phi1500:$$ major$issues$in$philosophy$ · 2014-10-06 · state$of$nature$$ •...
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PHI 1500: Major Issues in Philosophy
Session 9 October 6th, 2014
Human Nature: Rousseau 1
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• Jean-‐Jacques Rousseau (1712-‐1778): French, known for his contribuMons to social, poliMcal, and moral philosophy – DissaMsfied with aristocraMc society – Inspired French revoluMonaries to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic
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• In Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, Rousseau answers the quesMons: – How does inequality arise among men? – Is inequality a consequence of our human nature?
• He agrees with Hobbes that all men are equal by nature – …but provides a very different descripMon of human nature – …and consequently derives very different conclusions about effecMve governments.
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State of Nature • Rousseau notes the difficulty of making “sound judgments
regarding the natural state of man” (1) – “On this subject I could form only vague and almost imaginary conjectures.” (ibid.)
– …because the historical records are incomplete, prevenMng scienMsts from making definite conclusions.
– He decides to assume that ancient humans looked just like humans do today.
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• He is concerned with disambiguaMng traits of modern man from early man.
• Repeatedly criMcizes Hobbes for confusing traits that are the products of human civilizaMon with traits that belong to our nature.
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Rousseau’s Vision of Early Humans • “…an animal less strong than
some, less agile than others, but all in all, the most advantageously organized of all.” (1) – “all his needs are saMsfied,” so he is happy. (ibid.)
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• Unlike Hobbes, who “maintains that man is naturally intrepid and seeks only to aaack and to fight,” Rousseau asserts that – “nothing is as Mmid as man in the state of nature, and that he is always
trembling and ready to take flight at the slightest sound he hears or at the slightest movement he perceives.” (ibid.)
– …but he learns not to fear other animals, acer coexisMng peacefully with them.
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Nature è Health, CivilizaMon è Harm • In nature, the biggest dangers to men are – “natural infirmiMes” (disability &/or weakness) – wounds
• In modern society, one also has to contend with: – old age – disease
• To Rousseau, more civilizaMon = more problems. – “[W]hen one becomes aware of the fact that [men in the state of nature knew] almost no illnesses…
– one is strongly inclined to believe that someone could easily write the history of human maladies by following the history of civil socieMes.” (1)
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• Rousseau thinks civilizaMon has changed us for the worse. – “…we must take care not to confuse
savage man with the men we have before our eyes.” (1)
• Argument by analogy: – Wild animals have “a more robust
consMtuMon, more vigor, more strength, and more courage” than their domesMcated counterparts.
– They “lose half of these advantages in becoming domesMcated . . .
– It is the same for man himself. – In becoming habituated to the ways of
society and a slave, he becomes weak, fearful, and servile.” (1-‐2)
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Difference between Humans & Animals • Rousseau says that animals are like machines:
they reflexively react to things in the environment. – Human beings someMmes act like this too… but each person also “contributes, as a free agent, to his own operaMons” (2): people have free will.
– They can choose to act against nature. • “Nature commands every animal, and beasts obey.
• Man feels the same impetus, but he knows he is free to go along or to resist;
• and it is above all in the awareness of this freedom that the spirituality of his soul is made manifest.” (ibid.)
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Difference between Humans & Animals • “…there is another very specific quality
which disMnguishes them and about which there can be no argument: – the faculty of self-‐perfec4on, – which . . . resides among us as much in the
species as in the individual.” (2)
• Rousseau thinks animals do not seek to improve themselves and their species in the way that humans do. – Human passion and reason tempt men to develop beyond their natural state, “ceasing to be savage” (3)
– And this, Rousseau thinks, does more harm than good for us.
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The Trade-‐Off: Happiness vs. Progress • Rousseau thinks man is perfectly
happy in the state of nature: he has everything he needs and no reason to fight with or fear anyone.
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• But if he remains that way, he cannot make intellectual progress. • “What progress could the human race make, scaaered in the
woods among the animals? • And to what extent could men mutually perfect and enlighten one
another, when, with neither a fixed dwelling nor any need for one another, they would hardly encounter one another twice in their lives, without knowing or talking to one another[?]” (3-‐4)
• Without language or communiMes, men would be happy – but dumb.
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EvoluMon of Language & Culture • According to Rousseau, “Man's first language, the
most universal . . .is the cry of nature” – but this is only used under extraordinary circumstances (4) – “When the ideas of men begin to spread and mulMply, and closer communicaMon was established among them, they sought more numerous signs and a more extensive language.” (ibid.)
– People developed gestures, then spoken words in order to represent ideas with signs agreed upon by convenMon
– “Such a subsMtuMon [of gestures/words for ideas] could only be made by a common consent,” or “unanimous agreement” among all people.
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• Rousseau thinks that we aren’t naturally suited to live in society. – “…it is clear . . . how liale [nature] prepared [men] for becoming habituated to the ways of society,
– and how liale she contributed to all that men have done to establish the bonds of society.” (4)
• Rather, he thinks that we are naturally self-‐sufficient & content. – “In fact, it is impossible to imagine why, in that primiMve state, one man would have a greater need for another man than a monkey or a wolf has for another of its respecMve species.” (ibid.)
– “…what kind of misery can there be for a free being whose heart is at peace and whose body is in good health?” (ibid.)
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Rousseau vs. Hobbes
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• Contra Hobbes, Rousseau thinks men are much more miserable today than they could have been in the state of nature. – Living by “insMnct alone, man had everything he needed in order to live
in the state of nature.” (ibid.) – Thus, he wouldn’t have anything to complain/despair about.
• Similarly, Rousseau thinks we shouldn’t jump to the conclusion that early man was selfish and bloodthirsty. – “Above all, let us not conclude with Hobbes that because man has no
idea of goodness he is naturally evil; – that he is vicious because he does not know virtue; – ….or that . . . he foolishly imagines himself to be the sole proprietor of
the enMre universe.” (5)
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Rousseau vs. Hobbes
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• Rousseau thinks Hobbes: – “wrongly injected into the savage man's concern for self-‐preservaMon the need to saMsfy a mulMtude of passions which are the product of society” (5)
• Rousseau believes that – “neither the development of enlightenment nor the restraint imposed by the law” are necessary for men to behave virtuously.
– Rather, they people naturally peaceful and moral: – “the calm of the passions and the ignorance of vice…prevents them from doing evil” (5)
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Rousseau vs. Hobbes
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Natural Pity • People have an “innate repugnance to seeing
his fellow men suffer” (6): we naturally sympathize with other people. – Pity is automaMc (unreflecMve), universal, and so basic that even animals can show it
– We even feel pity for ficMonal characters.
• “…from this quality alone flow all the social virtues” (ibid.) – Nature, in giving men tears, bears witness that she gave the human
race the socest hearts. “..what are generosity, mercy, and humanity, if not pity applied to the weak, to the guilty, or to the human species in general[?]
– Benevolence and even friendship are, properly understood, the products of a constant pity fixed on a parMcular object; for is desiring that someone not suffer anything but desiring that he be happy?” (ibid.)
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Natural Pity • Rousseau thinks our tendency to idenMfy with other people
“must have been infinitely closer in the state of nature than in the state of reasoning.” (6)
• Reason: – “… is what engenders egocentrism, and reflecMon strengthens it. – …turns man in upon himself. – …what separates him from all that troubles him and afflicts him. – Allows people to think, “at the sight of a suffering man, ‘Perish if you will;
I am safe and sound.’ ” (ibid.)
• Early man is moved by sen9ment instead of reason. – He could not, like modern men, ignore other people’s suffering. – He lacked the modern “talent” for tuning out other people’s concerns – “…for lack of wisdom and reason he is always seen thoughtlessly giving in
to the first senMment of humanity.” 15
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Pity Enables Peaceful Society • “It is therefore quite certain that pity is a natural senMment,
which, by moderaMng in each individual the acMvity of the love of oneself, contributes to the mutual preservaMon of the enMre species. – Pity is what carries us without reflecMon to the aid of those we see suffering.
– Pity is what, in the state of nature, takes the place of laws, mores, and virtue, with the advantage that no one is tempted to disobey its sweet voice.
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• …Instead of the sublime maxim of reasoned jusMce, Do unto others as you would have them do unto you, pity inspires all men with another maxim of natural goodness…:
• Do what is good for you with as li;le harm as possible to others.” (6-‐7)
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Natural Equality • In the state of nature, we were all equal. – “…if one compares[:]
• the prodigious diversity of educaMons and lifestyles in the different orders of the civil state • with the simplicity and uniformity of animal and savage life, where all nourish themselves from the same foods live in the same manner, and do exactly the same things,
– it will be understood how much less the difference between one man and another must be in the state of nature than in that of society,
– and how much natural inequality must increase in the human species through inequality occasioned by social insMtuMons.” (8)
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Inequality is a Consequence of CivilizaMon
• No one could be subordinated by another person unMl we all became dependent upon each other (instead of self-‐sufficient). – “…it is impossible to enslave a man without having first put him in the posiMon of being incapable of doing without another.”
• In other words, there is no such thing as “natural slavery” – contra Aristotle.
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The Road to Modern Society • Private property led to inequality and conflict. – “The first person who, having enclosed a plot of land, took it into his head to say ‘this is mine’ and found people simple enough to believe him, was the true founder of civil society.
– What crimes, wars, murders, what miseries and horrors would the human race have been spared, had someone pulled up the stakes or filled in the ditch and cried out to his fellow men: • ‘Do not listen to this impostor. You are lost if you forget that the fruits of the earth belong to all and the earth to no one!’ “ (8)
– “…according to the axiom of the wise Locke, where there is no property, there is no injury.” (10)
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• Early people had no need for family or community. – But to make progress,they had to bond together.
• First, each person had to recognize that others had needs and wishes like his/hers. – “…seeing that [his fellow men] all acted as he would have done
under similar circumstances, he concluded that their way of thinking and feeling was in complete conformity with his own.
– And this important truth, well established in his mind, made him follow . . .the best rules of conduct that it was appropriate to observe toward them for his advantage and safety.” (9)
• People gradually learned that they could accomplish more by cooperaMng with each other than by pursuing goals individually. – “This is how men could impercepMbly acquire some crude idea of
mutual commitments and of the advantages to be had in fulfilling them” (ibid.)
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• Family life generated love. – “The habit of living together gave rise to the sweetest senMments known to men: conjugal love and paternal love.
– Each family became a liale society all the beaer united because mutual aaachment and liberty were its only bonds” (9)
• …but also caused people to “lose something of their ferocity and vigor” (ibid.) – Nobody had to be strong enough to defend themselves on their own, because they had families to back them up.
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• Family life also allowed people to enjoy leisure Mme & conveniences – But Rousseau thinks this was a bad development:
– “that was the first yoke they imposed on themselves without realizing it, and the first source of evils they prepared for their descendants.” (10)
• And eventually, public life led to concerns about reputaMon and interpersonal compeMMon.
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- And this was the first step toward inequality and, at the same Mme, toward vice.
- From these first preferences were born vanity and contempt on the one hand, and shame and envy on the other.” (10)
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The Golden Age • Rousseau thinks the best Mme for humanity was in the early stages of society – This “must have been the happiest and most durable epoch . . . the least subject to upheavals and the best for man” (11)
• At that point we had: – Sympathy for one another – CooperaMon – Some intellectual advances
• But we had not yet developed: – Cold, calculated reasoning – Egocentrism
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• “…as soon as one man needed the help of another, as soon as one man realized that it was useful for a single individual to have provisions for two, – equality disappeared, – property came into existence, – labor became necessary…“ (11)
• Once people have to do business to survive, they have a chance to take advantage of each other. – “This makes[each man] two-‐faced and crooked with some, imperious and harsh with others,
– and puts him in the posiMon of having to abuse everyone he needs when he cannot make them fear [him] and does not find it in his interests to be of useful service to them.” (ibid.)
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Origins of Industry
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Industry Leads to Government • Men decide to create governments, saying to each other:
– “’Let us unite . . . in order to protect the weak from oppression, restrain the ambiMous, and assure everyone of possessing what belongs to him.
– Let us insMtute rules of jusMce and peace to which all will be obliged to conform, which will make special excepMons for no one, and which will in some way compensate for the caprices of fortune by subjecMng the strong and the weak to mutual obligaMons.
– In short, instead of turning our forces against ourselves, let us gather them into one supreme power that governs us according to wise laws, that protects and defends all the members of the associaMon, repulses common enemies, and maintains us in an eternal concord.’ " (11-‐12)
• “They all ran to chain themselves, in the belief that they secured their liberty, for although they had enough sense to realize the advantages of a poliMcal establishment, they did not have enough experience to foresee its dangers.” (12)
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CivilizaMon Replaces Nature • Rousseau says “such was, or should have been, the origin of
society and laws, – which gave new feaers to the weak and new forces to the rich, – irretrievably destroyed natural liberty, – established forever the law of property and of inequality, – changed adroit usurpaMon into an irrevocable right, – and for the profit of a few ambiMous men henceforth subjected the
enMre human race to labor, servitude and misery.” (12)
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• “SocieMes, mulMplying or spreading rapidly, soon covered the enMre surface of the earth . . . - With civil right thus having become
the common rule of ciMzens, the law of nature no longer was operaMve” (ibid.)
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• Rousseau thinks Hobbes’ story about the origin of society – (where people “threw themselves uncondiMonally and for all Mme into
the arms of an absolute master” (Rousseau 12)) – …is less reasonable than his own story, where inequality comes about as
an unforessen consequence of other human developments.
• On Hobbes’ view, people enslave themselves: – “the first means of providing for the common security dreamed up by
proud and unruly men was to rush headlong into slavery” (ibid.)
• Rousseau thinks this is contrary to reason. – “…why did they give themselves over to superiors, if not to defend
themselves against oppression . . . ? – …would it not have been contrary to good sense to begin by surrendering
into the hands of a leader the only things for whose preservaMon they needed his help?” (ibid.) 27
Rousseau vs. Hobbes
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Rousseau’s PoliMcal Maxim • “It is therefore incontestable, • and it is a fundamental maxim of all poli9cal right, • that peoples have given themselves leaders in order to
defend their liberty and not to enslave themselves.” (12)
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- Rousseau insists that reason will always prevent us from submiyng ourselves to the absolute power of a sovereign ruler.
- Such an agreement, if it doesn’t put constraints on the ruler’s power, is too risky to be made on the basis of sound reason.
- Absolute power is thus “illegiMmate by its nature”: it cannot be jusMfied as a good poliMcal strategy.
• Even the (corrupt) French monarchy insists that its rulers must obey laws just like ordinary ciMzens (top of p. 13).
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Rousseau’s Conclusions • Many current societal problems ought not to be blamed on human nature, – which is gentle and good, – but rather on historical developments in our process of becoming civilized.
• We aren’t so terrible that we can only get along under the power of a terrifying leader. – Instead, we can come together cooperaMvely to create and enforce laws that are good for everyone.
– Rousseau explains this in greater detail in The Social Contract. 29