Philosophy of Research

Epistemology vs. Ontology

EPISTEMOLOGY

• What is (or should be) regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline?– Can (should) the social world be studied according to

the same principles as the natural sciences?

• If the answer is YES, the research follows the doctrine of the natural science epistemology:

Positivism (and also Realism)• If the answer is NO, the research follows the

opposite to positivism doctrine:

Interpretivism

ONTOLOGY

• Can (should) social entities be considered objective entities– If the answer is YES: the research takes a position of

Objectivism (social phenomena confront us as external – independent and objective – facts)

• or are they social constructions – If the answer is NO: the research takes a position of

Constructionism (Constructivism) – social phenomena and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors; the phenomena are not only produced through social interactions, but they are in a constant state of revision

Three epistemological positions:

(1) Positivism, (2) Realism (3) Interpretivism

(1) Positivism

• Research philosophy used by the natural sciences• The researcher = an objective analyst of the external

world; the end product of the research are law-like generalizations

• Makes detached interpretations about the data that have been collected in an objective manner– the researcher is independent of the subject of the research:

• the researcher does not affect the subject of the research• the researcher is not affected by the subject of the research

• Focus on – highly structured methodology and methods (e.g.,

questionnaires) to facilitate replication– observations can be quantified; this permits statistical analysis

(2) Realism

• Shares two features with Positivism:– A belief that the natural and social sciences should apply the

same kind of approach to the collection of data and to explanation

– A view that there is an external reality which is separate from our description of it

• Realism is an attempt by some researchers in social sciences to adjust Positivism to studies of social phenomena– In particular, it allows for inclusion into their explanations of

theoretical terms that sometimes cannot be observed– It also recognizes that people cannot be studied in the style of

natural sciences; that it is important to understand how people think and interpret things, to take context (e.g., time and place) into account

(3) Interpretivism

• Opposite to Positivism• Argues that the social world of business and

management is too complex and unique for the traditional natural sciences approaches– Therefore, it cannot be generalized; it depends on

particular sets of circumstances and individuals

• It is the role of interpretivists to seek to understand the subjective reality of those that they study– to understand their motives, actions, and intentions

Ontological considerations

• Objectivism vs. Constructionism (also known as Constructivism)

(1) Objectivism: an ontological position that implies that social phenomena confront us as external facts that are beyond our reach or influence– For example, an organization has rules and

regulations; standarized procedures for getting things done; there is a hierarchy; mission statement; individuals have to conform to these rules; they do jobs to which they are appointed; they are told what to do and they tell others what to do; otherwise, they may be reprimanded or even fired

(2)Constructionism (Constructivism)• An ontological position that asserts that social

phenomena and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors

• It implies that social phenomena and categories are not only produced through social interactions but they are in a constant state of revision– For example, in some organizations rules are less

extensive and less rigorously imposed than in other classic organizations

• They are not commands but rather general understandings; the outcome are agreed-upon patterns of action in different situations that are the product of negotiations among the different parties involved

• The social order is in a constant state of change (e.g., in a hospital, everyday interactions may be more important than the official rules)

Links between Epistemology and Ontology

• Epistemological orientation of Positivism is most likely linked to Ontological orientation of Objectivism (and Realism)

• Interpretivism is usually linked to Constructionism

• Research strategies (emerge from the above):– Quantitative research strategy (usually linked to

Positivism and Objectivism/Realism and to Deductive Research)

– Qualitative research strategy (usually linked to Interpretivism and Constructionism and to either Inductive Research or Grounded Theory)