3471.7 mg). Among
the tested varieties, the lower fresh shoot weight (3298.6 mg) was recorded in
Abadgar-93 (Table 18).
The results of the study for fresh shoot weight as affected by
temperature regimes revealed that increased temperature regimes significantly
increased fresh shoot weight. The higher fresh shoot weight (3856.8 mg), followed by
3510.1 was obtained when wheat seeds were treated with 30 and 20oC respectively.
However, lower temperature regimes of 10oC produced less fresh shoot weight (Table
19).
The interactive effect of varieties x temperature regimes for this trait
recorded maximum fresh shoot weight (4238 mg) in Mehran-89 treated with 30oC,
followed by, Abadgar-93 (4186 mg), while TJ-83 recorded minimum (3010 mg) fresh
shoot weight (Table 20B).
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Fresh root weight (mg) The statistical results for fresh root weight showed significant effect of
different wheat varieties, temperature regimes, and interactive effect of varieties x
temperature regimes (Appendix V).
The mean data for the varietal performance showed that Mehran-89
recorded higher fresh root weight (327.2 mg), followed by Imdad-2005 (311.5 mg)
and Abadgar-93 (309.3 mg). The lower fresh root weight (306.3 and 306.0 mg) was
observed in Moomal-2000 and TJ-83 respectively (Table 18).
The results of the study for temperature regimes revealed that higher
temperature (30oC) significantly recorded maximum fresh root weight (334.4 mg),
followed by optimum temperature of 20oC (314.8 mg). The minimum fresh root
weight (287.0 mg) was noted in lower temperature regime of 10oC (Table 19).
The interactive effect of varieties x temperature regimes for this
showed highest fresh root weight (362.0 mg) in Mehran-89 when treated at 30oC,
followed by 340.0 mg 50 plants-1 in Abadgar-93 treated at 20oC. The results further
revealed lower fresh root weight (277.3 and 279.0 mg) in TJ-83 and Moomal-2000
treated at 20 and 10oC respectively (Table 20B).
100
Dry shoot weight (mg) The statistical analysis of variance for dry shoot weight of wheat
varieties as affected by different temperature regimes and their combined interactive
effect showed significant differences (Appendix V).
The shoot dry weight was found higher (233.1 mg) in Mehran-89,
followed by Imdad-2005 (227.2 mg), TJ-83 (221.4 mg) and Moomal-2000 (217.6
mg). The lower shoot dry weight (212.2 mg) was noted in Abadgar-93 (Table 18).
Temperature regimes significantly affected shoot dry weight of wheat.
Maximum shoot dry weight (242.6 mg) was observed where plants received 20oC,
followed by 228.2 mg shoot dry weight in 30oC. The lower temperature regime of
10oC recorded minimum shoot dry weight (196.1 mg) (Table 19).
Interactive effect of wheat varieties x temperature regimes had
significant effect on shoot dry weight. Seeds of Abadgar-93 treated with higher or
optimum temperature of 20 and 30oC significantly produced more shoot dry weight
(255.0 mg), followed by Mehran-89 treated with 10oC. However, lower shoot dry
weight (185 mg) was found in TJ-83 treated with 20oC (Table 20B).
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Root dry weight (mg) The root dry weight data were analyzed for analysis of variance. The
statistical analysis showed significant differences for tested wheat varieties,
temperature regimes, and their interactive effect (Appendix V).
The results of the experiment recorded significantly higher root dry
weight (113.8 mg) in Mehran-89, followed by Imdad-2005 (112.1 mg). However,
Moomal, TJ-83 and Abadgar-93 recorded lower (107.2-107.8 mg) root dry weight and
their mean values were non-significant (Table 18).
Root dry weight significantly increased with unit increase in
temperature. Maximum dry root weight (121.0 mg) was observed under 30oC,
followed by 20oC (111.8 mg). Root dry weight decreased as the temperature
decreased and was minimum (96.8 mg) when seeds were given 10oC (Table 19)
The interactive effect of varieties x temperature regimes recorded
higher root dry weight (131.0 mg) in Mehran-89, followed by 124.0 root dry weight
in Abadgar-93 treated with 20oC. The interactive effect trend for rest of treatment was
not clear (Table 20B).
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Table 20A. Germination traits under the interactive effect of varieties x temperature regimes
Source of variation Germination
(%)
Shoot length (cm)
Root length (cm)
Seed vigor index
Temperature x varieties
10oC Moomal-2000 88.0 cd 6.5 i 5.8 k 571.6 h
TJ-83 96.0 a 8.4 f 6.3 i 810.2 e
Imdad-2005 96.0 a 10.5 d 7.3 g 1008.0 c
Abadgar-93 90.3 bc 7.7 g 6.0 j 701.3 f
Mehran-89 88.6 cd 10.0 e 7.7 f 923.0 d
20oC Moomal-2000 92.0 b 14.0 a 9.1 b 1291.3 a
TJ-83 85.0 e 7.0 h 5.7 k 594.6 gh
Imdad-2005 96.0 a 8.5 f 6.8 h 816.0 e
Abadgar-93 86.0 de 11.6 c 8.2 e 1003.3 c
Mehran-89 80.0 f 7.8 g 6.7 h 624.0 g
30oC Moomal-2000 90.0 bc 10.5 d 8.1 e 945.3 d
TJ-83 82.0 f 13.5 b 8.9 c 1107.0 b
Imdad-2005 87.0 de 7.0 h 6.6 h 609.0 g
Abadgar-93 97.0 a 11.5 c 8.7 d 1118.3 b
Mehran-89 92.0 b 14.0 a 9.6 a 1291.3 a
LSD (%) 2.78 0.31 0.17 34.96
SE 0.961 0.108 0.060 12.643
In each column, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
103
Table 20B. Germination traits under the interactive effect of varieties x temperature regimes
Source of variation Fresh shoot wt. (mg)
Fresh root wt. (mg)
Shoot dry wt. (mg)
Root dry wt. (mg)
Temperature x varieties
10oC Moomal-2000 3032.0 n 279.0 j 198.0 j 96.6 h
TJ-83 3550.0 g 310.0 f 230.0 f 112.0 ef
Imdad-2005 3750.0 c 330.0 c 225.0 g 115.0 cd
Abadgar-93 3140.0 m 288.0 i 197.3 j 97.0 h
Mehran-89 3580.3 f 305.0 g 248.6 b 107.0 g
20oC Moomal-2000 3695.0 d 325.0 d 218.3 h 118.0 c
TJ-83 3010.0 o 277.3 j 185.3 k 97.0 h
Imdad-2005 3440.3 h 317.3 e 241.3 d 115.3 cd
Abadgar-93 4186.0 b 340.0 b 255.0 a 124.0 b
Mehran-89 3180.0 k 301.0 h 201.0 i 97.3 h
30oC Moomal-2000 3301.0 j 311.6 f 238.0 e 110.3 f
TJ-83 3415.0 i 315.3 e 197.6 j 117.0 cd
Imdad-2005 3166.0 l 289.6 i 199.0 ij 96.0 h
Abadgar-93 3679.0 e 330.0 c 255.0 a 114.6 de
Mehran-89 4238.0 a 362.0 a 245.3 c 131.0 a
LSD (%) 0.69 0.76 0.76 0.91
SE 2.018 2.213 2.202 2.815
In each column, means followed by common letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.
104
Correlation of various wheat varieties under the influence of temperature regimes
Extent of relationship (r) The extent of relationship (Figure 5-8) showed that seedling shoot
length was positively associated with root length (r=0.95), fresh root weight with
fresh shoot weight (r=0.94), root dry weight with root fresh weight (r=0.94), shoot
length with seed vigor index (r=0.97), and germination with seed vigor index
(r=0.34).
Coefficient of determination (R2)
The coefficient of determination shows that total variation in seedling
shoot length was due to its association with root length (92%), fresh root weight with
fresh shoot weight (89%), root dry weight with root fresh weight (90%), shoot length
with seed vigor index (95%), and germination with seed vigor index (12%).
Correlation coefficient (b)
The correlation coefficient indicates a unit increase in root length
resulted in corresponding increase of shoot length by 1.95 cm, unit increase in fresh
root weight correspondingly increased fresh shoot weight 15.26 cm, unit increase in
root dry weight increased fresh root weight by 0.44 mg, unit increase in seed index
vigor increased shoot length by 0.001 cm, and unit germination increased seed index
vigor by 16.49%.
Student T value The calculated Student T value observed for shoot length vs root
length was 4.24, fresh root weight vs fresh shoot weight 2.15, root dry weight vs root
fresh weight 4.41, shoot length vs seed vigor index 10.81, and germination vs seed
vigor index 10.12.
105
y = 1.9549x - 4.6315
R2 = 0.92
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
Root length (cm)
Shoo
t le
ngth
(cm
)
Figure 5. Correlations between seedlings shoot length and root length as
affected by temperature regimes
y = 0.4484x - 30.048
R2 = 0.90
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
250 270 290 310 330 350 370
Fresh root weight (mg)
Roo
t dr
y w
eigh
t (m
g)
Figure 6. Correlation between seedlings fresh root weight and root dry weight
as affected by temperature regimes
106
y = 0.0104x + 0.6254
R2 = 0.95
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400
Seed vigour index
Sho
ot le
ngt
h (c
m)
Figure 7.Correlation between seedling shoot length and seed vigor index as
affected by temperature regimes
y = 16.49x - 585.28
R2 = 0.12
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
75 80 85 90 95 100
Germination (%)
See
d v
igou
r in
dex
Figure 8.Correlation between germination and seed vigor index as affected by temperature regimes
107
Summary
Laboratory investigations were carried out at Department of
Agronomy, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Pakistan, located at 25o25’60’N
68o31’ 60E during 2007 and 2008.
Experiment-1 entitled “Seed quality assessment of various wheat
varieties in various seed storage structures” consisted of Factor-A= 05 wheat
varieties (Moomal 2000, TJ-83, Imdad-2005, Abadgar-93 and Mehran-89), Factor B=
05 storage sources (Jute bags kept under open sky covered with plastic, jute bags kept
in closed storage, plastic bags kept in closed storage, earthen silo, and iron bins), and
Factor C= 02 storage periods (90 and 180 days)
Experiment-2 entitled “Effect of different temperature regimes on the
germinability of different wheat varieties” comprised Factor-A=05 wheat varieties
(Moomal-2000, TJ-83, Imdad-2005, Abadgar-93 and Mehran-89), Factor B= 03
temperature regimes (10, 20 and 30oC).
The results are summarized as follows:
Physical characteristics of wheat varieties
Seed index (1000 grain weight)
Higher seed index (41.7 and 41.4 g) was observed when seed was
stored in iron bins for 90 and 180 days respectively. The greater seed index (44.8
and 44.6 g) was observed in Imdad-2005 kept for 90 and 180 days. Maximum seed
index (45.2 g) in Imdad-2005 stored in iron bins followed by 44.8 and 44.7 g seed
index in same variety stored in earthen silo and or jute bags kept in closed storage,
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respectively. However, minimum seed index (36.3 g) was noted in TJ-83 stored in
jute bags (closed storage).
Moisture
The maximum seed moisture content (11.8%) was observed in iron
bins kept for 90 days followed by 11.3% in same storage source when seed was
kept for 180 days. The minimum seed moisture content (9.6-9.8%) was noted in
jute bags kept under open sky covered with plastic and or jute bags kept in closed
storage. Maximum moisture content (12.1%) was found in the seed of Moomal-
2000 stored for 90 days, followed by 11.2% moisture content in the same variety
stored for 180 days. However, minimum moisture content (9.8%) was noted in the
seed of Mehran-89 stored for 180 days. Among the varieties and storage sources,
higher moisture content (12.4%) was observed in the seed of Moomal-2000 stored
in iron bins. The lower moisture content was noted in the seed of Mehran-89
stored in jute bags under open sky covered with plastic.
Germination
Maximum germination (90%) was noted when seed was stored in
earthen silo. The mean germination values (89.2-89.6%) were non-significant in
all the treatments except interactive effect of iron bins x 180 storage days. Higher
germination (96.2%) was found in the seed of Moomal-2000 stored for 90 days
followed by same variety (94.7%) stored for 180 days. The lower germination
(81.6%) was observed when the seed of Abadgar-93 stored for 90 or 180 days. The
results for this trait showed 81.1-96.5% germination, being higher in the seed of
Moomal-2000 stored in earthen silo, and or plastic and jute bags kept in closed
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storage, or under open sky covered with plastic. The lower seed germination was
observed from the seed of Abadgar-93 stored in various storage sources.
Chemical properties of wheat varieties
Protein
Higher protein content (13.8%) was observed when seed was stored in
jute bags kept in closed storage for 90. However, lower protein (12.6%) was noted in
the iron bins where seed was stored for 180 days. The greater protein content
(13.7%) was observed in the seeds of Moomal-200, TJ-83 and Mehran-89 kept for
90 days. However, minimum protein content (12.8%) was found in the seed of
Abadgar-93 kept for 180 days. The maximum seed protein content (13.8) was
found in TJ-83 and Mehran-89, Moomal-2000 and Imdad-2005 stored in Jute bags
kept closed storage or under open sky covered with plastic. However, minimum
seed protein (12.9%) was noted in Imdad-2000 stored in jute bags kept in closed
storage or iron bins.
Wet gluten
The maximum seed wet gluten content (28%) was noted in jute bags
put under closed storage for 90 days. Maximum seed wet gluten content (283%)
was found in the seed of Abadgar-93 stored for 90 days. The minimum seed wet
gluten content (24.9 and 25.1%) was noted in the seed of Moomal-2000 stored for
180 and 90 days respectively. Among the varieties and storage sources, higher
seed wet gluten content (29.9%) was observed in the seeds of Mehran-89 and
Abadgar-93 stored in jute bags kept in closed storage or under open sky covered
with plastic. The lower seed wet gluten content (23.3-23.6%) was noted in the
seed of Abadgar-93 and Mehran-89 stored in iron bins.
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Starch
Higher starch content (67.4%) was obtained when seed was stored in
iron bins for 180 days. Lower starch content (65.9%) was noted in the jute bags kept
in closed storage for 90 days. The greater starch content (68.5%) was observed
from the seeds of Moomal-2000 kept for 90 or 180 days. The minimum starch
content (65.1%) was found in the seed of Abadgar-93 kept for 90 days. The
maximum starch content (69.7%) was found in Moomal-2000. The minimum
starch content (64.6-64.8%) was noted in Abadgar-93 and Mehran-89 stored in
jute and plastic bags kept in closed storage.
Ash Maximum seed ash content (1.6%) was noted when seed was stored
in jute bags under closed storage for 180 days. The minimum ash content (1.3%)
was observed from the seed stored in jute bags stored in closed storage, earthen
silo and iron bins for 90 days. Higher seed ash content (1.71%) was found in the
seed of Moomal-2000 stored for 180 days. The lower seed ash content (1.30%)
was observed from the seed of TJ-83 stored for 90 days. The overall results for
this showed 1.30-1.65% seed ash content, being higher in the seed of Abadgar-93
stored in any type of storage source. The lower seed ash content was observed in
the seed of TJ-83 stored in plastic bags kept in closed storage or earthen silo.
Lipids
Higher seed lipid content was produced (1.49-1.50%) were recorded
when seed was stored in different storage sources kept for 90 or 180 days except jute
bags under open sky covered with plastic which had lower (1.44%) lipid content in
seed stored for 90 or 180 days. Higher seed lipid content (1.67%) was observed in
111
the seeds of TJ-83 stored for 90 or 180 days. The minimum seed lipid content
(1.32%) was found in the seed of Mehran-89 kept for 180 days. Higher seed lipid
content (1.68-1.69%) was observed in the seeds of TJ-83 stored in various storage
sources. However, the minimum seed lipid content (1.32%) was noted in Mehran-
89 stored iron bins.
pH
Seed pH content in various varieties, storage periods, storage sources,
storage periods x storage sources, storage periods x varieties, storage sources x
varieties ranged between 6.2 and6.3.
EC
In all the storage sources EC ranged between 40.1 and-40.2 µs,
being slightly higher in the seed stored in jute bags kept under open sky covered with
plastic. The EC ranged between 40.1 and-40.2 µs in the interactive effect of
storage periods x storage sources. Higher EC (44.0 and 43.9 µs) was observed
from the seed of Moomal-2000 stored for 90 and 180 days, respectively. The
lower EC (35.9-36.0 µs) was found in the seed of Mehran-89 stored for 90 or 180
days. Higher EC of 44.0 µs was found in the seed of Moomal-2000 stored in all
type of storage sources and periods. The lower EC (36.0 µs) was observed in the
seed of Mehran-89.
Falling number
The maximum falling numbers (692.3 and 690.6 seconds) were
noted in earthen silo and in plastic bags kept closed storage for 90 days. The
minimum falling number (646.1 and 642.3 seconds) was observed in the seed
stored in earthen silo and jute bags under open sky covered with plastic for 180
112
and 90 days, respectively. Higher values of falling numbers (885.0 and 871.4
seconds) were found in the seed of TJ-83 stored for 90 and 180 days, respectively.
The minimum falling number 455.7 seconds was noted in Abadgar-93 where seed
was stored for 90 days. Among the varieties and storage sources, higher values of
falling number (886.3 seconds) were noted in the seeds of TJ-83 stored in various
storage sources. The lower falling number (435.6 seconds) was noted from the
seed of Abadgar-93 stored in jute bags kept in iron bins.
Nitrogen
Higher seed N content (2.42%) was noted when seed was stored in
jute bags put in closed storage for 90 days, however, lower N content (2.20%) in
seed was noted when seed was stored in iron bins kept for 180 days. Higher seed N
accumulation (2.41%) was observed in the seeds of TJ-83 and Mehran-89 stored
for short period of 90 days; however, the minimum seed N content (2.24%) was
found in the seed of Abadgar-93 kept for 180 days. Higher seed N content (2.42%)
was observed in the seeds of TJ-83 and Mehran-89 stored in jute bags kept under
open sky covered with plastic or kept in closed storage. However, the minimum
seed N content (2.26%) was also observed in the seed of Abadgar-93 stored in iron
bins.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus content of the seed under the interactive effect of
storage periods x storage sources had non-significant differences among the
treatments and exhibited 0.58% seed phosphorus content in all the interaction
treatments. Higher seed phosphorus content (0.71%) was found in the seed of
Moomal-2000 stored for 90 or 180 days. The lower seed phosphorus content
113
(0.48-0.49%) was observed in the seed of Imdad-2005 stored for 90 or 180 days.
The results for this study showed 0.71% seed phosphorus content in Mehran-89.
The lower seed phosphorus content was observed in the seed of Imdad-2005 stored
in jute bags kept under open sky covered with plastic.
Potassium
Wheat grain stored for two periods viz. 90 and 180 days statistically
showed non-significant differences and seed potassium content was 0.41% for both
of the storage periods. Similar vales were also found in various storage sources, and
interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources. The greater seed potassium
content (0.45%) was observed in Moomal-2000 stored for 90 and 180 days.
However, the lower (0.37%) seed potassium content was noted in Mehran-89
stored for 180 days. The maximum seed potassium content (0.44-0.46%) was
found in Moomal-2000 and minimum seed potassium content (0.37-0.38%) was
noted in Mehran-89 stored in all types of storage sources.
Free amino acids through thin layer chromatography
Arginine was found only in Moomal-2000, Imdad-2005, and Mehran-
89. Cystein hydrochloride was noted in Imdad-2005, Abadgar-93 and Mehran-89.
Glutamic acid was present in only Abadgar-93. Glycine was observed in two wheat
varieties viz. TJ-83 and Imdad-2005. Histidine was noted in Moomal-2000 and
Abadgar-93. Hydroxy-proline was found in TJ-83 and Mehran-89. Valine was noted
in Moomal-2000 and Mehran-89. β-phenylalanine was observed in rest of the
varieties viz. TJ-83, Imdad-2005 and Abadgar-93. L-ornithine monohydrochloride
was present in Moomal-2000, Imdad-2005 and Mehran-89. The 3-4 dihydroxyphenyl-
114
alanine was noted Moomal-2000 and Abadgar-93. The unknown amino acids were
noted in TJ-83, Abadgar-93 and Mehran-89.
Effect of temperature regimes on wheat seed germinability Germination The highest germination of 97% was recorded in Abadgar-93 at 30oC,
96% in TJ-83 and Imdad-2005 at with 10 and 20oC, respectively. Values of these
treatment combinations were non-significant with each other. The results further
revealed lower germination (82 and 80%) in Mehran-89 and TJ-83 at 20 and 30oC,
respectively.
Shoot length Higher shoot length (14 cm) was observed in Moomal-2000 and
Mehran-89 at 20 and 30oC, followed by 13.5 cm in TJ-83 at 30oC. The lower values
of shoot length (6.5 cm) were noted in Moomal-2000 at 10oC.
Root length Seeds of Mehran-89 at temperature of 30oC significantly increased
more root length (9.6 cm), followed by Moomal-2000 at 20oC. However, lower root
length (5.8 cm) was found in Moomal-2000 and TJ-83 treated with 10 and 20oC.
Fresh shoot weight Maximum (4238 mg. 50 plants-1) fresh shoot weight were recorded in
Mehran-89 at 30oC, followed by Abadgar-93 (4186 mg 50 plants-1), while TJ-83
recorded minimum (3010 mg 50 plants-1) fresh shoot weight.
115
Fresh root weight The highest fresh root weight (362.0 mg 50 plants-1) was noted in
Mehran-89 at 30oC, followed by 340.0 mg 50 plants-1 in Abadgar-93 at 20oC. The
results further revealed lower fresh root weight (277.3 and 279.0 mg 50 plants-1) in
TJ-83 and Moomal-2000 at 20 and 10oC, respectively.
Dry shoot weight Seeds of Abadgar-93 at higher or optimum temperature of 30 and
20oC significantly produced more dry shoot weight (255.0 mg 50 plants-1), followed
by Mehran-89 at 10oC. However, lower dry shoot weight (185) was found in TJ-83 at
20oC.
Dry root weight Higher dry root weight (131.0) was produced byMehran-89, followed
by 124.0 dry root weight in Abadgar-93 at 20oC. The interactive effect trend for rest
of treatments was not clear.
116
CHAPTER-V
DISCUSSION
Deterioration of stored grain is caused mainly by climatic
(temperature, humidity) and other factors like, storage conditions, types and duration.
Such losses could not easily be reduced in the absence of well integrated methods
(Tyler and Boxall, 1984). Losses of wheat due to inadequate storages could be up to 4
percent (McFarlane, 1989), though losses in excess of 40 percent for other cereals are
not uncommon (NRC, 1996).
Physical properties
As regards physical losses viz. seed weight, moisture content and
reduction in germination of wheat seed, the present investigations showed significant
variations among varieties and their interactive effects with other factors studied. The
higher seed weight was found in variety Imdad-2005 stored in iron bins for 90 or 180
days, and minimum in variety TJ-83 when stored in jute bags and kept in closed
storage. The higher moisture content in the seed stored in bins may be due to the fact
that wheat grains were not exposed directly to the sun which causes evaporation.
However seed stored in plastic and jute bags, which were kept under open sky and
store houses, was exposed to sun and air directly which caused reduction in seed
moisture. Variety Moomal-2000, as compared to all other varieties, possessed higher
moisture content and showed better germination ability when stored in earthen silo for
90 days. In this study, the higher germination in Moomal-2000 could be due to its
genetic potentiality. Reports of Ellis et al. (1989, 1990); Vertucci and Roos (1990)
showed that moisture content differed between genotypes. However, Parker (1980);
Wade (1970); Finney et al. (1978) and Boyacıoğlu (1994) found that germinability
117
of wheat is related to starchy endosperm of the developing grain which supports
germination. Hay et al. (1997) and Chai et al. (1998) observed major differences in
deterioration rates in samples obtained from same species, which were credited for
differences in seed quality.
In this study, the seeds of all wheat varieties were sun-dried and stored
in different storage structures with 11-12% seed moisture content. Many
investigations have also shown the beneficial effects of optimum seed moisture during
storage whereas, drying below critical moisture content will not improve longevity
(Ellis et al., 1988, 1989, 1990) and may have harmful effects on seed survival
(Vertucci and Roos, 1990; Vetucci et al., 1994). This study was planned according to
suggestions for critical moisture level which is important for maximum seed
longevity. Early reports (Kosar and Thompson, 1957; Nutile, 1964; Nakamura, 1975;
Woodstock et al., 1976; Nishiyama, 1977) also showed low germination in seeds
stored under extremely dry conditions. The studies of Rockland (1969) and Labuza
(1980) were also consistent with the findings that over drying caused more rapid
deterioration
In Pakistan, most of the farmers store grain in traditional stores which
are made withmud and straw material, but have no potential to reduce post harvest
grain losses. This study recommends iron bins for maintaining seed quality
characters; however, for seed purpose the traditionally built earthen silo was found
efficient storage source which is also used by the farming community in the country
side.
In this study, all the seed traits under the influence of storage periods
viz. 90 and 180 days were non-significant; however, values of some seed traits
118
including germination reduced to some extent when stored for the period of 180 days.
Singh et al. (2000) also observed minimal reduction in seed germination when grain
was stored approximately for five months. The reports of various researchers
(Vertucci and Roos, 1990; Carpenter and Boucher, 1992; Dickie and Smith, 1995;
Ellis et al., 1995; Buitink et al., 1998; Chai et al., 1998; Hu et al., 1998a,b; Kong and
Zhang, 1998; Shen and Qi, 1998) have also demonstrated harmful effects on stored
seed with time. In Uganda, grain stored in traditional stores for six months lost 8-9 %
of its weight due to attack of grain weevils (Youdeowei, 1983), about 28% maize
grain losses occurred when stored in cribs for four months in Nigeria (Ogunlane,
1976) and over all 23 to 35 % losses in maize occurred annually in developing
countries (Wheatley, 1973). However, negligible seed weight losses were noted in this
study due to the fact that precautionary measures were taken to control insect and pest
attack.
Regular monitoring of grain stores is important for identifying possible
damages related to seed moisture and temperature, which may cause grain weight
losses (Campion et al., 1987). Therefore, it is suggested that less than 12.5 percent
grain moisture should be maintained to avoid grain deterioration in storage (Lapp et
al., 1986). In this study moisture content near to 12.5 percent was maintained during
storage period.
Chemical properties
Protein
Wheat, among the cereals, has high nutritive value and is being
extensively utilized as staple diet which supply the basic nutritional requirements of
human beings, but its protein content is low (Schaafsma, 2005). Olered and Johnson
119
(1986) suggested that protein content of the wheat grain is most important character in
determination of wheat quality. Siddiqui (1972); Siddiqui and Doll (1973);
Siddiqui et al. (1975) and Siddiqui (2005) also reported that protein content is a key
quality factor that determines suitability of wheat for a particular type of
prepared product.
In this study, seeds of Mehran-89 had significantly maximum (13.8%)
protein content as compared to TJ-83, Mehran-89, Moomal-2000 and Imdad-2005
stored in jute bags and kept in closed storage or under open sky covered with
plastic sheets. The protein content of Mehran-89 was within the acceptable range
(12%) as reported by Olered and Johnson (1986); FAO (2002) and 8-12 % as
suggested by Bean et al. (1998). Canada Grain Council (1989) has also suggested that
wheat should have enough grain protein concentration for bread production.
The variation in protein content of wheat varieties could be due to their
varietal potential and their environment. When same genotype is cultivated under
different environmental conditions a variation in grain protein concentration can be
obtained (Lang et al., 1998; Gibson and Benson, 2002). However, Graybosch et al.
(1996), Triboi et al. (2000) and Zhu and Khan (2001) observed that protein
composition of genotypes was mostly affected by environmental factors and
interaction of genotype and environment. In this study there is significant variation in
protein content amongst genotypes which is in accordance with Cornell and Hovelling
(1998) who also reported that wheat quality is mainly influenced by genetic makeup
of the variety.
Starch Starch is a major component of most of the cereals and is responsible
in providing major amount of nutrients and vast amount of energy in the human food.
120
In this study, wheat varieties significantly differed for starch content. Among the
wheat varieties, Moomal-2000 had maximum starch content, followed by Imdad-
2005, TJ-83 (66.9) and Mehran-89. The minimum starch content was found in
Abadgar-93. However, wheat grains stored for different periods showed non-
significant differences statistically for starch content. Seed stored in different storage
sources showed significant differences. The maximum starch content was noted when
seed was stored in iron bins and jute bags and kept under open sky.
Wet gluten
The rubbery mass that is left when wheat flour is washed with water to
remove starch, non-starchy polysaccharides, and water-soluble constituents is called
gluten (Wall, 1979; Wieser, 2007). In this study, the maximum seed wet gluten
content (28.3%) was found in the seed of Mehran-89 and Abadgar-93 when stored
in jute bags and kept in closed storage or under open sky covered with plastic for
90 days. The seed wet gluten content in various storage sources showed variation,
which was also at par with wheat varieties.
The baking characters of wheat flour are changed to a substantial level
by the circumstances and period of its storage (Wang and Flores, 1999). Gaines
(1991) and Souza et al. (1994) also suggested that varieties with high gluten content are
good for yeast raised bread, which requires an elastic framework. On the other hand,
weak wheat flour is best suited for cakes and for biscuit making if gluten is present
at appropriate level. In this study, all the varieties were found to be most suitable for
bread making process due to high gluten content.
As regards the investigations on various wheat varieties stored for 90
and 180 days in various storage sources, the preclusive findings were observed.
121
However, findings of Seguchi et al. (1998) and Wang and Flores (1999) showed
enrichment in wheat baking quality due to long grain storage. Whereas, Srivastava
and Haridas (1991) and Sur et al. (1993) reported negative effect of long period
storage on gluten content.
Ash
It is understood that for determination of wheat grain quality for
milling purpose importance should be given to its ash content. As reported by
Swanson (1932, 1948), ash is the measurement of thoroughness of the separation of
bran from endosperm which indicates the key value of ash.
In this study, ash content in seed ranged from 1.30 to 1.65% in various
wheat varieties irrespective of storage condition. Morris et al. (1945) also reported
high ash content in seed due to season, soil, and wheat variety. These findings agree
with those reported by Peterson et al. (1986) that genotypes vary in their seed
ash content. Several reports also pointed out the environmental effects on ash
content (Cubadda et al., 1969) and there is a strong relationship between
genotype and environment for ash content (Fares et al., 1996).
Ash content from 0.25-0.35% was reported by Swanson (1932,
1948) which is quite low as compared to the findings of the present study (1.30 to
1.65%). The difference in ash content of grain endosperm may be due to genotypic
variations (Peterson et al., 1986; Swanson, 1932, 1948), environmental impact
(Cubadda et al., 1969) and genotype and climate interaction (Fares et al.,
1996). Posner (1991); Posner and Hibbs (1997) were also of the same opinion that if
genotypes differ in ash content, obviously there is an important role of weather
conditions.
122
Lipids
Wheat flour quality and bakery products are determined by availability
of lipids in the grain, which varies greatly within species (Haridas and Rao, 1999).
This study also showed variation in lipid content of wheat varieties, being higher
(1.67%) in the seeds of TJ-83 irrespective of storage sources and storage periods.
Comparing other crops, it was noted that lipid content in wheat was lower than oats
(5.9%), maize (4.9%), pearl millet (4.7%) and sorghum (3.9%) as observed by Alias
and Linden (1991). Moreover, this study showed higher lipid content in TJ-83 than
brown rice (1.6%) and barley (1.1%) as reported by Becker and Hanners (1991).
Furthermore, Sroan and MacRitchie (2009) reported that although flour lipids
constitute only a minor proportion of total flour components, they have a significant
influence on loaf volume and crumb grain of bread.
pH
In this study, pH content in the seed of various varieties under
different storage periods, storage sources and their interactive effects ranged between
6.2 and 6.3. The non-significant differences in pH may be due to the reasons that no
external or internal salt problem existed in various storage structures and storage
sources.
EC
The EC content in the seeds of different wheat varieties, storage
sources and storage periods were in the acceptable ranges for milling as well as
agricultural purposes.
123
Falling number
This test gives an indication of the amount of sprout damage that has
occurred within a wheat sample. Generally, a falling number value of 350 seconds or
longer indicates low enzyme activity and very sound wheat seed. Falling Number
value of greater than 250 is generally acceptable for bread making. As the amount
of enzyme activity increases, the falling number decreases. Values below 200
seconds indicate high levels of enzyme activity. Pasha et al. (2007) and Zahoor
(2003) have also demonstrated that Pakistani wheat is low in amylase activity as
indicated by their falling numbers exceeding 400 sec In this study, all the wheat
varieties and their interactive effects with storage periods and storage sources had
falling number more than 400 seconds which indicate suitability of the wheat
varieties for milling and bread making purposes.
Germination and related trait
In this study, higher germination was recorded in Moomal-2000
when seed was stored for 90 days in earthen silo, and/or plastic and jute bags kept
in closed storage, or under open sky covered with plastic. However, rest of wheat
varieties had lower seed germination. This seems that seed kept for lesser days (90
days) germinated well as compared to longer periods of 180 days. With regard to
storage sources, earthen silo was suitable storage source which maintained
optimum moisture and temperature levels inside the storage structures and these
factors favored seed germinability.
Chowdhury and Wardlaw (1978) reported that manipulation in
environmental temperature related to field conditions is a very difficult task; the
selection of crops therefore is often made on the basis of their response to the
124
temperature conditions of that area, because temperature mostly influenced
germinating seeds (George, 1967; Olsson and Mattson, 1976; Strand, 1980; Vegis,
1964; Weisner and Grabe, 1972).
Temperature also influences the evaporation, transpiration and growth
of plant (Wanjura and Buxtor, 1972). Congruent to this study, three temperature
regimes viz. 10, 20 and 30oC were tested against five wheat varieties. The 20 and
30oC temperatures favored higher germination in Abadgar-93, TJ-83 and Imdad-2005.
In this study the result revealed that root length, fresh shoot weight, fresh root weight,
and dry root weight were also high due to 20 and 30oC temperatures regimes. This
suggests that the varieties tested lacked the ability to sustain low temperature (10oC)
and had significant differences for germination and seedling related traits. Mahan et
al. (1995) also observed thermal stress effects on the physiology and morphology of
root system which ultimately influenced movement of water in the plant. In this study,
germinating seeds had satisfactory root length because roots are main sink for
assimilates in germinating wheat seeds (Cook and Evans, 1978; Hay and Walker,
1989).
In this study, wheat varieties with high protein content had more
germination, seedling vigor and related seed germination traits. Evans and Bhatt
(1977) also supported these findings that grain protein played an important role for
seedling vigor and supply energy for seedling growth.
The results of the present study agree with those reported by Al-Qasem
et al. (1999) that no germination occurred at 5oC and that germination was higher at
20 and 30oC. Nyachiro et al. (2002) reported higher value of germination at 15oC and
125
20oC. Yasonori et al. (2002) found greater germination at 12oC as compared to 20oC.
In this regard, Essemine et al. (2002), supporting present findings, stated that
germination is very sensitive to environmental conditions, particularly the
temperature. Optimum temperature supports physiological and biochemical processes
during wheat seed germination and low and high temperatures cause delay in
germination.
In this study, germination was associated with seed vigor index,
because it is an indicator of seed quality and is directly influenced by temperature
regimes. The varietal variation for this trait could be due to genetic make-up of the
material. The significant differences in crop species and cultivars were also observed
by Ashraf and Abu-Shakra (1978). In most of the crop species, seed germination
increases as temperature rises. However, some crop species have higher percentage of
germination at lower temperature as reported by Harrington (1923) that low
temperature regimes break seed dormancy in wheat, whereas, in this study wheat
varieties had lower seed germination percentage at 10oC. The effects of varying
temperatures on seed germination have been well documented for various species
(Totterdell and Roberts, 1980; Probert et al., 1985; Ekstam et al., 1999; Robert et al.,
2008). Vertucci and Roos (1990) also reported the effect of temperature on seed
germination. Thus, it seems possible that germination of wheat grains might be
stimulated by alternating temperatures.
126
CHAPTER-VI
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions Wheat in Pakistan is grown over a wide agro-climatic range with
anticipated differences in germinability due to physical and chemical characteristics
of seeds. The present investigations on effect of grain storage structures and
temperatures on seed quality and germinability of different wheat varieties concludes
that:
1. Wheat variety Moomal-2000 had highest percentage of germination, wet
gluten, phosphorous and potassium contents. Variety Meharn-89 contained
maximum percentage of protein and low starch and potassium. Variety Imdad-
2005 had bolder grains, with lower percentage of germination and phosphorus.
Variety TJ-83 had lighter grains with lesser percentage of ash, whereas variety
Abadgar-93 possessed higher ash and lower protein content across storage
sources and storage periods.
2. Storage periods (90 and 180 days) showed very little or no effect on the
chemical as well as physical properties of wheat seed.
3. Seed stored in iron bins recorded higher 1000 grain weight, moisture and
starch content. Whereas, germination reduced in case when seed was stored in
iron bins.
127
4. Protein remained intact in case when wheat seeds were stored in jute bags and
kept in closed stores. A substantial reduction in protein content was recorded
when seed was stored in plastic bags and kept in closed stores and iron bins.
5. Wet gluten and ash content were higher when seed was stored in jute bags
under closed storage conditions.
6. Lipid content in seeds showed no specific trend due to the influence of storage
sources, except where seed was kept in jute bags and placed under open sky.
7. With regard to effect of temperature on seed germination traits, the seeds at
20 or 30oC responded well for germination, seed vigor index, length, fresh and
dry weight of shoot and root of Moomal-2000 and Mehran-89.
Recommendations
The information obtained in this study could be useful for researchers, farmers,
millers, bakers and daily cereal users. All the wheat varieties were found suitable
for milling, bread, chapatti and yeast leavened bread bearing adequate protein,
starch, ash, wet gluten, lipids and higher falling number. Among the storage
sources and periods, iron bins are recommended for seed storage whether stored
for 90 or 180 days for maintaining physico-chemical properties except when stored
for seed purpose where earthen silos are suitable. All the varieties when sown at
temperatures 20 or 30oC responded positively for germination and related traits.
128
CHAPTER-VII
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155
APPENDICES
Appendix I. Mean square for 1000 grain weight, moisture and germination of seed of
various wheat varieties, storage periods and storage sources Source of variation
DF 1000 Grain wt. (g) Moisture (%) Germination (%)
Replication 2 0.035 0.158 0.187
Periods (P) 1 0.615 0.165 1.460
Storages (S) 4 4.798 ** 13.062 ** 31.690 **
P X S 4 6.679 ** 0.358 16.477 **
Varieties (V) 4 320.646 ** 12.844 ** 918.440 **
P X V 4 0.942 ** 0.618 ** 2.893 *
S X V 16 0.823 ** 0.572 ** 2.178 *
P X S X V 16 0.006 ** 0.198 1.264
Error 98 0.055 0.161 1.166
CV (%) 0.57 2.65 1.21
* = Significant at 5% probability level ** = Significant at 1% probability level
156
Appendix II. Mean square for protein, gluten, ash and lipid content of seed of various wheat varieties, storage periods and storage sources
Source
of variation
DF Protein
(%)
Gluten (%)
Starch
(%)
Ash
(%)
Lipids
(%)
Replication 2 0.111 1.476 0.476 0.001 0.0001
Periods (P) 1 0.142 0.426 0.536 0.001 0.0001
Storages (S) 4 2.156 64.819** 28.263** 0.006 ** 0.018 **
P X S 4 2.790 ** 5.173 ** 3.257 ** 0.007 ** 0.001 **
Varieties (V) 4 3.301 ** 43.13 ** 48.23 ** 0.496 ** 0.656 **
P X V 4 4.82 ** 3.734 ** 3.721 ** 0.101 ** 0.002 **
S X V 16 3.140 ** 8.893 ** 9.112 ** 0.005 ** 0.002 **
P X S X V 16 0.127 0.324 0.221 0.001 0.0001
Error 98 0.116 0.485 0.452 0.001 0.0001
CV (%) 2.54 2.60 3.19 2.95 3.15
* = Significant at 5% probability level ** = Significant at 1% probability level
157
Appendix III. Mean square for pH, EC and falling numbers in seed of various wheat
varieties, storage periods and storage sources
Source of variation
DF pH EC Falling numbers
Replications 2 0.001 0.212 124.620
Periods(P) 1 0.002 0.103 271.360
Storages (S) 4 0.002 0.135 6045.943**
P X S 4 0.001 1.756 ** 5050.910**
Varieties 4 0.002 4.450 ** 1144834.210**
P X V 4 0.001 4.388 ** 3311.210 **
S X V 16 0.001 3.740 ** 2728.327 **
P X S X V 16 0.001 0.413 249.522
Error 98 0.008 0.572 440.137
CV (%) 1.44 0.99 440.137
* = Significant at 5% probability level ** = Significant at 1% probability level
158
Appendix IV. Mean square for N, P and K content in seed of various wheat varieties, storage periods and storage sources
Source of variation
DF N (%)
P (%)
K (%)
Replication 2 0.003 0.0010 0.0001
Periods (P) 1 0.003 0.0001 0.0001
Storages (S) 4 0.064 ** 0.0001 0.0012 **
P X S 4 0.030 ** 0.0001 0.0110 **
Varieties (V) 4 0.032 ** 0.2380 * 0.0230 **
P X V 4 0.019 ** 0.0011 ** 0.0041 **
S X V 16 0.015 ** 0.0012 ** 0.0023 **
P X S X V 16 0.005 0.0001 0.0001
Error 98 0.004 0.0001 0.0001
CV (%) 3.82 2.63 3.37
* = Significant at 5% probability level ** = Significant at 1% probability level
159
Appendix V. Mean square for germination traits of various wheat varieties as affected by different temperature regimes
Source
Of variation
DF Germination
Shoot length
(cm)
Root
length
(cm)
Fresh
shoot wt
(mg)
Fresh
root wt
(mg)
Shoot
dry
wt (mg)
Root
dry
wt (mg)
Seed
Vigor
Index
Replication 2 0.867 0.02 0.003 0.289 0.156 0.067 2.022 153.622
Varieties (V) 4 116.700 10.30 5.088 188728.033 690.97 595.944 77.05 81265.078
Temp. regimes (T) 2 209.267 114.95 22.678 2120316.0 8531.76 8492.867 2240.15 1023262.9
T x V 8 33.267 1.70 0.414 128770.033 401.62 668.478 42.82 17687.428
Error 28 2.771 0.035 0.011 1.456 1.751 1.733 2.83 451.241
CV (%) 1.86 1.89 1.41 0.03 0.42 0.59 1.53 2.38
160
Appendix VI. Wheat chemical properties under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties
Source of variation
Moisture (%)
1000 Grain Wt (g)
Germination (%)
Storage periods x storage sources x varieties90 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered
with plastic Moomal-2000 11.833 39.000 96.000 TJ-83 9.700 37.133 92.000 Imdad-2005 9.833 44.300 86.000 Abadgar-93 9.733 40.900 81.667 Mehran-89 9.367 43.300 92.000
Jute bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 12.133 39.300 96.333 TJ-83 9.833 36.400 92.000 Imdad-2005 9.867 44.800 85.333 Abadgar-93 9.933 41.200 81.333 Mehran-89 9.500 43.800 91.333
Plastic bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 12.333 39.400 97.000 TJ-83 10.200 36.500 92.333 Imdad-2005 10.200 45.100 86.000 Abadgar-93 9.833 41.300 82.000 Mehran-89 9.867 44.133 91.000
Earthen silo Moomal-2000 11.767 39.200 97.000 TJ-83 10.500 36.300 93.000 Imdad-2005 10.533 44.900 86.000 Abadgar-93 10.567 41.300 82.000 Mehran-89 10.900 44.300 92.000
Iron bins Moomal-2000 12.400 39.900 95.000 TJ-83 11.767 37.300 92.667 Imdad-2005 12.000 45.300 85.000 Abadgar-93 11.467 41.700 81.333
Mehran-89 11.267 44.500 91.000 180 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered
with plastic Moomal-2000 10.433 38.400 96.000 TJ-83 9.433 36.100 92.000 Imdad-2005 9.533 44.100 86.000 Abadgar-93 9.500 40.133 82.000 Mehran-89 9.133 42.800 92.000
Jute bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 10.767 39.100 96.000 TJ-83 9.600 36.200 91.000 Imdad-2005 9.733 44.600 86.000 Abadgar-93 9.700 41.000 81.000 Mehran-89 9.300 40.400 92.000
Plastic bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 12.033 39.100 96.000 TJ-83 10.000 36.400 92.000 Imdad-2005 10.433 44.800 85.000 Abadgar-93 9.900 41.200 82.000 Mehran-89 9.833 43.800 92.000
Earthen silo Moomal-2000 10.267 39.000 96.000 TJ-83 10.133 36.833 92.000 Imdad-2005 10.233 44.700 85.667 Abadgar-93 10.233 41.200 82.000 Mehran-89 10.233 43.700 92.000
Iron bins Moomal-2000 12.400 39.600 89.667 TJ-83 10.933 37.100 88.000 Imdad-2005 11.467 45.100 82.000 Abadgar-93 10.833 41.300 81.000 Mehran-89 10.967 44.100 87.000
SE 0.2314 0.1352 0.6235
161
Appendix VII. Wheat chemical properties under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties
Source of variation pH EC Falling numbers
Storage periods x storage sources x varieties 90 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered
with plastic Moomal-2000 6.30 44.0 485.000 TJ-83 6.30 39.9 891.000 Imdad-2005 6.33 37.9 663.667 Abadgar-93 6.30 43.0 434.000 Mehran-89 6.26 36.0 842.000
Jute bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 6.33 44.0 381.000 TJ-83 6.30 40.0 886.667 Imdad-2005 6.30 38.0 665.000 Abadgar-93 6.30 42.9 437.000Mehran-89 6.30 36.0 854.333
Plastic bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 6.30 44.0 552.333 TJ-83 6.30 39.9 891.000 Imdad-2005 6.30 38.0 695.000 Abadgar-93 6.30 43.0 440.000 Mehran-89 6.30 36.0 875.000
Earthen silo Moomal-2000 6.30 43.9 553.333 TJ-83 6.30 39.7 886.333 Imdad-2005 6.30 38.0 659.000 Abadgar-93 6.30 43.0 523.000 Mehran-89 6.30 35.9 840.000
Iron bins Moomal-2000 6.30 44.1 487.667TJ-83 6.33 39.4 870.000 Imdad-2005 6.30 38.0 728.000 Abadgar-93 6.30 43.0 444.667 Mehran-89 6.30 36.0 824.333
180 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
Moomal-2000 6.30 44.0 477.333l TJ-83 6.30 39.9 855.000 Imdad-2005 6.30 38.0 610.000 Abadgar-93 6.33 43.0 427.667 Mehran-89 6.30 36.1 841.667
Jute bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 6.30 44.0 547.667 TJ-83 6.30 39.7 874.000 Imdad-2005 6.33 38.0 685.000 Abadgar-93 6.30 43.0 434.333 Mehran-89 6.30 36.0 867.667
Plastic bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 6.30 44.0 546.667 TJ-83 6.30 39.9 881.667 Imdad-2005 6.30 38.0 665.000 Abadgar-93 6.30 43.0 438.333 Mehran-89 6.30 35.6 866.667
Earthen silo Moomal-2000 6.30 44.0 537.667 TJ-83 6.30 40.0 877.333 Imdad-2005 6.30 38.0 660.000 Abadgar-93 6.30 42.9 442.333 Mehran-89 6.30 36.0 830.000
Iron bins Moomal-2000 6.30 43.9 465.667 TJ-83 6.30 39.7 869.000 Imdad-2005 6.30 38.0 631.333 Abadgar-93 6.26 43.0 437.000 Mehran-89 6.30 36.1 827.667
SE 0.0524 0.1210 12.1125
162
Appendix VIII. Wheat chemical properties under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties
Source of variation N% P% K% Storage periods x storage sources x varieties 90 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered
with plastic Moomal-2000 2.433 0.713 0.450 TJ-83 2.433 0.627 0.403 Imdad-2005 2.333 0.480 0.417 Abadgar-93 2.293 0.527 0.420 Mehran-89 2.413 0.567 0.380
Jute bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 2.417 0.720 0.450 TJ-83 2.453 0.623 0.403 Imdad-2005 2.467 0.483 0.410 Abadgar-93 2.347 0.530 0.423 Mehran-89 2.433 0.563 0.380
Plastic bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 2.400 0.713 0.453 TJ-83 2.423 0.623 0.410 Imdad-2005 2.310 0.493 0.410 Abadgar-93 2.473 0.530 0.423 Mehran-89 2.417 0.567 0.370
Earthen silo Moomal-2000 2.400 0.720 0.453 TJ-83 2.420 0.620 0.397 Imdad-2005 2.363 0.497 0.407 Abadgar-93 2.363 0.530 0.420 Mehran-89 2.433 0.557 0.383
Iron bins Moomal-2000 2.380 0.717 0.460 TJ-83 2.363 0.617 0.397 Imdad-2005 2.313 0.497 0.420 Abadgar-93 2.347 0.533 0.423 Mehran-89 2.387 0.553 0.380
180 DAH Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
Moomal-2000 2.400 0.720 0.443 TJ-83 2.417 0.633 0.400 Imdad-2005 2.330 0.477 0.417 Abadgar-93 2.277 0.523 0.413 Mehran-89 2.397 0.570 0.387
Jute bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 2.413 0.717 0.457TJ-83 2.400 0.620 0.403 Imdad-2005 2.347 0.487 0.417 Abadgar-93 2.367 0.530 0.420 Mehran-89 2.420 0.573 0.377
Plastic bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 2.200 0.717 0.453 TJ-83 2.277 0.623 0.420Imdad-2005 2.260 0.480 0.410 Abadgar-93 2.183 0.530 0.417 Mehran-89 2.383 0.580 0.373
Earthen silo Moomal-2000 2.260 0.717 0.457 TJ-83 2.257 0.627 0.397 Imdad-2005 2.240 0.483 0.407Abadgar-93 2.227 0.527 0.410 Mehran-89 2.380 0.580 0.373
Iron bins Moomal-2000 2.223 0.713 0.460 TJ-83 2.203 0.620 0.400 Imdad-2005 2.233 0.493 0.410 Abadgar-93 2.183 0.530 0.417 Mehran-89 2.200 0.583 0.377
SE 0.0359 0.0089 0.0080
163
Appendix IX. Wheat chemical properties under the interactive effect of storage periods x storage sources x varieties
Source of variation
Protein%
Wet gluten %
Starch %
Ash %
Lipids %
storage periods x storage sources x varieties 90 DAH
Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
Moomal-2000 13.900 24.800 69.9 1.473 1.510 TJ-83 13.900 28.567 66.8 1.300 1.620 Imdad-2005 13.333 25.900 67.2 1.410 1.480 Abadgar-93 13.100 30.067 65.1 1.610 1.310 Mehran-89 13.800 28.500 66.6 1.510 1.310
Jute bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 13.800 25.433 68.4 1.493 1.610 TJ-83 14.000 27.400 67.1 1.307 1.690 Imdad-2005 14.100 27.833 65.2 1.413 1.490 Abadgar-93 13.400 29.267 64.1 1.610 1.407 Mehran-89 13.900 30.200 64.5 1.513 1.310
Plastic bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 13.700 25.800 67.9 1.500 1.610 TJ-83 13.700 27.633 67.0 1.303 1.697 Imdad-2005 13.200 27.467 68.0 1.417 1.510 Abadgar-93 13.500 29.400 65.8 1.603 1.350 Mehran-89 13.800 27.833 64.4 1.510 1.340
Earthen silo Moomal-2000 13.700 26.000 67.7 1.490 1.590 TJ-83 13.800 26.900 67.1 1.297 1.680 Imdad-2005 13.500 26.333 68.3 1.410 1.520 Abadgar-93 13.500 29.733 65.0 1.590 1.380 Mehran-89 13.900 28.067 65.1 1.517 1.350
Iron bins
Moomal-2000 13.600 23.833 68.5 1.460 1.620 TJ-83 13.500 24.767 67.1 1.333 1.700 Imdad-2005 13.200 25.967 67.7 1.413 1.500 Abadgar-93 13.400 23.467 65.6 1.630 1.370 Mehran-89 13.633 23.567 66.8 1.527 1.320
180 DAH
Jute bags under open sky covered with plastic
Moomal-2000 13.700 24.700 69.6 1.707 1.510 TJ-83 13.800 28.033 65.8 1.300 1.620 Imdad-2005 13.300 25.367 68.2 1.690 1.490 Abadgar-93 13.000 29.767 65.5 1.683 1.300 Mehran-89 13.700 28.000 66.7 1.490 1.290
Jute bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 13.800 25.100 68.6 1.723 1.610 TJ-83 13.700 26.933 67.2 1.353 1.690 Imdad-2005 13.400 27.767 67.3 1.710 1.490 Abadgar-93 13.500 29.067 65.1 1.690 1.400 Mehran-89 13.800 29.767 64.8 1.547 1.313
Plastic bags kept in closed storage Moomal-2000 12.567 25.667 68.1 1.733 1.600 TJ-83 13.000 26.167 67.3 1.300 1.687 Imdad-2005 12.900 27.300 68.1 1.720 1.500 Abadgar-93 12.467 28.600 65.2 1.703 1.340 Mehran-89 13.600 29.100 65.2 1.500 1.340
Earthen silo Moomal-2000 12.900 25.567 68.1 1.697 1.580 TJ-83 12.900 25.633l 67.1 1.310 1.680 Imdad-2005 12.800 25.900l 68.3 1.710 1.510 Abadgar-93 12.700 28.967 65.2 1.723 1.370 Mehran-89 13.600 28.133 65.2 1.490 1.343
Iron bins
Moomal-2000 12.700 23.500 68.7 1.697 1.620 TJ-83 12.700 24.533 67.1 1.337 1.670 Imdad-2005 12.767 26.033 68.1 1.517 1.497 Abadgar-93 12.467 23.267 66.1 1.677 1.360 12.567 23.433 67.0 1.633 1.330
SE 0.1964 0.4022 0.1155 0.00577 0.00577
164
Appendix X. Agro-meteorological data of Tandojam
Months 2006 2007 Total Rain
(m.m)
Temperature (Celsius)
Relative Humidity
(%)
Wind velocity
Total Rain
(m.m)
Temperature
(Celsius)
Relative Humidity
(%)
Wind velocity
Min: Co
Max: Co
Min: Co
Max: Co
January 00 7.4 24.4 67 3.5 00 8.2 24.8 68 2.4 February 00 14.4 31.6 66 3.2 0.12 12.2 28.9 71 2.6 March 1.6 15.0 33.0 61 4.2 1.5 15.1 32.2 60 3.7 April 0.1 20.9 38.8 58 6.9 00 21.4 39.8 58 6.6 May 00 25.3 41.4 62 11.6 00 24.5 40.0 65 6.4 June 1.2 26.4 39.2 67 10.7 1.7 26.4 37.5 73 10.3 July 1.7 26.6 36.5 75 11.0 0.4 26.6 36.4 76 9.0 August 4.3 24.6 33.8 84 5.8 2.3 25.3 35.8 79 8.1 September 6.3 24.0 35.0 80 6.1 0.1 24.0 36.8 71 6.6 October 00 21.9 35.8 74 4.1 00 17.0 36.5 60 3.2 November 00 15.5 31.8 69 2.0 00 14.2 33.8 67 2.3 December 0.4 9.9 24.2 74 2.2 0.9 8.4 24.1 64 2.6 Total 15.6 231.9 435.5 638 71.3 7.02 233.3 406.6 812 63.8 Mean 1.3 19.3 33.8 69.7 5.9 0.585 18.6 33.8 67.7 5.3
Months 2008 2009 Total Rain
(m.m)
Temperature (Celsius)
Relative Humidity
(%)
Wind velocity
Total Rain
(m.m)
Temperature
(Celsius)
Relative Humidity
(%)
Wind velocity
Min: Co
Max: Co
Min: Co
Max: Co
January 0.3 6.2 21.6 63 3.4 0.1 8.5 23.5 72 2.8 February 00 6.1 27.0 60 2.7 0.1 10.6 28.9 68 2.6 March 00 14.7 35.8 59 4.1 00 15.0 35.5 61 3.0 April 0.3 19.9 38.8 61 6.8 00 18.3 39.0 50 3.3 May 00 24.8 40.0 61.0 12.1 00 22.5 41.8 61 6.7 June 0.03 26.2 38.2 68 9.4 0.2 24.9 39.9 71 7.3 July 0.8 25.6 36.3 74.0 10.3 2.8 25.8 37.1 75 6.4 August 1.4 24.1 34.1 79 7.9 2.3 26.0 35.0 78 8.1 September 00 23.5 36.5 72 6.6 0.1 24.4 35.0 77 6.6 October 00 19.7 36.8 69 5.3 00 19.3 35.8 67 4.7 November 00 12.8 31.3 63 3.4 00 13.8 30.6 61 2.9 December 0.7 11.4 24.3 76 2.0 00 10.5 25.4 65 3.4 Total 3.53 215 400.7 805 74 5.6 219.6 407.5 806 57.8 Mean 0.29 17.91 33.4 67 6.2 0.46 18.3 33.95 67 4.8
Source: Regional Agro Met Centre, Tandojam.
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PLACE OF WORK Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam.
DURATION OF WORK Three years
EDUCATIONAL UNIT INVOLVED Department of Agronomy Faculty of Crop Production Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam.
SUPERVISOR DR. FATEH CHAND OAD Associate Professor Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Crop Production Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam.
CO-SUPERVISOR-I DR. GHULAM HYDER JAMRO Professor (Rtd.) Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Crop Production, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam.
CO- SUPERVISOR-II DR. MOHAMMAD IBRAHIM KEERIO Professor Department of Crop Physiology Faculty of Crop Production Sindh Agriculture University, Tando Jam
STUDENT MAHMOODA BURIRO Reg. No. PhD-2K5-AG-18