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PHI 1500: Major Issues in Philosophy Session 9 October 6th, 2014 Human Nature: Rousseau 1

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Page 1: PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ · 2014-10-06 · State$of$Nature$$ • Rousseau$notes$the$difficulty$of$making$“sound$judgments$ regarding$the$natural$state$of$man”$(1)$$

PHI  1500:    Major  Issues  in  Philosophy  

Session  9  October  6th,  2014  

Human  Nature:  Rousseau  1  

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•  Jean-­‐Jacques  Rousseau  (1712-­‐1778):                            French,  known  for  his  contribuMons  to                            social,  poliMcal,  and  moral  philosophy  –  DissaMsfied  with  aristocraMc  society  –  Inspired  French  revoluMonaries  to  overthrow  the  monarchy  and  establish  a  republic    

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•  In  Discourse  on  the  Origin  of  Inequality,                              Rousseau  answers  the  quesMons:  –  How  does  inequality  arise  among  men?  –  Is  inequality  a  consequence  of  our  human  nature?  

•  He  agrees  with  Hobbes  that  all  men  are  equal  by  nature  –  …but  provides  a  very  different  descripMon  of  human  nature  –  …and  consequently  derives  very  different  conclusions  about  effecMve  governments.  

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State  of  Nature    •  Rousseau  notes  the  difficulty  of  making  “sound  judgments  

regarding  the  natural  state  of  man”  (1)    –  “On  this  subject  I  could  form  only  vague  and  almost  imaginary  conjectures.”  (ibid.)  

–  …because  the  historical  records  are  incomplete,  prevenMng  scienMsts  from  making  definite  conclusions.  

–  He  decides  to  assume  that  ancient  humans  looked  just  like  humans  do  today.  

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•  He  is  concerned  with  disambiguaMng  traits  of  modern  man  from  early  man.  

•  Repeatedly  criMcizes  Hobbes  for  confusing  traits  that  are  the  products  of  human  civilizaMon  with  traits  that  belong  to  our  nature.  

 

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Rousseau’s  Vision  of  Early  Humans  •  “…an  animal  less  strong  than  

some,  less  agile  than  others,  but  all  in  all,  the  most  advantageously  organized  of  all.”    (1)  –  “all  his  needs  are  saMsfied,”  so  he  is  happy.  (ibid.)  

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•  Unlike  Hobbes,  who  “maintains  that  man  is  naturally  intrepid  and  seeks  only  to  aaack  and  to  fight,”  Rousseau  asserts  that    –  “nothing  is  as  Mmid  as  man  in  the  state  of  nature,  and  that  he  is  always  

trembling  and  ready  to  take  flight  at  the  slightest  sound  he  hears  or  at  the  slightest  movement  he  perceives.”  (ibid.)    

–  …but  he  learns  not  to  fear  other  animals,  acer  coexisMng  peacefully  with  them.  

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Nature  è Health,  CivilizaMon  è  Harm  •  In  nature,  the  biggest  dangers  to  men  are  –  “natural  infirmiMes”  (disability  &/or  weakness)  –  wounds  

•  In  modern  society,  one  also  has  to  contend  with:  –  old  age  –  disease  

•  To  Rousseau,  more  civilizaMon  =  more  problems.  –  “[W]hen  one  becomes  aware  of  the  fact  that  [men  in  the  state  of  nature  knew]  almost  no  illnesses…  

–  one  is  strongly  inclined  to  believe  that  someone  could  easily  write  the  history  of  human  maladies  by  following  the  history  of  civil  socieMes.”  (1)  

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•  Rousseau  thinks  civilizaMon  has  changed  us  for  the  worse.  –  “…we  must  take  care  not  to  confuse  

savage  man  with  the  men  we  have  before  our  eyes.”  (1)  

•  Argument  by  analogy:  –  Wild  animals  have  “a  more  robust  

consMtuMon,  more  vigor,  more  strength,  and  more  courage”  than  their  domesMcated  counterparts.  

–  They  “lose  half  of  these  advantages  in  becoming  domesMcated  .  .  .  

–  It  is  the  same  for  man  himself.    –  In  becoming  habituated  to  the  ways  of  

society  and  a  slave,  he  becomes  weak,  fearful,  and  servile.”  (1-­‐2)  

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Difference  between  Humans  &  Animals  •  Rousseau  says  that  animals  are  like  machines:  

they  reflexively  react  to  things  in  the  environment.  –  Human  beings  someMmes  act  like  this  too…  but  each  person  also  “contributes,  as  a  free  agent,  to  his  own  operaMons”  (2):                      people  have  free  will.  

–  They  can  choose  to  act  against  nature.  •  “Nature  commands  every  animal,              and  beasts  obey.    

•  Man  feels  the  same  impetus,  but  he  knows  he  is  free  to  go  along  or  to  resist;    

•  and  it  is  above  all  in  the  awareness  of  this  freedom  that  the  spirituality  of  his  soul  is  made  manifest.”  (ibid.)  

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Difference  between  Humans  &  Animals  •  “…there  is  another  very  specific  quality  

which  disMnguishes  them  and  about  which  there  can  be  no  argument:    –  the  faculty  of  self-­‐perfec4on,  –  which  .  .  .  resides  among  us  as  much  in  the  

species  as  in  the  individual.”  (2)  

•  Rousseau  thinks  animals  do  not  seek  to  improve  themselves  and  their  species  in  the  way  that  humans  do.  –  Human  passion  and  reason  tempt  men  to  develop  beyond  their  natural  state,  “ceasing  to  be  savage”  (3)  

–  And  this,  Rousseau  thinks,  does  more  harm  than  good  for  us.  

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The  Trade-­‐Off:  Happiness  vs.  Progress  •  Rousseau  thinks  man  is  perfectly  

happy  in  the  state  of  nature:  he  has  everything  he  needs  and  no  reason  to  fight  with  or  fear  anyone.  

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•  But  if  he  remains  that  way,  he  cannot                                                                  make  intellectual  progress.  •  “What  progress  could  the  human  race  make,  scaaered  in  the  

woods  among  the  animals?    •  And  to  what  extent  could  men  mutually  perfect  and  enlighten  one  

another,  when,  with  neither  a  fixed  dwelling  nor  any  need  for  one  another,  they  would  hardly  encounter  one  another  twice  in  their  lives,  without  knowing  or  talking  to  one  another[?]”  (3-­‐4)  

•  Without  language  or  communiMes,  men  would  be  happy          –    but  dumb.  

 

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EvoluMon  of  Language  &  Culture  •  According  to  Rousseau,  “Man's  first  language,  the  

most  universal  .  .  .is  the  cry  of  nature”  –  but  this  is  only  used  under  extraordinary  circumstances  (4)    –  “When  the  ideas  of  men  begin  to  spread  and  mulMply,  and  closer  communicaMon  was  established  among  them,  they  sought  more  numerous  signs  and  a  more  extensive  language.”  (ibid.)  

–  People  developed  gestures,  then  spoken  words  in  order  to  represent  ideas  with  signs  agreed  upon  by  convenMon  

–  “Such  a  subsMtuMon  [of  gestures/words  for  ideas]  could  only  be  made  by  a  common  consent,”  or  “unanimous  agreement”  among  all  people.  

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•  Rousseau  thinks  that  we  aren’t  naturally  suited  to  live  in  society.  –  “…it  is  clear  .  .  .  how  liale  [nature]  prepared  [men]  for  becoming  habituated  to  the  ways  of  society,    

–  and  how  liale  she  contributed  to  all  that  men  have  done  to  establish  the  bonds  of  society.”  (4)  

•  Rather,  he  thinks  that  we  are  naturally  self-­‐sufficient  &  content.  –  “In  fact,  it  is  impossible  to  imagine  why,  in  that  primiMve  state,  one  man  would  have  a  greater  need  for  another  man  than  a  monkey  or  a  wolf  has  for  another  of  its  respecMve  species.”  (ibid.)  

–  “…what  kind  of  misery  can  there  be  for  a  free  being  whose  heart  is  at  peace  and  whose  body  is  in  good  health?”  (ibid.)  

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Rousseau  vs.  Hobbes  

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•  Contra  Hobbes,  Rousseau  thinks  men  are  much  more  miserable  today  than  they  could  have  been  in  the  state  of  nature.    –  Living  by  “insMnct  alone,  man  had  everything  he  needed  in  order  to  live  

in  the  state  of  nature.”  (ibid.)  –  Thus,  he  wouldn’t  have  anything  to  complain/despair  about.  

•  Similarly,  Rousseau  thinks  we  shouldn’t  jump  to  the  conclusion  that  early  man  was  selfish  and  bloodthirsty.  –  “Above  all,  let  us  not  conclude  with  Hobbes  that  because  man  has  no  

idea  of  goodness  he  is  naturally  evil;    –  that  he  is  vicious  because  he  does  not  know  virtue;    –  ….or  that  .  .  .  he  foolishly  imagines  himself  to  be  the  sole  proprietor  of  

the  enMre  universe.”  (5)  

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Rousseau  vs.  Hobbes  

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•  Rousseau  thinks  Hobbes:  –  “wrongly  injected  into  the  savage  man's  concern  for  self-­‐preservaMon  the  need  to  saMsfy  a  mulMtude  of  passions  which  are  the  product  of  society”  (5)    

•  Rousseau  believes  that    –  “neither  the  development  of  enlightenment  nor  the  restraint  imposed  by  the  law”  are  necessary  for  men  to  behave  virtuously.  

–  Rather,  they  people  naturally  peaceful  and  moral:    –  “the  calm  of  the  passions  and  the  ignorance  of  vice…prevents  them  from  doing  evil”  (5)  

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Rousseau  vs.  Hobbes  

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Natural  Pity  •  People  have  an  “innate  repugnance  to  seeing                                                  

his  fellow  men  suffer”  (6):  we  naturally                                            sympathize  with  other  people.  –  Pity  is  automaMc  (unreflecMve),  universal,                                              and  so  basic  that  even  animals  can  show  it  

– We  even  feel  pity  for  ficMonal  characters.  

•  “…from  this  quality  alone  flow  all  the  social  virtues”  (ibid.)  –  Nature,  in  giving  men  tears,  bears  witness  that  she  gave  the  human  

race  the  socest  hearts.  “..what  are  generosity,  mercy,  and  humanity,  if  not  pity  applied  to  the  weak,  to  the  guilty,  or  to  the  human  species  in  general[?]    

–  Benevolence  and  even  friendship  are,  properly  understood,  the  products  of  a  constant  pity  fixed  on  a  parMcular  object;  for  is  desiring  that  someone  not  suffer  anything  but  desiring  that  he  be  happy?”  (ibid.)  

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Natural  Pity  •  Rousseau  thinks  our  tendency  to  idenMfy  with  other  people  

“must  have  been  infinitely  closer  in  the  state  of  nature  than  in  the  state  of  reasoning.”  (6)  

•  Reason:  –  “…  is  what  engenders  egocentrism,  and  reflecMon  strengthens  it.  –  …turns  man  in  upon  himself.    –  …what  separates  him  from  all  that  troubles  him  and  afflicts  him.    –  Allows  people  to  think,  “at  the  sight  of  a  suffering  man,  ‘Perish  if  you  will;  

I  am  safe  and  sound.’  ”  (ibid.)    

•  Early  man  is  moved  by  sen9ment  instead  of  reason.  –  He  could  not,  like  modern  men,  ignore  other  people’s  suffering.  –  He  lacked  the  modern  “talent”  for  tuning  out  other  people’s  concerns  –  “…for  lack  of  wisdom  and  reason  he  is  always  seen  thoughtlessly  giving  in  

to  the  first  senMment  of  humanity.”  15  

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Pity  Enables  Peaceful  Society  •  “It  is  therefore  quite  certain  that  pity  is  a  natural  senMment,  

which,  by  moderaMng  in  each  individual  the  acMvity  of  the  love  of  oneself,  contributes  to  the  mutual  preservaMon  of  the  enMre  species.    –  Pity  is  what  carries  us  without  reflecMon  to  the  aid  of  those  we  see  suffering.    

–  Pity  is  what,  in  the  state  of  nature,  takes  the  place  of  laws,  mores,  and  virtue,  with  the  advantage  that  no  one  is  tempted  to  disobey  its  sweet  voice.    

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•  …Instead  of  the  sublime  maxim  of  reasoned  jusMce,  Do  unto  others  as  you  would  have  them  do  unto  you,  pity  inspires  all  men  with  another  maxim  of  natural  goodness…:    

•  Do  what  is  good  for  you  with  as  li;le  harm  as  possible  to  others.”  (6-­‐7)  

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Natural  Equality  •  In  the  state  of  nature,  we  were  all  equal.  –  “…if  one  compares[:]    

•  the  prodigious  diversity  of  educaMons  and  lifestyles  in  the  different  orders  of  the  civil  state    •  with  the  simplicity  and  uniformity  of  animal  and  savage  life,  where  all  nourish  themselves  from  the  same  foods  live  in  the  same  manner,  and  do  exactly  the  same  things,  

–   it  will  be  understood  how  much  less  the  difference  between  one  man  and  another  must  be  in  the  state  of  nature  than  in  that  of  society,    

–  and  how  much  natural  inequality  must  increase  in  the  human  species  through  inequality  occasioned  by  social  insMtuMons.”  (8)  

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Inequality  is  a    Consequence  of  CivilizaMon  

•  No  one  could  be  subordinated  by  another  person  unMl  we  all  became  dependent  upon  each  other  (instead  of  self-­‐sufficient).  –  “…it  is  impossible  to  enslave  a  man  without  having  first  put  him  in  the  posiMon  of  being  incapable  of  doing  without  another.”  

•  In  other  words,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  “natural  slavery”  –  contra  Aristotle.  

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The  Road  to  Modern  Society  •  Private  property  led  to  inequality  and  conflict.  –  “The  first  person  who,  having  enclosed  a  plot  of  land,  took  it  into  his  head  to  say  ‘this  is  mine’  and  found  people  simple  enough  to  believe  him,  was  the  true  founder  of  civil  society.    

– What  crimes,  wars,  murders,  what  miseries  and  horrors  would  the  human  race  have  been  spared,  had  someone  pulled  up  the  stakes  or  filled  in  the  ditch  and  cried  out  to  his  fellow  men:    •  ‘Do  not  listen  to  this  impostor.  You  are  lost  if  you  forget  that  the  fruits  of  the  earth  belong  to  all  and  the  earth  to  no  one!’  “  (8)  

– “…according  to  the  axiom  of  the  wise  Locke,  where  there  is  no  property,  there  is  no  injury.”  (10)  

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•  Early  people  had  no  need  for  family  or  community.  –  But  to  make  progress,they  had  to  bond  together.  

•  First,  each  person  had  to  recognize  that  others  had  needs  and  wishes  like  his/hers.  –  “…seeing  that  [his  fellow  men]  all  acted  as  he  would  have  done  

under  similar  circumstances,  he  concluded  that  their  way  of  thinking  and  feeling  was  in  complete  conformity  with  his  own.    

–  And  this  important  truth,  well  established  in  his  mind,  made  him  follow  .  .  .the  best  rules  of  conduct  that  it  was  appropriate  to  observe  toward  them  for  his  advantage  and  safety.”  (9)  

•  People  gradually  learned  that  they  could  accomplish  more  by  cooperaMng  with  each  other  than  by  pursuing  goals  individually.  –  “This  is  how  men  could  impercepMbly  acquire  some  crude  idea  of  

mutual  commitments  and  of  the  advantages  to  be  had  in  fulfilling  them”  (ibid.)  

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•  Family  life  generated  love.  –  “The  habit  of  living  together  gave  rise  to  the  sweetest  senMments  known  to  men:  conjugal  love  and  paternal  love.    

–  Each  family  became  a  liale  society  all  the  beaer  united  because  mutual  aaachment  and  liberty  were  its  only  bonds”  (9)  

•  …but  also  caused  people  to  “lose  something  of  their  ferocity  and  vigor”  (ibid.)  –  Nobody  had  to  be  strong  enough  to  defend  themselves  on  their  own,  because  they  had  families  to  back  them  up.  

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•  Family  life  also  allowed  people  to  enjoy  leisure  Mme  &  conveniences  –  But  Rousseau  thinks  this  was  a  bad  development:    

–  “that  was  the  first  yoke  they  imposed  on  themselves  without  realizing  it,  and  the  first  source  of  evils  they  prepared  for  their  descendants.”  (10)  

•  And  eventually,  public  life  led  to  concerns  about  reputaMon  and  interpersonal  compeMMon.  

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-  And  this  was  the  first  step  toward  inequality  and,  at  the  same  Mme,  toward  vice.  

-  From  these  first  preferences  were  born  vanity  and  contempt  on  the  one  hand,  and  shame  and  envy  on  the  other.”  (10)  

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The  Golden  Age  •  Rousseau  thinks  the  best  Mme  for  humanity  was  in  the  early  stages  of  society  –  This  “must  have  been  the  happiest  and  most  durable  epoch  .  .  .  the  least  subject  to  upheavals  and  the  best  for  man”  (11)    

•  At  that  point  we  had:  –  Sympathy  for  one  another  –  CooperaMon  –  Some  intellectual  advances  

•  But  we  had  not  yet  developed:  –  Cold,  calculated  reasoning  –  Egocentrism  

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•  “…as  soon  as  one  man  needed  the  help  of  another,  as  soon  as  one  man  realized  that  it  was  useful  for  a  single  individual  to  have  provisions  for  two,    –  equality  disappeared,    –  property  came  into  existence,  –  labor  became  necessary…“  (11)  

•  Once  people  have  to  do  business  to  survive,  they  have  a  chance  to  take  advantage  of  each  other.  –  “This  makes[each  man]  two-­‐faced  and  crooked  with  some,  imperious  and  harsh  with  others,    

–  and  puts  him  in  the  posiMon  of  having  to  abuse  everyone  he  needs  when  he  cannot  make  them  fear  [him]  and  does  not  find  it  in  his  interests  to  be  of  useful  service  to  them.”  (ibid.)  

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Origins  of  Industry  

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Industry  Leads  to  Government  •  Men  decide  to  create  governments,  saying  to  each  other:  

–  “’Let  us  unite  .  .  .  in  order  to  protect  the  weak  from  oppression,  restrain  the  ambiMous,  and  assure  everyone  of  possessing  what  belongs  to  him.  

–   Let  us  insMtute  rules  of  jusMce  and  peace  to  which  all  will  be  obliged  to  conform,  which  will  make  special  excepMons  for  no  one,  and  which  will  in  some  way  compensate  for  the  caprices  of  fortune  by  subjecMng  the  strong  and  the  weak  to  mutual  obligaMons.    

–  In  short,  instead  of  turning  our  forces  against  ourselves,  let  us  gather  them  into  one  supreme  power  that  governs  us  according  to  wise  laws,  that  protects  and  defends  all  the  members  of  the  associaMon,  repulses  common  enemies,  and  maintains  us  in  an  eternal  concord.’  "    (11-­‐12)  

•  “They  all  ran  to  chain  themselves,  in  the  belief  that  they  secured  their  liberty,  for  although  they  had  enough  sense  to  realize  the  advantages  of  a  poliMcal  establishment,  they  did  not  have  enough  experience  to  foresee  its  dangers.”  (12)    

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CivilizaMon  Replaces  Nature  •  Rousseau  says  “such  was,  or  should  have  been,  the  origin  of  

society  and  laws,  –   which  gave  new  feaers  to  the  weak  and  new  forces  to  the  rich,    –  irretrievably  destroyed  natural  liberty,    –  established  forever  the  law  of  property  and  of  inequality,    –  changed  adroit  usurpaMon  into  an  irrevocable  right,    –  and  for  the  profit  of  a  few  ambiMous  men  henceforth  subjected  the  

enMre  human  race  to  labor,  servitude  and  misery.”  (12)  

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•  “SocieMes,  mulMplying  or  spreading  rapidly,  soon  covered  the  enMre  surface  of  the  earth  .  .  .  -  With  civil  right  thus  having  become  

the  common  rule  of  ciMzens,  the  law  of  nature  no  longer  was  operaMve”  (ibid.)  

 

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•  Rousseau  thinks  Hobbes’  story  about  the  origin  of  society  –  (where  people  “threw  themselves  uncondiMonally  and  for  all  Mme  into  

the  arms  of  an  absolute  master”  (Rousseau  12))  –  …is  less  reasonable  than  his  own  story,  where  inequality  comes  about  as  

an  unforessen  consequence  of  other  human  developments.  

•  On  Hobbes’  view,  people  enslave  themselves:  –  “the  first  means  of  providing  for  the  common  security  dreamed  up  by  

proud  and  unruly  men  was  to  rush  headlong  into  slavery”  (ibid.)  

•  Rousseau  thinks  this  is  contrary  to  reason.  –  “…why  did  they  give  themselves  over  to  superiors,  if  not  to  defend  

themselves  against  oppression  .  .  .  ?    –  …would  it  not  have  been  contrary  to  good  sense  to  begin  by  surrendering  

into  the  hands  of  a  leader  the  only  things  for  whose  preservaMon  they  needed  his  help?”  (ibid.)   27  

Rousseau  vs.  Hobbes  

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Rousseau’s  PoliMcal  Maxim  •  “It  is  therefore  incontestable,    •  and  it  is  a  fundamental  maxim  of  all  poli9cal  right,    •  that  peoples  have  given  themselves  leaders  in  order  to  

defend    their  liberty  and  not  to  enslave  themselves.”  (12)  

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-  Rousseau  insists  that  reason  will  always  prevent  us  from  submiyng  ourselves  to  the  absolute  power  of  a  sovereign  ruler.  

-  Such  an  agreement,  if  it  doesn’t  put  constraints  on  the  ruler’s  power,  is  too  risky  to  be  made  on  the  basis  of  sound  reason.  

-  Absolute  power  is  thus  “illegiMmate  by  its  nature”:      it  cannot  be  jusMfied  as  a  good  poliMcal  strategy.    

 •  Even  the  (corrupt)  French  monarchy  insists  that  its  rulers  must  obey  laws  just  like  ordinary  ciMzens  (top  of  p.  13).  

 

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Rousseau’s  Conclusions  •  Many  current  societal  problems  ought  not  to  be  blamed  on  human  nature,      –  which  is  gentle  and  good,  –  but  rather  on  historical  developments  in  our  process  of  becoming  civilized.  

•  We  aren’t  so  terrible  that  we  can  only  get  along  under  the  power  of  a  terrifying  leader.  –  Instead,  we  can  come  together  cooperaMvely  to  create  and  enforce  laws  that  are  good  for  everyone.  

–  Rousseau  explains  this  in  greater  detail  in                        The  Social  Contract.   29