photography basics (1993 edition)

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DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. NONRESIDENT TRAINING COURSE October 1993 Photography (Basic) NAVEDTRA 14209 NOTICE Pages 1-1, 1-3, 3-6, 12-2, and 12-3 must be printed on a COLOR printer.

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Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

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Page 1: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

NONRESIDENT

TRAININGCOURSE

October 1993

Photography (Basic)NAVEDTRA 14209

NOTICE

Pages 1-1, 1-3, 3-6, 12-2, and 12-3 must beprinted on a COLOR printer.

Page 2: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Although the words “he,” “him,” and“his” are used sparingly in this course toenhance communication, they are notintended to be gender driven or to affront ordiscriminate against anyone.

Page 3: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

COMMANDING OFFICERNETPTDC

6490 SAUFLEY FIELD ROADPENSACOLA, FL 32509-5237

Errata #1 25 MAY 99

Specific Instruction and Errata forNonresident Training Course

PHOTOGRAPHY (BASIC)

1. No attempt has been made to issue corrections for errors in typing,punctuation, etc. that do not affect your ability to answer the question orquestions.

2. To receive credit for deleted questions, show this errata to your localcourse administrator (ESO/scorer). The local course administrator isdirectedto correct the course and the answer key by indicating the questions deleted.

3. Change the following items in the NRTC:

a. Question 1-56: change Alt 3 from "545.45 feet" to "45.46 feet"

b. Question 2-75: change Alt 2 from "120°F" to "122°F"

c. Question 3-52: change the word "camera" in the question's stem to "lightmeter"

d. Page 36, Figure 5A: change Alt E from "How" to "Who"

e. Question 6-15: change the first word in line 2 of the question's stemfrom "control" to "limit"

f. Question 7-10: change the date in line 5 of the question's stem from"1885" to "1985"

g. Question 9-1: change Alt 3 from "No. 0" to "No. 3"

h. Question 9-70: change Alt 3 from "CCO5Y + CC15M only" to "CC05Y + CC10Monly"

i. Question 10-49: change Alt 3 from "Censorship and physical" to"Censorship and physical security"

j. Question 10-49: change Alt 4 from "Physical and cryptographic" to"Physical security and cryptographic."

4. Delete the following questions and leave the corresponding spaces blank onthe answer sheets:

Questions: 3-21, 3-27, 3-28, 6-54, 10-45

Page 4: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)
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PREFACE

By enrolling in this self-study course, you have demonstrated a desire to improve yourself and the Navy.Remember, however, this self-study course is only one part of the total Navy training program. Practicalexperience, schools, selected reading, and your desire to succeed are also necessary to successfully roundout a fully meaningful training program.

COURSE OVERVIEW: In completing this nonresident training course, you will demonstrate aknowledge of the subject matter by correctly answering questions on the following topics: Theory of Lightand Optical Principles; Light Sensitive Cameras and Controls; Basic Photographic Techniques;Photographic Assignments; Portraiture; Copying; Chemical Mixing; Image Processing and Control; Black-and-White Printing; Color Printing; Motion Media; and Job Control and Photographic Finishing.

THE COURSE: This self-study course is organized into subject matter areas, each containing learningobjectives to help you determine what you should learn along with text and illustrations to help youunderstand the information. The subject matter reflects day-to-day requirements and experiences ofpersonnel in the rating or skill area. It also reflects guidance provided by Enlisted Community Managers(ECMs) and other senior personnel, technical references, instructions, etc., and either the occupational ornaval standards, which are listed in the Manual of Navy Enlisted Manpower Personnel Classificationsand Occupational Standards, NAVPERS 18068.

THE QUESTIONS: The questions that appear in this course are designed to help you understand thematerial in the text.

VALUE: In completing this course, you will improve your military and professional knowledge.Importantly, it can also help you study for the Navy-wide advancement in rate examination. If you arestudying and discover a reference in the text to another publication for further information, look it up.

1993 Edition Prepared byPHC(AW) Dale Freelan

Published byNAVAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTAND TECHNOLOGY CENTER

NAVSUP Logistics Tracking Number0504-LP-026-8540

Page 6: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

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Sailor’s Creed

“I am a United States Sailor.

I will support and defend theConstitution of the United States ofAmerica and I will obey the ordersof those appointed over me.

I represent the fighting spirit of theNavy and those who have gonebefore me to defend freedom anddemocracy around the world.

I proudly serve my country’s Navycombat team with honor, courageand commitment.

I am committed to excellence andthe fair treatment of all.”

Page 7: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

1. Theory of Light and Optical Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

2. Light-Sensitive Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

3. Photographic Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

4. Still Cameras and Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

5. Basic Photographic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

6. Photographic Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

7. Portraiture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

8. Copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

9. Chemical Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1

10. Image Processing and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

11. Black-and-White Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

12. Color Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1

13. Motion Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1

14. Job Control and Photographic Finishing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1

APPENDIX

I. Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1-1

II. Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AII-1

III. References used to develop the TRAMAN . . . . . . . . . . . . AIII-1

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INDEX-1

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SUMMARY OF PHOTOGRAPHER’SMATE TRAINING MANUALS

PHOTOGRAPHY (BASIC)

Photography (Basic), NAVEDTRA 12700 consists of the following subjects:the principles associated with light, optics, cameras, light-sensitive materials, andequipment; still and motion-media shooting techniques; chemical mixing; imageprocessing and printing; job control; and photographic finishing.

PHOTOGRAPHY (ADVANCED)

Photography (Advanced), NAVEDTRA 12701 consists of the followingsubjects: aerial photography; photographic quality assurance; electronic imaging;photographic layout and design; photographic supply; and silver recovery.

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CREDITS

The illustrations listed below are included in this edition of Basic Photography,through the courtesy of the designated sources. Permission to use these illustrationsis gratefully acknowledged. Permission to reproduce illustrations and othermaterials in this publication must be obtained from the source.

SOURCE FIGURES

Beckman Instruments, Inc. 9-3

Bogan Photo Corporation 5-2

EG&G, Inc., Electro-Optics Division 10-24

GMI Photographic Inc. 4-6

Ilford Photo 11-7

Kreonite, Incorporated 9-4, 12-6

X-Rite, Inc. 10-26

v

Carol
Carol
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INSTRUCTIONS FOR TAKING THE COURSE

ASSIGNMENTS

The text pages that you are to study are listed atthe beginning of each assignment. Study thesepages carefully before attempting to answer thequestions. Pay close attention to tables andillustrations and read the learning objectives.The learning objectives state what you should beable to do after studying the material. Answeringthe questions correctly helps you accomplish theobjectives.

SELECTING YOUR ANSWERS

Read each question carefully, then select theBEST answer. You may refer freely to the text.The answers must be the result of your ownwork and decisions. You are prohibited fromreferring to or copying the answers of others andfrom giving answers to anyone else taking thecourse.

SUBMITTING YOUR ASSIGNMENTS

To have your assignments graded, you must beenrolled in the course with the NonresidentTraining Course Administration Branch at theNaval Education and Training ProfessionalDevelopment and Technology Center(NETPDTC). Following enrollment, there aretwo ways of having your assignments graded:(1) use the Internet to submit your assignmentsas you complete them, or (2) send all theassignments at one time by mail to NETPDTC.

Grading on the Internet: Advantages toInternet grading are:

• you may submit your answers as soon asyou complete an assignment, and

• you get your results faster; usually by thenext working day (approximately 24 hours).

In addition to receiving grade results for eachassignment, you will receive course completionconfirmation once you have completed all the

assignments. To submit your assignmentanswers via the Internet, go to:

http://courses.cnet.navy.mil

Grading by Mail: When you submit answersheets by mail, send all of your assignments atone time. Do NOT submit individual answersheets for grading. Mail all of your assignmentsin an envelope, which you either provideyourself or obtain from your nearest EducationalServices Officer (ESO). Submit answer sheetsto:

COMMANDING OFFICERNETPDTC N3316490 SAUFLEY FIELD ROADPENSACOLA FL 32559-5000

Answer Sheets: All courses include one“scannable” answer sheet for each assignment.These answer sheets are preprinted with yourSSN, name, assignment number, and coursenumber. Explanations for completing the answersheets are on the answer sheet.

Do not use answer sheet reproductions: Useonly the original answer sheets that weprovide—reproductions will not work with ourscanning equipment and cannot be processed.

Follow the instructions for marking youranswers on the answer sheet. Be sure that blocks1, 2, and 3 are filled in correctly. Thisinformation is necessary for your course to beproperly processed and for you to receive creditfor your work.

COMPLETION TIME

Courses must be completed within 12 monthsfrom the date of enrollment. This includes timerequired to resubmit failed assignments.

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vii

PASS/FAIL ASSIGNMENT PROCEDURES

If your overall course score is 3.2 or higher, youwill pass the course and will not be required toresubmit assignments. Once your assignmentshave been graded you will receive coursecompletion confirmation.

If you receive less than a 3.2 on any assignmentand your overall course score is below 3.2, youwill be given the opportunity to resubmit failedassignments. You may resubmit failedassignments only once. Internet students willreceive notification when they have failed anassignment--they may then resubmit failedassignments on the web site. Internet studentsmay view and print results for failedassignments from the web site. Students whosubmit by mail will receive a failing result letterand a new answer sheet for resubmission of eachfailed assignment.

COMPLETION CONFIRMATION

After successfully completing this course, youwill receive a letter of completion.

ERRATA

Errata are used to correct minor errors or deleteobsolete information in a course. Errata mayalso be used to provide instructions to thestudent. If a course has an errata, it will beincluded as the first page(s) after the front cover.Errata for all courses can be accessed andviewed/downloaded at:

http://www.advancement.cnet.navy.mil

STUDENT FEEDBACK QUESTIONS

We value your suggestions, questions, andcriticisms on our courses. If you would like tocommunicate with us regarding this course, weencourage you, if possible, to use e-mail. If youwrite or fax, please use a copy of the StudentComment form that follows this page.

For subject matter questions:

E-mail: [email protected]: Comm: (850) 452-1001, Ext. 2167

DSN: 922-1001, Ext. 2167FAX: (850) 452-1370(Do not fax answer sheets.)

Address: COMMANDING OFFICERNETPDTC N3136490 SAUFLEY FIELD ROADPENSACOLA FL 32509-5237

For enrollment, shipping, grading, orcompletion letter questions

E-mail: [email protected]: Toll Free: 877-264-8583

Comm: (850) 452-1511/1181/1859DSN: 922-1511/1181/1859FAX: (850) 452-1370(Do not fax answer sheets.)

Address: COMMANDING OFFICERNETPDTC N3316490 SAUFLEY FIELD ROADPENSACOLA FL 32559-5000

NAVAL RESERVE RETIREMENT CREDIT

If you are a member of the Naval Reserve,you may earn retirement points for successfullycompleting this course, if authorized undercurrent directives governing retirement of NavalReserve personnel. For Naval Reserve retire-ment, this course is evaluated at 15 points. Thesepoints will be credited to you upon satisfactorycompletion of the assignments as follows:

UNIT ASSIGNMENTS POINTS1 1-8 122 9-10 3

(Refer to Administrative Procedures for NavalReservists on Inactive Duty, BUPERSINST1001.39, for more information about retirementpoints.)

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Student Comments

Course Title: Photography (Basic)

NAVEDTRA: 14209 Date:

We need some information about you:

Rate/Rank and Name: SSN: Command/Unit

Street Address: City: State/FPO: Zip

Your comments, suggestions, etc.:

Privacy Act Statement: Under authority of Title 5, USC 301, information regarding your military status isrequested in processing your comments and in preparing a reply. This information will not be divulged withoutwritten authorization to anyone other than those within DOD for official use in determining performance.

NETPDTC 1550/41 (Rev 4-00

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CHAPTER 1

THEORY OF LIGHT AND OPTICAL PRINCIPLES

Light is the photographer’s medium, and aphotograph is the image of a pattern of light recorded onfilm. The word photography means writing or drawingwith light. Without light there could be no vision orphotography because it is light reflected from the worldaround us that makes things visible to both our eyes andthe eye of the camera. The nature of light has a criticaleffect on the pictures you make. Few photographersactually understand much about light. But they are notalone. Scientists have never been able to agree fullyabout the nature of light. However, certain useful thingsare clear and well understood about how light behaves.

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiant energy towhich the eye is sensitive. It travels at tremendous speedfrom its source, such as the sun, a fluorescent lamp, an

electronic flash, or whatever source is used. It has aneffect on the materials it falls on, skin becomes tanned,and fruit is ripened by the light of the sun. Dependingon the way in which light is received or rejected, acomplex pattern of light, shade, and color results.

Other types of radiant energy, such as radio wavesand X rays, are similar to light but the eye cannot seethem. Thus they are not light. By definition, light iselectromagnetic energy visible to the human eye. Allother electromagnetic energy is invisible, therefore, isnot considered light. Ultraviolet and infrared radiationsare two such invisible radiations that are of concern tothe photograper.

Light makes up the visible spectrum, which is a smallpart of the entire electromagnetic spectrum (fig. 1-1).

C302.7Figure 1-1.–The electromagnetic energy spectrum.

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Figure 1-2.–Wavelength.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

The subject of light as a form of radiant energy hasbeen theorized upon, experimented with, and studied bymany physicists and scientists. Until about threecenturies ago, no one had developed a reasonable theoryof the nature of light. Then Max Planck, a physicist,published a theory in which light was supposed toconsist of a stream of high-speed particles. Plancktheorized that any light source sent out an untold numberof these particles. This then was the quantum theory.The quantum of light is called the photon. The quantumtheory is used to explain X ray, radiation, andphotoelectricity.

WAVELENGTH, SPEED, AND FREQUENCY

About the same time other physicists, ChristiannHuygens and Thomas Young, introduced a theory calledthe wave motion theory. The wave motion theory is usedto explain reflection, refraction, diffraction, andpolarization. In wave motion theory, light, wavelength,speed, and frequency are important characteristics, andthey are interrelated.

The wavelengths of light are so small that they aremeasured in nanometers (nm). A nanometer is equal toone millionth of a millimeter. Wavelengths of light rangefrom about 400nm to 700nm in length and travel in astraight-line path.

The speed of light varies in different mediums. Inair, light travels about 186,000 miles per second. In adenser medium, such as glass, light travels even moreslowly. Furthermore, in a denser medium, the speed isdifferent for each color of light. Wavelength is thedistance from the crest of one wave to the crest of thenext wave (fig. 1-2). Frequency is the number of wavespassing a given point in 1 second. The product of thetwo is the speed of light.

Therefore:

Speed = Wavelength x frequency, or

Wavelength = SpeedFrequency

Since the speed of light in glass is slower than in air,the wavelength must also be shorter (fig. 1-3). Only thewavelength changes; the frequency remains constant.Hence we identify a particular type of radiation (colorof light) by its wavelength, bearing in mind that we arespeaking of the wavelength in air.

EMISSION OF LIGHT

To the photographer, there are two importantcharacteristics of the way light travels. First, in a givenmedium, light always travels in a straight line. Second,in a given medium, it travels at a constant speed.

Figure 1-3.–Variation in speed and wavelength.

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Figure 1-4.–Light emitted from a source.

Once light is produced (emitted), it is no longerdependent on its source, and only its speed is affectedby the many mediums through which it can travel.Another example of the independence of light is thatwhen light travels from air into a denser but transparentmedium, such as glass, its speed is reduced. But whenit leaves the glass, it returns to its original speed. Thischanging speed is important in refraction, a behavior oflight that allows lenses to form images.

Unless light is reflected or focused, it travels orradiates in all directions from the source. As light travelsfrom the source, its energy of light spreads out. Thegreater the distance it travels, the more it spreads out(fig. 1-4). Therefore, the amount of light reaching agiven area at a given distance is less than that reachingthe same area closer to the source. In other words, theintensity of illumination on a surface varies when thedistance between the light source and the surface, or

subject, is changed. This becomes important whenexposing film with artificial light.

COLOR OF LIGHT

Look at a bright, red apple on a dark, green tree. Itis hard to believe that color is not an inherent propertyof these objects; in fact color is not even inherent to light.What you are seeing is a visual perception stimulated bylight. The apple and tree are only visible because theyreflect light from the sun, and the apple appears red andthe tree appears green because they reflect certainwavelengths of light more than others. In this case, theseparticular wavelengths are seen by the human eye as redand green. When we see a color, we are simply seeinglight of a particular wavelength.

When a beam of light has a relatively even mixtureof light of all visible wavelengths, it appears as whitelight. When this beam of white light is passed through aprism, its different wavelengths are spread apart andform a visible spectrum. This visible spectrum is seenas a band of colors, such as violet, blue, blue-green,green, yellow, and red (fig. 1-5).

COLOR TEMPERATURE

White light is made up of nearly equal intensities ofall wavelengths within the visible spectrum. By passingwhite light through a prism, scientists have found thatlight sources have many qualities. They are as follows:

Different wavelengths are present in the sourcesof radiant energy.

The frequency and color of wavelengths vary.

C302.8Figure 1-5.–Refraction of light by a prism.

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With each wavelength, there is a variationin the amount of energy.

This variation of energy is called spectral energydistribution. The spectral energy of a light source isrepresented by color temperature. These terms are usedin photography to describe and define the sources oflight being used.

Color temperature describes the color quality of alight source in terms of the amounts of red light and bluelight. Color temperature is based on what is called aPlanckian radiator, or simply a black body. As thetemperature of the metal of the black body is raised, itgoes from a dull black through red and orange to blueand finally to white heat. The quality of the light emittedis a function of the temperature of the metal. When theobject is red-hot, the color temperature is low since redis at the low end of the scale; and when it is blue-white,the color temperature is high. However, the temperatureat which a light source is burned does not control colortemperature; for example, a fluorescent tube burns at alow 125°F, yet it has a high color temperature. Colortemperature then is raised or lowered relatively by theamount of visible white light radiated from the source.Be careful not to get confused. Traditionally reddishlight is known as warm and bluish light as cold; inactuality, the color temperatures is the other way around.

The most convenient way to describe the colortemperature of a light source is by its Kelvintemperature. From a practical point of view, this termrefers to the degree of whiteness of the light. Colortemperature is measured on the Kelvin scale and isstated as Kelvin temperature. On the temperature scale,0 K is the same as -273°C. Therefore, degrees Kelvin(K) are always 273 degrees higher than the sametemperature on the Celsius scale. Thus a red-hot pieceof iron with an approximate temperature of 2000°C hasa color temperature of 2273 K. As the Celsiustemperature of an object is raised, it emits a whiter lightand produces a relatively higher color (Kelvin)temperature.

COLOR RELATIONSHIPS

Many ways have been devised to classify the colorswe see. Though terminology may differ, it is generallyagreed that color can be defined by three qualities: hue,brightness, and saturation.

Hue-Hue is the actual color or wavelengthreflected by an object-red, yellow, green, and so forth.For example, it could be said that the color of an object

is blue. Blue identifies the hue. There are seven hues inthe visible spectrum. These seven hues are as follows:blue, green, red, cyan, magenta, yellow, and white. Hue,however, is an inadequate description of a cola. To bemore specific, we should say that an object is dark blueor light blue. Now we have described the brightness ofthe color.

Brightness-The brightness of a color isindependent of the hue. Two colors may have the samehue but different brightness. Thus, to describe a color orbrightness, we say that it is dull, bright, vivid, orbrilliant.

Saturation-The saturation of a color is the degreeto which the color departs from neutral gray of the samebrightness. You can think of it as mixing black, gray, orwhite paint with a colored paint, thus diluting the color.In other words, saturation is a measure of color purity.

BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT

Light waves travel in straight lines. When lightwaves encounter an object or new medium, they act inone or more of the following ways:

They may be reflected.

They may be absorbed.

They may be transmitted.

REFLECTION

When light is reflected, it acts in a certain way.When the reflecting surface is smooth and polished, thereflection is orderly, or specular. Specular light isreflected at the same angle to the surface as the lightincident to the surface; that is, the path of the lightreflected from the surface forms an angle exactly equalto the one formed by its path in reaching the surface.Thus the angle of reflection is equal to the angle ofincidence, which is a characteristic of specular light(fig. 1-6, view A). However, when the object surface isnot smooth and polished but irregular, light is reflectedirregularly or diffused (fig. 1-6, view B); that is, the lightis reflected in more than one direction.

Practically all surfaces reflect both specular anddiffused light; smooth surfaces reflect more specularlight, and rough surfaces more diffused light. Sincediffused light is more common than specular light, it isof greatest value in photography. Objects that are notlight sources are visible and therefore photographic.

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Figure 1-6.–Reflected light.

only because they reflect the light thatfrom some luminous source.

ABSORPTION

reaches them

When light strikes a medium and is neither reflectednor transmitted (passed on), it is said to be absorbed.Black cloth or areas of dark forest, for instance, absorbmore light than objects such as a white sheet or a coralsand beach. When light comes in contact with thesurface of an object, a certain degree of reflection, andsome absorption, always takes place.

A medium that does not allow light to pass throughit is opaque. An opaque material may also reflect light.When an object is opaque and the light is not reflected,it is absorbed by the object. When light is absorbed, itsenergy is converted and it no longer exists as light.

The color of an object is determined by the way itabsorbs light falling upon it (incident light). A woman’sdress appears red when it absorbs the blue and green raysof white light and reflects the red waves. A lawn appearsgreen because the grass blades absorb the red and bluerays of light and reflect the green rays.

Neutral colors, such as white, black, and the varioustones or values of gray, actually absorb almost equalproportions of the colors of light. Varying reflectivepowers account for their differences. White is highlyreflective, while an object of absolute blackness, nomatter how much light falls on it, can never be recordedon film except by contrast.

Figure 1-7.–Effects of different media.

TRANSMISSION

In addition to being reflected and absorbed, lightrays may be transmitted. They may also pass throughsome medium they encounter. When objects can beclearly seen through the medium, the medium istransparent. A transparent medium transmits light raysin a regular, or uniform, pattern. When the mediumtransmits light but breaks up the orderliness of thepattern, sending the transmitted rays in many directions,the medium is translucent. In other words, a medium issaid to be translucent when light is visible through it, butobjects are NOT clearly distinguishable. Thin fabricsand frosted glass are examples of translucent materialsthat allow the passage of diffused light (fig. 1-7). Oneimportant form of transmission is termed refraction.

REFRACTION

The change of direction that occurs when a ray oflight passes from one transparent substance into anothersubstance of different density is called refraction.Refraction enables a lens to form an image. Withoutrefraction, light waves behave as X rays and pass instraight lines through all suitable substances without anycontrol of direction, and only shadow patterns can bemade with them. Refraction occurs because light travelsat different speeds in different transparent substances.The speed of light in each transparent substance is called

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Figure 1-8.–The law of refraction.Figure 1-9.–Diffraction.

the index of refraction for that substance; for example,light travels about 1 1/2 times as fast in air as it does inglass, so the index of refraction for glass is about 1.5.

Refraction, or change of direction, always followsa simple rule.

“In passing from one transparent substance intoanother of greater density, refraction is toward thenormal. In passing from one transparent substance intoanother of lesser density, refraction is away from thenormal.” In this rule the normal is defined as a lineperpendicular (90°) to the surface between the mediums.

Refraction is shown in figure 1-8. The ray of light(AB) strikes the glass at an oblique angle. Since the glassis denser than air, the ray of light is bent toward thenormal (RS) and emerges from the glass at (C). Uponentering the air again, the ray is bent away from normal(RS) and travels along the path (CD).

All rays striking the glass at an angle other thanperpendicular are refracted. In the case of theperpendicular ray (ME) that enters the glass normal tothe surface, no refraction takes place and the raycontinues through the glass and into the air in a straightline.

DISPERSION

The speed of light in a medium depends on thewavelength of the light. As light enters a more densemedium, the short waves, such as blue, are slowed morethan the long waves, such as red. Thus the index ofrefraction of a medium varies with the wavelength, andthe different colors of light are bent different amounts.This changing index of refraction or the breaking up ofwhite light into its component colors is called

dispersion. This then ties in with the previous discussionof the colors of light where we saw the way a prismcreates a spectrum from white light. The prism is ableto create this spectrum because of dispersion.

DIFFRACTION

We have said that light travels in a straight line. Well,that is not always true. An exception to this rule occurswhen light travels close to an opaque edge. Because ofthe wave nature of their travel, light rays passing nearan opaque edge are bent ever so slightly (fig. 1-9). Thisbending is called diffraction and is evidenced by theformation of a shadow with a fuzzy edge when lightpasses an opaque object. In this case, the outside edgeof the shadow is light and indistinct, but it graduallydarkens into the true black of the shadow that indicatesthat some of the light is scattered into the shadow area.

Unlike refraction, in diffraction the long wave-lengths of light are bent the most.

Diffraction is important to the photographer whenthe light passes the edges of a lens diaphragm. When thelens diaphragm is opened fully, the amount (actually thepercentage) of diffracted light is quite small. But whenthe diaphragm is closed to a small opening, thepercentage of diffracted light is quite large and reducesthe sharpness of the image formed by the lens. In otherwords, a small aperture opening interferes with theimage-forming light more than a large aperture does.

POLARIZATION

Energy in the form of wave motion radiates from itssource and travels through a medium. For example,

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Figure 1-10.–Controlling polarized light.

when a section of line is secured at one end and the freeend is held in your hand and given a shake, a wavetravels down the length of the line from the end that wasshaken to the secured end just like an oscillator. A lightsource acts as an oscillator. The wave motion in the line,however, does not represent the true wave motion oflight because light waves move in all possible directionsat right angles to their direction of travel. A much clearerpicture of light wave motion can be seen by having anumber of parallel lines with each one being shaken ina different direction-one up and down, one sideways,and the others at various angles in between.

Ordinarily, light waves vibrate in all directions atright angles to their direction of travel. However, whenlight waves strike a series of parallel microscopic slots,

all the light that passes through vibrates in one direction.This is polarized light. Filters that polarize light, termedpolarizing filters, have a practical use in photography(fig. 1-10).

Specular reflected light, from a nonmetallic surfaceat any angle between 32° and 37°, is polarized in such amanner that the light rays vibrate in a direction parallelto the reflecting surface. Light reflected in this manneris said to be plane polarized and is seen as glare (fig.1-11). There is no polarization whatsoever produced byreflections from metallic surfaces.

LIGHT SOURCES

In the beginning of photography, daylight, orsunlight, was the only light source suitable for exposingthe slow film available at that time. Today, photographicfilm is not only vastly more sensitive to light, but a widerange of light sources have been developed for the needsof the photographer. These light sources include thefollowing: tungsten lamps, tungsten-halogen lamps,fluorescent lamps, and electronic flash.

DAYLIGHT

Sunlight, of course, is the light photographers aremost familiar with and for good reason. It is the lightthey use the most. Naturally, sunlight is the onlypractical light source for general outdoor photography.Artificial light sources, however, can provide usefulsupplementary lighting to sunlight as fill-in for shadows(to make them lighter) and take the place of sunlightentirely for photography of small areas and close-ups.Sunlight is often referred to as daylight. The termdaylight, as used in photography, is meant to include all

Figure 1-11.–Light, plane polarized by reflection.

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Figure 1-12.–Effects of sunlight passing through the atmosphere.

forms of light, direct or indirect, that originate from thesun.

Of importance to the photographer is the effect ofthe atmosphere on sunlight and the amount ofatmosphere through which sunlight passes (fig. 1-12).

The shorter wavelengths of light (violet and blue)are scattered by the atmosphere much more than thelonger wavelengths. The color composition of sunlightbecomes increasingly deficient in blue the further thelight has to travel through the atmosphere (earlymorning and late afternoon). As the sunlight becomesmore deficient in blue, it appears more yellow. Theamount of scattering also depends on the condition ofthe atmosphere. When the atmosphere is clean (has littlemoisture or fine dust in it), there is less scattering thanwhen the atmosphere is hazy or dirty (having a good dealof moisture or tine dust and smoke). The variation incolor of sunlight can be expressed as color temperature.Sunlight coming from overhead on a clear day has acolor temperature of about 5400 K. Just after sunrise andjust before sunset, the color temperature ranges between2000 K and 4000 K. Not only is the color of sunlightdifferent early in the morning and late in the afternoon,but the intensity is also less. These arc importantconsiderations when taking pictures at these times of

day.

Light scattered by the atmosphere, or skylight as itis called, can be regarded as a second source of light.Skylight is different than sunlight because it is causedchiefly from the scattering of the shorter wavelengths.It therefore appears more blue than sunlight. Skylighton a clear day may be as high as 60000 K.

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT

The types of artificial lighting you use inphotography give you complete control over thedirection, quality, and strength of the light. You canmove these light sources around, diffuse them, or reflectthem. You can alter their intensity to suit the situation.

There are two types of artificial light sources:spotlights and floodlights. Spotlights provide aconcentrated beam of light. Floodlights give diffused,softer, more even, spread out light. You can add to thesetwo basic types of artificial light sources. By usinglighting accessories, such as reflectors, barn doors,diffusers, and snoots, you can control the light to providea variety of lighting effects.

Unless special effects are wanted, artificial lightsources that are different in color temperature or qualityshould not be mixed (used together). When you areviewing a scene, your eyes adapt so color differencesbetween two or several light sources are minimized.Color film, however, cannot adapt and shows the colordifference in parts of the scene illuminated by differentlight sources.

Tungsten-Filament Lamps

Tungsten light color films are made to be used withtungsten-filament light sources and are color balancedfor 3200 K or 3400 K. Tungsten lamps, operated at theirrated voltage, produce light of 3200 K and 3400 K. Thecolor temperature of tungsten lamps changes withvoltage fluctuations, decreasing with lower voltage andincreasing with higher voltage. For example, the colortemperature of a tungsten lamp rated for operation at115 volts increases about 10 K for each 1 volt increase.Usually, a variation of less than 100 K has no adverseeffect on the rendering of scene colors. However, a shiftas low as 50 K can be noticeable on subjects withimportant neutral areas, such as white and light shades.

When you are using tungsten lamps, the colortemperature can shift, depending on the amount ofpower being drawn on the same circuit. When possible,you should avoid having other equipment on the samecircuit. For these lamps to produce light of the correctcolor, they must be operated at exactly their ratedvoltage. When it is not possible to operate the lamps attheir proper voltage appropriate filters can be used tocorrect the color of the light reaching the film.

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Tungsten-Halogen Lamps

Tungsten-halogen lamps have a tungsten filamentinside a quartz envelope. This type of lamp does notblacken the inside of the envelope and operates at analmost constant brightness and color temperaturethroughout its life. Tungsten-halogen lamps forphotography operate at color temperatures of 3200 Kand 3400 K. Filters can be used to convert them todaylight. For its size, a tungsten-halogen lamp generallydelivers more light than a conventional 3200 K lamp.Tungsten-halogen lights are becoming more popularand are rapidly replacing regular tungsten lights forgeneral photographic use.

Fluorescent Lamps

Pictures made on daylight type of color films underfluorescent lights without a filter may be acceptable;however, they usually have a greenish cast. When atungsten type of color film is used with a fluorescentlamp without a filter, the pictures usually are too blue.

Fluorescent light is not generated by heat, as areother types of light. It has special characteristicsdifferent from either daylight or tungsten light.Fluorescent lights have no true color temperature, but avalue of approximate color temperature has beenworked out.

Daylight fluorescent lamps: 6500 K

Cool, white fluorescent lamps: 4500 K

Warm, white fluorescent lamps: 3500 K

Electronic Flash Lamps

Electronic flash is an excellent light source for bothoutdoor and indoor photography, especially when thepredominant lights are fluorescent. Electronic flash usesa discharge tube filled with xenon gas and is suppliedwith a powerful charge of electricity from a capacitor.The flash is triggered by means of an electrical currentthat ionizes the gas. The output, or intensity of the flash,is usually given in effective candlepower-seconds anddepends on the voltage and size of the capacitor. Thedesign of the reflector on an electronic flash has a directrelationship on the efficiency of the unit.

Electronic flash resembles daylight in color qualityand is excellent for exposing daylight type of colorfilms. The duration of the flash is short, usually 1/500second or less. With a computerized (automatic) unitused close to the subject, the flash duration can be as

Figure 1-13.–A lamp reflector can increase the intensity of lightreaching the subject.

short as 1/50,000 second. Computerized electronic flashunits have a sensor that switches off the flash when thesubject (depending on its distance and tone) has receivedenough light for proper exposure.

Reflectors

Two types of reflectors are of importance inphotography. They are the lamp reflector and the planereflector. The first type, the lamp reflector, is used withartificial light sources-tungsten, tungsten-halogen,fluorescent, and electronic flash lamps to direct the light.The second type, the plane reflector, is used to redirectlight from any kind of light source into shaded areas tosoften or lighten shadows. (While it is true that mirrorsare also reflectors, reflector is used in photography as amore general term. Mirrors always reflect specular light;and reflectors reflect either specular or diffused light.)

LAMP REFLECTORS. –Light emitted by thefilament of a lamp is dispersed in all directions. This isuseful when the lamp is for general illumination, suchas one suspended from the ceiling to light a room. As aphotographer, however, you are usually interested inilluminating only a given area, and it is, therefore, toyour advantage to concentrate the light emitted by alamp onto the area of interest. You can do this bymounting the lamp in a concave reflector that reflectsalmost all the light onto the area to be photographed(fig. 1-13). Lamp reflectors generally have a satin ormatte finish to diffuse the reflected light to prevent hotspots that could result if the reflector surface were highlypolished.

Reflectors of electronic flash units vary con-siderably in their efficiency and covering power at

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Figure 1-14.-The position of the discharge tube in relation to the reflector.

different distances from the subject. Generally, they aredesigned to provide maximum efficiency at distances offrom 6 to 12 feet from the subject. Professional type ofelectronic flash units may have a dual reflectorsystem-one position for a normal angle and the other fora wide angle (for a wide-angle lens); others may have azoom system to provide optimum light distribution forany lens within a wide range of focal lengths. Dependingon the position of the discharge tube in relation to thereflector, the unit can be used as a spotlight or floodlight(fig. 1-14).

PLANE REFLECTORS. –When you want toprovide fill-in light for shadow areas, it is often desirableto substitute a plane reflector (sometimes called areflector board) to redirect the light from a direct lightsource (fig. 1-15). The plane reflector is placed so itreceives light from the primary light source and reflectsthe light into the shadows. The efficiency of such areflector depends on its surface and tone, as well as sizeand distance from the subject being photographed. Thesubject area covered by a plane reflector depends on thesize of the reflector. When the surface of the reflector ismatte or textured, it reflects diffused light and some ofthe reflected light is dispersed over a wide angle.

OPTICAL PRINCIPLES

Cameras have optical systems, or lenses, made upof several separate pieces of glass, called elements.There are two reasons for having several elements. First,it allows the designer to make many different types oflenses to suit different purposes. Second, the quality ofthe image formed by the lens can be controlled bychoosing different lens elements. The most importantchoices the lens designer makes are the shape andposition of each lens element. These govern propertieslike focal length, angle of view, physical weight, andsize.

Lenses are probably the least understood but themost discussed component of the photographic process.Photographers (generally amateurs) speak of a lensformula as if they knew what it was about. Even if thedesigner’s formula were made available, it would notprovide information about the lens photographic quality.A perfect lens cannot be made. A lens is a compromiseof inherent errors called aberrations, but do not let thisworry you. Lens aberrations are defects in the formationof an optical image. Today’s lenses are so highlycorrected for lens aberrations that, except for a few ultrawide-angle (fisheye) lenses, you would be hard pressedto find a lens that produces subjectively identifiable

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Figure 1-15.–Plane reflector and subject coverage.

aberrations. You may hear photographers talking aboutaberrations as if they were important. They may makean interesting subject, but knowing all the details aboutthem does not help you to take better photographs.Important matters that will improve your skill as aphotographer are knowing how to control the factors,such as exposure, composition, lighting, and lab work.Let the lens designers and manufacturers worry aboutthe lens aberrations. However, just so you know whatthese lens aberrations are, a brief definition is providedfor each of them in the glossary; they are as follows:

Astigmatism

Chromatic aberration

Coma

Curvilinear distortion

Spherical aberration

Today’s lenses can image more detail than presentfilm materials can record. Therefore, avoid discussinglens resolution. If you want to discuss resolution, talkfilm resolution.

PRINCIPLE OF A LENS

The purpose of a camera lens is to control the lightrays entering the camera. The simplest kind of lens is apinhole in a piece of thin metal or black paper. Of course,only an extremely small part of the light reflected by a

subject passes through the pinhole and enters thecamera. When the pinhole is large, it allows more lightrays to enter but blurs the image. This blur is really anoverlapping of several images. Images produced bylarge and small pinholes are the same size, but one isblurred, while the other is sharp. A photographic lens isa piece of polished and carefully shaped glass thatrefracts light rays so an image of a desired scene isformed on the rear wall of a camera. A lens transmitsmore light than a pinhole. It increases the brightness andimproves the sharpness of an image. The basic principleof a lens-any lens-is relatively simple.

First, consider an image formed with a singlepinhole. Next, consider another pinhole above the first.This pinhole forms a second image. When these twoimages could be made to coincide, the result would bean image twice as bright as the original. Now, considera third pinhole on the side of the first, a fourth on theother side, and a fifth below the first. All four pinholesproject separate images slightly removed from the firstor center one. When these four images are made tocoincide with the center one, the result is an image fivetimes as bright as the image made by the one centerpinhole. By using the principle of refraction, you canmake these four images coincide with the center one. Byplacing a prism behind each pinhole, you are causing thelight that forms each of the four images to be refractedand form a single image. In other words, the morepinholes and prisms used, the brighter or more intensethe image. A lens represents a series of prisms

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Figure 1-16.–Formation of an image by a lens.

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incorporated in a single circular piece of glass (fig.1-16).

CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES

There are several factors that must be included whenyou are considering the characteristics of lenses. Toperform well as a Navy photographer, you mustrecognize the effect of these lens characteristics. Realizealso that it is the recognition and use of these variouslens features and/or qualities that can make thedifference between good and poor photography. Youmust learn to recognize the photographic effect of thesecharacteristics and be able to apply them to produce topquality photography. Finally, you must learn how someof the lens characteristics may limit photographicquality or operational capability.

Lens Focal Length

In photography, lens focal length is the distancebetween the optical center of a lens and the focal plane(film plane) of the camera when the lens is focused atinfinity (fig. 1-17). To understand this definition, youmust fully understand the terms focal plane, opticalcenter, and infinity.

Figure 1-17.–Focal plane and optical center.

Figure 1-18.–Effects of lens-to-subject distance on light rays.

Focal plane-The surface (plane) on which animage transmitted by a lens is brought to sharp focus;the surface or area at the back of the camera occupiedby the film.

Optical center-The optical center of a lens is apoint, usually (although not always) within a lens, atwhich the rays of light from two different sourcesentering the lens are assumed to cross.

Infinity-This term is not easily described. Whenlight is reflected from the point of an object, the closerthe point is to the lens, the greater is the angle of thespread of light rays from the object (fig. 1-18). As the

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Figure 1-19.-Image size and coverage as compared to the lens focal length.

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object point gets farther away from the lens, the angleof spread becomes less and less until a distance isreached at which the rays from a single point, for allpractical purposes, can be considered parallel. Thisdistance is known by the term infinity. For all practicalpurposes, light rays from a distant object or an object at600 or more feet away may be considered to be parallel.But this is only for practical purposes. When very longfocal-length lenses or telephoto lenses are beingconsidered, the distance of 600 feet may be much lessthan infinity. In other words, infinity is a distance so farremoved from the camera lens that the rays of lightreflected to the lens from a point at that distance may beregarded as parallel. Infinity is expressed by thesymbol and is a setting on a camera focusing scale.

The manner in which light rays are refracted by alens determines the focal length. This refraction, in turn,depends on the nature of the glass used in the elements,the curvatures of the element surfaces, and theseparation of the elements. The first two factors are fixedquantities once the lens is manufactured, but the thirdfactor may be changed individually in certain lenses.

In zoom lenses the distance separating the lenselements can be changed. In convertible lenses, portionsor elements of the lens can be used by themselves. Ineither method, the focal length of the lens can bechanged. When one of these two conditions cannot bemet, the focal length is fixed and constant.

Photographic lenses are measured according to theirfocal length which is normally imprinted somewhere onthe lens mounting (usually the front surface of the lensbarrel). This focal length information is sometimesgiven in inches, sometimes in millimeters, andoccasionally in both systems. Focal length is frequentlyused to indicate the size of a lens. Thus, a lens labeledas an 8-inch lens indicates that when it is focused on apoint at infinity, the distance from its optical center tothe focal plane is 8 inches.

The focal length of a photographic lens dictates thesize of the image produced by the lens at a givenlens-to-subject distance. Focal length also determinesthe minimum distance between the lens and the focalplane. The normal focal length of a lens (normal lens)for a camera is approximately equal to the diagonaldimension of the film being used. Since the diagonaldimension of a 4x5 film is 6.4 inches, a lens about6 inches is a normal lens for such film.

Lenses with a longer than normal focal length maybe used on a camera, provided the distance from the lensto the film can be increased sufficiently to accommodate

the increase in focal length. Lenses shorter than thenormal focal length may also be used, provided they aredesigned to meet the constraints of the camera and filmsize.

FOCAL LENGTH AND IMAGE SIZE.–Whenyou photograph the same object at the same distance, alens with a long-focal length produces a larger imagethan one with a short-focal length. In effect, the longerfocal-length lens magnifies or brings the subject closerto the camera without changing the camera-to-subjectdistance (fig. 1-19). For example, a man 6 feet tall standsat a distance of 25 feet from three cameras, one equippedwith a 6-inch lens, one with a 12-inch lens, and one witha 24-inch lens. The 6-inch lens produces a 1 1/2-inchimage of the man. The 12-inch lens produces an imagethat is 3 inches high. The 24-inch lens produces a 6-inchimage. From this example, it is obvious that the longerthe focal length of the lens, the larger the image size ofa given object from a given lens-to-subject distance.

FOCAL LENGTH AND SUBJECT COVER-AGE.–Focal length and subject coverage go hand inhand-just as do focal length and image size. But,whereas image size increases with increased focallength, coverage decreases with increased focal length.We can consider coverage as the amount of subjectmatter included in a given format film size from a givenlens-to-subject distance. With two cameras-each with adifferent focal-length lens-at the same distance from thesame subject, the camera with the shortest focal-lengthlens includes the greatest subject area-the camera withthe longest focal-length lens the least subject area(fig. 1-20).

Angle of Field.–The focal length of a lens is adetermining factor in the coverage of that lens. Themaximum coverage at the focal plane of a lens isexpressed in degrees as the angle of field. Angle of fieldis the widest angle at which light entering a lensproduces a usable portion of the circle of illuminationat the focal plane. Light around the edges of the entirecircle falls off in intensity before disappearingcompletely. The usable portion of this circle is called thecircle of good definition.

The maximum size of film you can use with a lensdepends on the angle of field because any part of thefilm outside the circle of good definition produces anindistinct image.

Angle of field is a basic optical condition that isapproximately equal for all normal focal-length lenses.A normal lens, as it is called, has an angle of field ofabout 45 degrees to 55 degrees. This angle of field

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Figure 1-21.–Angle of field.

closely resembles the central vision coverage of thehuman eye. Wide-angle lenses have a large or wideangle of field Long focal-length lenses (often calledtelephotolenses) have a narrow angle of field (fig. 1-21).

Angle of View.–Angle of view determines thecoverage of a lens with a particular size of film, with thelens-to-film distance remaining unchanged. Angle ofview is an angle with the intercept point at the lens andits sides matching the corners of the film.

The angle of view (fig. 1-22) of a normal focal-length lens with a given film size can approach but neverexceed the angle of field of the lens. Any lens recordingan angle greater than 55 degrees with a given film sizehas a short-focal length and is called a wide-angle lens.Any lens with an angle of view less than 45 degrees witha given film size has a longer focal length.

Lens Diaphragm

The diaphragm of a lens is an opening in the lensthat allows light to pass through it to expose the film (orother recording medium). This opening can be madelarger or smaller to allow more or less light to passthrough the lens. When the diaphragm opening is very

Figure 1-22.–Angle of view.

large, only the object that the lens is focused on is insharp focus. As the diaphragm opening is reduced (madesmaller), more objects in a scene, both in front andbehind the point of focus become sharper. The lensdiaphragm is used in conjunction with the shutter ofthe camera to control the amount of light to exposethe film.

PERSPECTIVE

The human eyes see objects in three dimensions, buta lens reproduces a view in two dimensions. The missingdimension, depth, is suggested by the relative size andposition of the various objects in a picture. Perspective,which is the relationship of objects in a photograph,affects the naturalness of a picture. Good perspectiverepresents objects as they actually appear to humaneyes.

Since wide-angle lenses take in a greater area, mostphotographers use them to photograph in tight quarters.And they use long-focus (long focal length) lenses tobring distant objects closer. This is fine, but it is onlypart of the story. Lenses of different focal length are alsoused to control perspective.

Perspective is NOT dependent on the focal lengthof the lens. It is a function of camera-to-subject distance.But a choice of lenses of a different focal length doesenable you to get the desired image size at the selecteddistance for best perspective. For example, suppose youcome across a placid farm scene. A rustic rail fence is inthe foreground, and a cow is munching on a haystack inthe field. The cow and her lunch are 100 feet behind thefence; you are 10 feet in front of the fence. The fence isessential to your picture and you use a 50mm lens. Theresult! The cow is 110 feet from the camera and is toosmall in relation to the fence. Your picture is a flop. Nowchange your perspective. Back up 40 feet from the fence

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and use a 200mm lens. The fence at this distance, withthe 200mm lens, is the same size as it was at 10 feet withthe 50mm lens. The cow is now 140 feet from thecamera, but her image is four times larger. In thephotograph, it looks as if she were only 35 feet away or25 feet behind the fence. The results! An interestingpicture and pleasing composition. Choosing viewpointand then selecting focal length for image size is one ofthe most important functions you should consider whenselecting lens focal length.

HOW TO USE LENSES

Today, the Navy photographer is applyingphotography to the ever-widening specialized andtechnical fields within the modem Navy. This has led togreater emphasis on the correct and accurate use of themost important part of the camera-the lens. The higherstandards of picture quality and the greater interest inpicture taking regardless of lighting conditions, alldemand more attention to the correct use of lenses. Nomatter how good the quality of the lenses, ifphotographers do not use them correctly, they will notdo us or the Navy any good.

f/stop of a Lens

To use lenses correctly, the photographer mustunderstand the relationship between the aperture of alens and the brightness of the image produced at thefocal plane. The aperture of a lens is simply the openingthrough which light passes. The aperture is controlledby an adjustable diaphragm or iris. Each setting of thediaphragm is called an f/stop and is always read as anumber, not as a fraction or true ratio. It is referred to asthe f/stop or the f/stop of the diaphragm opening. Thisvalue is designated by a lowercase f with a slant (/)between the f and the value. For example, f/8 means thatthe diameter of the opening in the diaphragm is oneeighth of the lens focal length, but only “when the lensis focused on infinity.” In this example f/8 is theeffective aperture. If the lens were focused at other thaninfinity, f/8 would then be the relative aperture. In thestudy of the relationship between aperture and imagebrightness, the term relative aperture is used frequently.The term relative aperture then refers to the ratiobetween the effective aperture of the lens and its focallength. The relative aperture of a lens is controlled bytwo factors: (1) the diameter of the beam of light passedby the lens; and (2) the focal length of the lens, whichgoverns the size of the area over which the light isspread.

f/stop Applications

The formula to determine the f/stop of a lens is asfollows:

Where:

F = focal length

D = diameter of the effective aperture

f = f/stop, or the relative aperture

EXAMPLE: To find the f/stop of a lens that has a focallength of 8 inches and the diameter of the effectiveaperture is 2 inches, use the formula below.

Therefore, the lens has a relative aperture of f/4.

When the diameter of the opening (aperture) of thelens is made smaller, less light is admitted and the imageformed by the beam of light passing through the smalleropening becomes dim. As the size of the opening isreduced, the ratio between the aperture and the focallength increases. Thus an inverse relationship existsbetween the E/number and the relative aperture; as thef/stop becomes larger, the size of the relative aperturedecreases.

Since the f/stop is a ratio of focal length to the lensdiameter, all lenses with the same f/stops regardless offocal length provide the same amount of light on thefocal plane; that is, when all the other factors that affectimage brightness remain constant (fig. 1-23).

DIAPHRAGM

There is in every lens assembly a mechanical devicefor controlling the amount of light that passes throughthe lens. This mechanism may have a fixed size, or itmay be designed to provide a selection among a numberof sizes that can be given to the aperture in a lens. Thisdevice is a diaphragm, and its scale increments arecalled f/stops (fig. 1-24). It is located within the lens tocut off or obstruct the marginal light rays whilepermitting the more central rays to pass. Most lenseshave a series of thin metal leaves for this purpose. Theseleaves are arranged and shaped to provide anapproximately circular opening that can be changed in

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Figure 1-23.–Equal f/stops produce equal intensities.

size, when desired, and is called an iris diaphragm. Thisopening is always concentric (centered) with, andperpendicular to the optical axis of the lens. Its locationin the lens barrel is determined by the manufacturerwhen the lens is designed.

Rotating the diaphragm control ring in the directionthat reduces the size of the aperture is termed stoppingdown. Moving the control ring so it enlarges the aperture

Figure 1-24.–Iris and iris diaphragm.

size is termed opening up. When the diaphragm is set atthe largest aperture, the lens is said to be wide open. Thebetter the quality of the optics within the lens, the largerthe possible maximum aperture. The size of the largestopening is the maximum working aperture of the lensand is called the lens speed. The diaphragm, along withthe shutter, controls the amount of light passing througha lens, and hence the exposure the film receives.

There are many different aperture sizes possiblewith the diaphragm, and each aperture size has adifferent value. Consequently, a system was devised formarking them so they could be used with consistency.The factorial system has become the most widely used.This system uses a set of markings commonly called thef/system. By using the diaphragm control ring, or lever,you can bring the index mark into line with the numbersthat indicate the measured f/stop of the aperture.Remember, as these index numbers increase in size, theopening decreases in size. Furthermore, these numbersare chosen by moving the index pointer to the next largernumber, and the amount of light admitted is cut in half.The first or lowest number in the series is usually an

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exception. All these numbers may not exactly reduce theamount of light admitted by one half, but they aresufficiently close for all practical purposes. However,all of these values are in proportion to the squares oftheir numbers. For example, f/4 admits four times morelight than f/8 because the square of f/4 is contained inthe square of f/8 exactly four times. Thus,

42 = 4 x 4 = 1 6

82 = 8 x 8 = 6 4

6 41 6

= 4

Table 1-1 shows that the amount of light admittedis inversely proportional to the square of the f/stop,while the exposure required is directly proportional toit.

EXAMPLE: The correct exposure at f/8 required 1second. How long an exposure is required at f/16? Theproportion and computation are as follows:

(Old f/value)2 (Old exposure)

(New f/value)2 = (Required exposure)

8 21

1 6 2= x

6 4 1=2 5 6 x

64x = 256

x = 4

Thus the required exposure equals 4 seconds.

Table 1-1.–Comparison of f/stops with Amount of Light to Exposure Time

f/ value f/value2 squared Amount of light admitted Exposure in seconds

4 1 6 4 1/4

4.5 (half stop) 20.25 3.2 1/3

5.6 31.36 2 1/2

8 64 1 1

11 121 1/2 2

16 256 1/4 4

22 448 1/16 8

32 1024 1/32 16

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Table 1-2.–Amount of light, f/stop, and Exposure Time Relationship

f/stop

1

1.4

2

2.8

4

5.6

811

16

2 2

32

4 5

6 4

Relative exposure Relative amount of light admitted

0.06

0.12

0.25

0.50

1.0

2.0

3.0

8.0

16.0

32.0

64.0

128.0

256.0

The first (lowest) f/stop marked on the lens mountis the correct value for its largest aperture. The nextnumber is the nearest f/stop in an arbitrary series thathas been adopted as a standard. In this standard series,each succeeding number going up the scale (from thelargest opening to the smallest) permits only half asmuch light to enter the camera. Thus, as the numbers getlarger, the diaphragm openings (apertures) becomesmaller. However, moving the index pointer in thereverse order, down the scale (from the smallest openingto the largest), the numbers get smaller and thediaphragm openings become larger. As shown intable 1-1, the smallest number may not admit exactlytwice as much light as the next larger number.Nevertheless, the amount of light admitted remainsinversely proportional to the square of the f/stop, and theexposure required is always directly proportional to it.

All lenses are indexed with the standard series off/stops either completely or in part-except for the firstf/stop (as stated earlier) that is computed to indicate thecorrect value of the maximum aperture. Thephotographer should become acquainted with thisseries, so its relative values are known. The followingtable is a listing of the f/stop, better known as thestandard full stops. A comparative exposure based on 1second at f/4 or 16 seconds at f/16 is also shown (tablel-2).

16

8

4

2

1

1/2

1/4

1/8

1/16

1/32

1/64

1/128

1/256

By studying the table, you can see that when the lensaperture is opened one full stop, the amount of lighttransmitted is twice that of the nearest preceding stop.And altering the f/stop one full stop less (stopping down)reduces the amount of light passing through the lens toone half that of the nearest larger stop.

In summary then:

Light passes through an opening (aperture) of thelens. The diameter of the aperture can be changed. Theopenings are called f/stops. The f/stops indicate to thephotographer that a lens (any lens) with a specific f/stopallows a given amount of light to the film. Thus a 12-inchfocal-length lens set at f/4.5 gives the same exposure asa 6-inch focal-length lens set at f/4.5.

The f/stops represent a fraction of the focal lengthof the lens for a given lens; that is, an f/4 lens has aneffective maximum opening of one fourth of its focallength.

From one full f/stop to the next full f/stop, thereis a constant factor of two. As the opening changes fromf/8 to f/l1, the light passing through the lens is reducedby one half because the larger f/stop (f/11) is a smalleraperture. When the aperture is changed from f/8 to f/5.6,the light passed is doubled because the aperture has beenmade larger.

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f/stops Functions

f/stops have three functions:

1. They act as a partial control of exposure (theother exposure control is the shutter).

2. They help control depth of field.

3. They allow the photographer to adjust theaperture to the point of best definition of the lens,sometimes called the optimum or critical aperture.

Each of these functions is discussed in this chapter.

Focusing

A lens, at a given focus setting, provides a sharpimage of an object at only one distance in front of it.However, when the distance between the focal plane andthe lens can be adjusted, the lens can be made to formsharp images of objects located at differing distances infront of it. Therefore, to get a sharp image of a subjectat a given distance, you must adjust the lens to theappropriate distance from the film plane. Thisadjustment is known as focusing.

In focusing a camera lens, the nearer the subject isto the lens, the farther behind the lens the image isformed. For close subjects, the lens must be moved away

from the film plane to focus the image; and the fartheraway the subject is from the lens, the closer to the lensthe film plane must be (fig. 1-25).

INFINITY FOCUS.–When the lens is focused onan object so distant that the light rays reflected from itare parallel, these rays converge (after refraction by thelens) at the point of principal focus. The point ofprincipal focus is on the principal focal plane; that is, ata distance of one focal length behind the lens. Therefore,the lens is said to be on infinity focus.

When the distant object is moved nearer to the lensor the lens is moved closer to the object, the distancebetween the focal plane and the lens must be increasedto keep the image in sharp focus. When the distancebetween the lens and focal plane is not extended as theobject is moved nearer to the lens, the image of theobject becomes blurred or out of focus. The closer thelens is to the object it is focused upon, the larger theimage becomes until the distance between the lens andthe focal plane is extended to twice the focal length ofthe lens. At this distance, the image and the objectfocused upon are the same size. Therefore, the size ofan image formed by a lens is dependent upon twofactors: the distance from the lens to the object focusedupon and the focal length of the lens.

Figure 1-25.–Subject distance and focus.

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Figure 1-26.–Focusing for one object.

I M A G E P O I N T S( C I R C L E

O F C O N F U S I O N )

Figure 1-27.–Image on film in front of and in back of the point of sharp focus.

FOCUSING FOR ONE OBJECT.–Focusing isdone essentially to obtain the proper distance betweenthe lens and the film. When light rays come from a farobject and pass through a lens, they form a sharp imageclose to the lens. When light rays come from a nearobject, they form an image farther away from the lens.This means that the lens must be focused on either thefar or the near object, depending on which one thephotographer wants to have in sharp focus. When asharp image of the near object is desired, the lens shouldbe focused by moving it farther away from the film.When you want a sharp image of the far object, movethe lens closer to the film (fig. 1-26).

CIRCLE OF CONFUSION.–A picture isbasically an accumulation of many points that are exactimages of points composing the subject. After lightstrikes a subject, it is reflected from many points on thesubject. A camera lens redirects these reflected rays intocorresponding points on the film. Each of these pointsis reproduced by the lens as a circle. When the circle issmaller than l/100 inch, it appears as a sharp point tothe eye. When the circle is larger than 1/100 inch, theeye sees it as a circle, and the image is blurred or out offocus. Each out-of-focus circle on the film is called acircle of confusion and can be visualized as the crosssection of a cone of a light ray (fig. 1-27).

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Figure 1-28.–Depth of field.

When a lens is focused on an object at a certaindistance, other objects, both closer and farther than thefocus distance, form larger circles of confusion. Whenthe film is placed at a point corresponding to the lensfocus distance, a clear image is produced (fig. 1-28).When the film is nearer or farther away from the lensthan the corresponding lens focus distance, the imagebecomes blurred because of the larger circles ofconfusion caused by the intersection of light rays eitherin front of, or behind, the film plane.

Table 1-3.–Permissible Circle of Confusion Is Dependent onFilm Size

16mm

35mm

2 1/4 x 2 3/4"

4 x 5"

8 x 10"

Film Size

0.0010

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.012

Diameter (inches)

Another factor affecting the circle of confusion islens aperture. Decreasing a lens opening narrows thelight rays passed by the lens. The narrower these rays,the smaller the circles of confusion when the image isnot in perfect focus. In practice, this means that a smalllens opening is used to record, as clearly as possible,several objects at varying distances. Even when the raysfrom some objects do not intersect perfectly at the filmplane, the circles of confusion ahead or behind the filmare negligible and still appear as a sharp image.

The size of the permissible circle of confusiondepends on the film format size and the manner in whichthe film will be used. Experience has shown that thepermissible circle of confusion should not exceed about1/1000 of the focal length of the lens. This is normal forthe film size. The generally accepted permissible circleof confusion diameters are given in table 1-3.

Figure 1-29.–Depth of focus.

The minimum circle of confusion of most lenses is sharp. Consequently, the distance that the focal planesmall. Thus the focal plane can be moved slightly and can be moved forward or backward from the plane ofyet retain an acceptable sharp image. However, as the sharp focus and continue to produce an image ofdistance of the movement is increased, the circle of acceptable sharpness is termed the depth of focus. Thisconfusion becomes greater and the image becomes less depth is always within the camera (fig. 1-29).

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HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE.–The hyperfocaldistance of a lens is the distance from the optical centerof the lens to the nearest point in acceptably sharp focuswhen the lens, at a given f/stop, is focused at infinity. Inother words, when a lens is focused at infinity, thedistance from the lens beyond which all objects arerendered in acceptably sharp focus is the hyperfocaldistance. For example, when a 155mm lens is set at f/2.8and focused at infinity, objects from 572 feet to infinityare in acceptably sharp focus. The hyperfocal distancetherefore is 572 feet.

The following equation is used to find hyperfocaldistance:

F 2

H =f x C

Where:

H = hyperfocal distance

F = focal length of lens

f = f/stop setting

C = diameter of circle of confusion

F and C must be in themillimeters, and so forth.

same units, inches,

NOTE: 1 inch is equal to 25.4mm.

Where:

F = 155mm (6.1 inches)

f = 2.8

C = 0.05 (0.002 inches)

Then:

H =6 . 1 2

2.8 x 0.002= 6650 inches = 554 feet

Thus the hyperfocal distance for this lens set at f/2.8 is554 feet.

Hyperfocal distance depends on the focal length ofthe lens, the f/stop being used, and the permissible circleof confusion. Hyperfocal distance is needed to use themaximum depth of field of a lens. To find the depth offield, you must first determine the hyperfocal distance.By focusing a lens at its hyperfocal distance, you causethe depth of field to be about one half of the hyperfocaldistance to infinity.

ND =H x D

H + D

DEPTH OF FIELD.–Depth of field is the distancefrom the nearest point of acceptably sharp focus to the

farthest point of acceptably sharp focus of a scene beingphotographed Because most subjects exist in more thanone plane and have depth, it is important in photographyto have an area in which more than just a narrow, verticalplane appears sharp. Depth of field depends on the focallength of a lens, the lens f/top, the distance at which thelens is focused, and the size of the circle of confusion.

Depth of field is greater with a short-focal-lengthlens than with a long-focal-length lens. It increases asthe lens opening or aperture is decreased. When a lensis focused on a short distance, the depth of field is alsoshort. When the distance is increased, the depth of fieldincreases. For this reason, it is important to focus moreaccurately for pictures of nearby objects than fordistance objects. Accurate focus is also essential whenusing a large lens opening. When enlargements are madefrom a negative, focusing must be extremely accuratebecause any unsharpness in the negative is greatlymagnified.

When a lens is focused at infinity, the hyperfocaldistance of that lens is defined as the near limit of thedepth of field, while infinity is the far distance. Whenthe lens is focused on the hyperfocal distance, the depthof field is from about one half of that distance to infinity.

Many photographers actually waste depth of fieldwithout even realizing it. When you want MAXIMUMdepth of field in your pictures, focus your lens on thehyperfocal distance for the f/stop being used, NOT onyour subject which of course would be farther away thanthe hyperfocal distance. When this is done, depth of fieldruns from about one half of the hyperfocal distance toinfinity.

There are many times when you want to know howmuch depth of field can be obtained with a given f/stop.The image in the camera viewing system may be too dimto see when the lens is stopped down. Under theseconditions, some method other than sight must be usedto determine depth of field. Depth of field can be workedout mathematically.

The distance, as measured from the lens, to thenearest point that is acceptably sharp (the near distance)is as follows:

The distance, as measured from the lens, to the farthestpoint that is acceptably sharp (the far distance) is asfollows:

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ND = near distance

H = hyperfocal distance

D = distance focused upon

F D = far distance

EXAMPLE: What is the depth of field of a 155mm (6.1inch) lens that is focused on an object 10 feet from thecamera lens using f/2.8? (Note: In a previous examplethe hyperfocal distance for the lens was found to be 554feet.) By the formula, the nearest sharp point isdetermined as follows:

ND = 9.8 feet

Thus the nearest point in sharp focus is 9.8 feet from thelens that is focused on an object at 10 feet, using f/2.8.

Also by the formula, the farthest point in sharp focuscan be determined as follows:

FD = 10.2 feet

Therefore, the far point in sharp focus is 10.2 feet whenfocused on an object at 10 feet, using f/2.8.Consequently, the depth of field in this problem equalsthe near distance subtracted from the far distance(10.2 - 9.8 = 0.4-foot depth of field). Thus all objectsbetween 9.8 and 10.2 feet are in acceptably sharp focus.When this depth of field is not great enough to cover thesubject, select a smaller f/stop, find the new hyperfocaldistance, and apply the formula again.

When the only way you have to focus is bymeasurement, the problem then becomes one of whatfocus distance to set the lens at so depth of field is placedmost effectively. There is a formula to use to solve thisproblem.

P =D x d x 2

D + d

Where:

D = distance to farthest point desired in sharpfocus

d = distance to nearest point desired in sharpfocus

p= distance to point at which the lens should befocused

Substituting the figures from the previous examples,

D= 10.2 feet

d = 9.8 feetP= lens focus distance

Then:

P = 10 feet

To obtain the desired depth of field at f/2.8, we set thelens focus distance at 10 feet.

If the preceding explanations and formulas haveconfused you, here is some good news! Most camerasand lenses have depth of field indicators that show theapproximate depth of field at various distances and lensapertures. Figure 1-30 shows that with the lens set at f/8and focused at about 12 feet, subjects from about 9 feetto about 20 feet are in acceptably sharp focus. Bybringing the distance focused upon to a positionopposite the index mark, you can read the depth of fieldfor various lens openings.

Keep in mind that a depth of field scale, either onthe camera or on the lens, is for a given lens or lens focallength only. There is no universal depth-of-field scalethat works for all lenses.

In conclusion, the two formulas used to computedepth of field serve for all distances less than infinity.When the lens is focused on infinity, the hyperfocaldistance is the nearest point in sharp focus, and there isno limit for the far point.

CONJUGATE FOCI

Object points and their corresponding image pointsformed by a lens are termed conjugate focal points. Thedistances from the optical center of the lens to thesepoints, when the image is in focus, are termed conjugatefocal distances or conjugate foci (fig. 1-31).

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302.15Figure 1-30.–Depth of field on camera focusing ring.

The terms object focal distance and image focaldistance are often used for these conjugate distances. Itis obvious from these two terms that the object distanceis outside the camera and the image distance is insidethe camera. Since the focal length denotes only thedistance from its center to the image when focused atinfinity, we need some way to account for the fact thatwhen we focus on closer objects the image focaldistance can be much more than the lens focal length,with a corresponding effect on image size, effectiveaperture, and other factors.

50mm +(50mm)

1 = 100mm

The various ratios between image and object focaldistances may be determined by a formula that containsthe focal length of the lens and the ratio (scale) betweenthe image size and the object size.

That is:

F = the focal length of the lens

R = the ratio between the image and object sizeor the ratio between the conjugate foci ofthe image and object

When R is determined by the following formula:

R = Image sizeObject size

Object focal distance = F + F ÷ R)

Image focal distance = F + (F x R)

For a 1: 1 reproduction using a 50mm lens, your objectfocal distance is as follows:

and the image focal distance is as follows:

50mm + (50mm x 1) = 100mm

When the image formed by a lens is smaller than theobject, the larger conjugate is outside the camera. Whenthe image formed is larger than the object, the largerconjugate is inside the camera.

These conjugate focal distances have someinteresting relationships that may be used in severalways. The following examples illustrate the practicalvalue of these distance relationships:

EXAMPLE 1: A4x5-inch copy negative must be madeof a 16x20 print using a camera equipped with a 10-inchfocal length lens.

Figure 1-31 .–Conjugate distances.

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PROBLEM: Determine the distance that is requiredbetween the film and the lens (the image focal distance)and the necessary distance between the lens and the print(the object focal distance).

The ratio between the film size and the print size (4:16or 5:20) may be reduced by using the following formula:

R =4 11 6

=4 R =

84 = 2

Likewise:

R =5 12 0

=4

Substituting the figures into the formula:

Object focal distance = F + (F ÷ R)

= 10+(10+ 1/4)

= 50 inches

Image focal distance = F + (F x R)

= 10 + (10 x 1/4)

= 12.5 inches

Therefore, the camera lens must be 50 inches from theprint and the film must be 12.5 inches from the lens tomake a 4x5-inch image of a 16x20 print using a 10-inchlens.

EXAMPLE 2: Make a full-length portrait of a man 6feet (72 inches) tall using a 10-inch focal-length lens,and make the image on the film 5 inches long.

PROBLEM: How much studio space is required tomake this photograph?

The ratio is 5:72, which reduces to

R =5 17 2

=14.4

Substituting the formula:

Image focal distance = 10 + (10 x1

)= 10.7 inches14.4

Object focal distance = 10 + (10 +1

) = 154 inches14.4

Adding 10.7 inches and 154 inches and converting tofeet gives a film to subject distance of 13.7 feet.However, there must be enough space added to thisdistance to allow a background behind the subject andoperating space behind the camera. Three or four feet ateach end is about the minimum for good work Thus, if

the room is not at least 20 feet long (13.7 + 6 = 19.7), aportrait this size cannot be made with a 10-inch lens.

EXAMPLE 3: A diagram 4 inches square is to bephotographed so the image on the film is 8 inchessquare. Using a 10-inch lens, how much bellowsextension, or camera length, is required? The ratio hereis 8:4, or

The image focal distance equals the bellows extensionor the required length of the camera.

Substituting:

Image focal distance = 10 + (10 x 2)

= 30 inches

If the camera does not have sufficient bellows extensionto allow the film to be placed 30 inches from the lens,the required negative or image size cannot be made withthis camera and lens.

It is not difficult to calculate the various distancesfor different jobs. The photographer also saves the timeand unnecessary work usually required by thetrial-and-error method.

Image/Object Relationship

The size of the image formed by a lens is dependentupon the following:

The size of the subject

The lens-to-subject distance

The lens focal length

The size of the image of any object at a given distanceis directly proportional to the focal length of the lensbeing used. That is, when a given object at a givendistance appears 1 inch high on the focal plane when a3-inch lens is used, it appears 2 inches high when a6-inch lens is used and l/2 inch high when a 1 1/2-inchlens is used.

The proportion illustrated in the following figure isthe basis of the equation commonly used for solvingimage-object and focal length distance relationshipproblems (fig. 1-32).

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I GF =

A

I =FGA

A =FGI

F =IAG

G =IAF

Figure 1-32.–Proportional IFGA.

All image-object and focal length distancerelationship problems can be computed with thefollowing simple proportion:

The image size (I)

is to the image focal distance (F)

as the object size (G)

is to the object focal distance (A)

You should thoroughly understand this equation sinceyou will have many uses for it in many differentapplications of photography.

Study the proportional IFGA figure and note thefollowing:

I - the image size

F - the image focal distance

G - the object size

A - the distance from lens to object

The ratio of image size to image focal distance isthe same as the ratio of object size to object focaldistance as follows:

I:F = G:AI =

FGA

I = 12 x 103 0

The mathematical equation resulting from thisproportion is as follows:

The proportion may be written in fractional form asfollows:

When solving for I:

When solving for A:

To clear or set apart one factor of an equation so it maybe solved, divide the equation by all factors on that sideof the equation except the one to be set apart.

When solving for F:

When solving for G:

These four formulas are from the same equationIA = FG.

Inches and feet are used in the equation thateliminates the computations required to reduce feetmeasurements to inches. However, the relation of inchesto inches and feet to feet must be maintained on therespective sides of each equation Keep I and F valuesin inches and G and A values in feet. Then, when solvingfor I or F, the result will be in inches. When solving forG or A, the result will be in feet.

In the sample problems which follow, the IA = FGformula is used as though the camera were focused atinfinity.

PROBLEM 1: A lens with a focal length of 12 inchesis used to photograph an object 10 feet high from adistance of 30 feet. What is the size of the image? Solvefor the unknown factor (image size) by substituting theknown factors (focal length, object size, and distance)into the equation IA = FG. The formula andcomputations are as follows:

IA=FG I = 4, or image size equals 4 inches

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This computation can be done with lenses marked inmillimeters; however, the result will also be inmillimeters. At this point, you must convert millimetersto inches as follows:

A =FGI

12 inches x 12 feetA = 9 inches

I =305mm x 10 ft

30

= 101mm x .04 (conversion factor) = 4 inches

Where:

I = the image size

F = the focal length

G = the object size

A = the distance from the lens to the object

PROBLEM 2: A 24-inch focal-length lens is used tophotograph an object 10 feet high from a distance of 30feet. What is the length of the image? The formula andcomputations are as follows:

F =IAG

F =4 x 20

8

I = 8 inches

or, solving to prove the unit of measure of the result.

I = FGA

I =24 x 10

3 0

I =24 inches x 10 feet

30 feet

I = 8 inches or image size

I = 8 inches

As an example of a typical situation whereby youcan make use of the IA = FG formula, suppose you arerequested to make a 9-inch photograph of a board 12feet long. This board is mounted on a wall and themaximum distance from that wall to the opposite sideof the room is 20 feet. Is it possible to make thisphotograph using an 8x10 camera equipped with a12-inch focal-length lens?

G = IAF

G =9 inches x 16 feet

12 inches

The known values are object size (12-foot board),requested image size (9 inches), and the focal length (12inches). The unknown factor is the necessarylens-to-subject distance required to make thephotograph using this camera. The formula andcomputations are as follows:

IA = FG

A= 16 feet

The required lens-to-subject distance equals 16 feet.The answer to this problem then would be yes, since therequired lens-to-subject distance is only 16 feet. Thisallows the photographer 4 feet (20 - 16 = 4) in which toset up and operate the camera.

PROBLEM 3: An image 4 inches long of an object 8feet high at a distance of 20 feet is focused on the filmplane. What is the lens focal length?

IA = FG

F = 10, or focal length equals 10 inches

Another problem to illustrate the application of theproportion I:F=G:A follows: When using an 8x10camera equipped with a 12-inch focal-length lens toobtain a 9-inch image from a distance of 16 feet, youcan photograph an object of what maximum length? Tosolve this problem, you should have the formula andcomputation as follows:

G = 12 feet

The maximum length of an object that can bephotographed with this 12-inch lens, using an image sizeof 9 inches from a distance of 16 feet, is 12 feet.

Using Various Lenses

It is possible for you to take all your pictures withonly one lens. But before long, you will want to expandyour range of lenses to become a more versatilephotographer.

Within our Navy, 35mm single-lens reflex (SLR)cameras are coming into ever-increasing use. EveryNavy photo unit should have several SLR cameras, and

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by and large, they are the cameras most used. For thesereasons we shall limit our discussion of using differentlenses to 35mm SLR cameras. Keep in mind, however,that the concepts discussed apply equally well to allcameras and lenses no matter what their size of focallength may be.

Lens interchangeability is one of the great featuresof SLR cameras. SLR cameras have focal-plane shuttersdirectly in front of the film so the lens can be removedand replaced at any time without fogging the film. Mostmakes of lenses and cameras are designed with theirown exclusive method of lens attachment. Some usescrew-in lenses; others use bayonet mounts. And eachlens is either incompatible with or requires specialadapters to fit other brands.

Lenses for 35mm cameras are generally divided intotwo groups. The first group is a basic set of three. Theseare moderately wide angle, normal, and moderately longfocal length. The second group is a variety of speciallenses. This group of special lenses includes ultra-wideangle, extreme telephoto, shift lenses, variable focallength (ZOOM), and macro lenses.

Most experienced Navy photographers who use a35mm camera agree that a basic set of lenses is wellworth having. Their choice of actual focal-length lensesis a far more personal decision. One may prefer a 35mmwide angle and a 200mm long focal length. Anotherphotographer may prefer a 28mm wide angle and a135mm long-focal-length lens.

There are two occasions for changing lenses. Thefirst is when your viewpoint or camera position cannotbe changed. Imagine that you are aboard a ship andtaking pictures of the coastline. To get a broader view ofthe coastline, you cannot move your camera positionbecause the ship is on course. The solution is to changeto a wide-angle lens. To get a closeup shot of animportant section of the coastline, you obviously cannotmove closer to the shore. You must change to along-focal-length lens to bring the important section ofcoastline closer to you. The second time you wouldchange lenses is when a different focal-length lensenhances your subject (remember the cow havinglunch). This depends on your ability to change cameraviewpoint, forward and backward, so you can fill thepicture area with the subject. Using a long-focal-lengthlens reduces depth of field, makes the apparent effect oflinear perspective less dramatic, and decreases theapparent distance between different subject planes.

The use of a wide-angle lens has the opposite effect.It increases depth of field, exaggerates apparent linear

Figure 1-33.–Comparison of angle of view on camera lenses.

perspective, increases the apparent distance betweensubject planes, and may introduce image distortion.

As the focal length increases, the image gets biggerand the angle of view becomes smaller. You cannotchange the picture area produced on film by a 35mmSLR camera. The picture area is always 24mm by36mm. Lenses for 35mm SLRs (except some ultra-widelenses) all produce an image that completely fills thepicture area. Along lens magnifies the subject image andnot as much of it fits into the film frame area (fig. 1-33).Thus long-focal-length lenses cut down the area you seearound the subject, and they, therefore, have a smallangle of view.

Short-focal-length lenses produce much smallerimages from the same camera position than long lenses.The small image of a subject looks farther away andmuch more area surrounding it can be included in thepicture area. A short-focal-length lens gives a wide-angle view. This is why short-focal-length lenses arecalled wide-angle lenses.

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Figure 1-34.–Angle of view.

In figure 1-34, the diagram shows the differentangles of view you can expect from several commonfocal-length lenses used with 35mm SLR cameras.

Table 1-4 can be used in selecting lenses for one filmformat that provides the same angle of view producedby another film format and the lens focal-lengthcombinations.

To use this table, select the lens for one film formatthat provides the same angle of view produced byanother film format and focal-length combination.Example: The angle of view of a 360mm lens on a 4x5camera is 19 degrees. To match the angle of viewapproximately with a 35mm camera, a 105mm lens isneeded. The normal focal-length lens (50mm) for a35mm camera provides an angle of view of 40 degrees(width). You can see from the table that the normalfocal-length lens for a medium format camera(2 1/4” x 2 1/4”) is an 80mm lens because it providesapproximately the same angle of view (38 degrees).

TYPES OF LENSES

There is a large variety of lenses available for mosthand-held cameras on the market today. These lenses areused for different photographic applications. The types

of lenses you may use in the fleet are as follows: wideangle, ultra-wide angle, rectilinear, macro, normal focallength, telephoto, and variable focal-length, or zoom,lenses.

Wide-Angle Lenses

Anything less than 40mm in focal length (for a35mm camera) is considered a wide-angle lens. Again,we are speaking of the lens focal length as it applies to35 mm cameras.

A wide-angle (short focal length) lens is designedto take in a large view and is indispensable whenworking in confined spaces or when you want to covera large area. Wide-angle lenses have their own qualities,causing apparent, repeat, apparent, distortion andforeshortening of perspective, so objects close to thelens appear large, while background objects diminish insize dramatically.

Many photographers choose a 28mm lens for their35mm camera wide-angle lens. This is partly becausethis focal length allows the typical wide-angle effectswithout introducing apparently distorted images, suchas bent walls. As well as providing a wider field of view,wide-angle lenses also produce great depth of field at allapertures.

Short-focal-length lenses do not, as is oftenbelieved, actually change perspective. The close view-points allowed by wide-angle lenses can causeperspective effects that appear distorted but areperfectly natural ways of seeing objects at close range.

A wide-angle lens magnifies features nearest thecamera To fill the frame when photographing peoplewith a wide-angle lens, you must move in close. Thiscauses a distorted view. But wide-angle lenses can beused when special effects are desired, such as deliberatedistortion, when exaggeration of features or whensurrounding areas add to the viewer’s understanding ofthe subject.

A lens hood, or lens shade, is an important accessoryfor any lens. It is especially important with a wide-anglelens. Strong light can easily cause flare when reflectedinternally between the elements of the lens, and unlessyou take proper precautions by using a lens hood, yourpictures may be spoiled. Sometimes you are able to seeflare or ghosting in the viewfinder, but more often thannot, it is not visible to the human eye, and it only showsup on the processed film.

Another precaution to take with wide-angle lensesconcerns filters and other accessories attached to the

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Table 1-4.-Choosing Lenses to Match Angle of View

Film Format

16mm

Focal Length Lens(mm)

1017255075

Angle of View, Angle of View,Long Film Dimension Short Film Dimension

(degrees) (degrees)

52 4132 2522 1711 8.57.5 5.6

35mm 15 100 7720 84 6224 74 5328 65 4635 54 3850 40 2790 23 15

105 19 13135 15 10200 10 6.9300 6.9 4.6

2 1/4” x 2 1/4” 30 85 850 69 69

50 58 5880 38 38

120 26 26150 21 21250 13 13350 9 9

4” x 5” 65 85 7275 77 6590 67 56

150 44 35210 32 25300 23 18360 19 15

8” x 10” 165 73 61210 61 50300 45 36360 38 30420 33 26

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front of the lens. When you use more than one filter ora particularly thick filter, you may end up withvignetting. This results in the edges of the image beingcut off, particularly at wide apertures. When usingwide-angle lenses, you should use lens hoods and filtersdesigned for the particular lens in question.

Ultra-Wide-Angle Lenses

Many ultra-wide-angle, or short-focal-length,lenses are known as fisheye lenses. These lenses have afocal length of less than about 17mm (for a 35mmcamera). The ultra-wide-angle view of these lensesresults in image distortion. Straight lines appear curvedand curved Lines may appear straight.

The use of fisheye lenses makes objects appear todiminish in size rapidly as the distance from the cameraincreases and objects which are close to the cameraappear far apart.

Depth of field with a fisheye lens is very great. ‘Theyoften give depth of field that extends from only inchesin front of the lens to infinity so that focusing is notnecessary.

Rectilinear Lenses

A rectilinear lens, despite its wide angle, has normalrectilinear corrections so straight subject lines arestraight in the image and there is no obvious distortion.The width of objects close to the camera appearsemphasized because of the steep perspective producedby a rectilinear lens.

Macro Lenses

A macro lens is used for closeup photography andis a valuable lens for any imaging facility to have. Theselenses come in various focal lengths and are capable ofproducing up to one half or even life-size 1:1 images.For example, a 100mm macro lens produces a 1:1 imagejust as a 50mm macro does. With a 100mm lens, you donot have to get as close to the subject. This is especiallyuseful when you are taking pictures of live creatures ordoing closeup medical photography.

Normal Focal-Length Lenses

The standard or normal focal-length lens for a35mm SLR camera is from about 40mm to 58mm (themost common being 50mm). This focal length gives afield of view roughly the same as that over which theeye gives satisfactory sharpness-thus the name normal

Figure 1-35.–Arrangement of lens elements in a telephoto lens.

focal length. With a normal lens, the angle of view andthe image size you see in the viewfinder are normal. Thatis, you get much the same impression as you would getif you look at the subject with one eye. Many Navyphotographers claim, however, that the wider angle ofview of a 35mm lens (for a 35mm camera) is preferable.Others maintain that an 85mm focal length is better forgeneral use because it enables the picture space to befilled more easily with subject matter.

A normal lens can be used for making pictures ofpeople if you do not get too close. When you fill theframe with the face of the subject, you get imagedistortion. It is better to stand farther back and includethe shoulders of the subject in the picture. Thiseliminates distortion.

Telephoto Lenses

A lens with a focal length greater than about 58mmfor a 35mm camera is a long-focal-length lens. Mostmodern, long-focal-length lenses are called telephotolenses because of their compact design. At one time,long-focal-length lenses were essentially a lens at theend of a long tube. A 500mm lens was spaced 500mmfrom the film, and so on. However, by incorporatingother glass elements, the light passing through the lenscan be modified (fig. 1-35). This permits the lens barrelto be physically shorter than the lens actual focallength-an arrangement known as telephoto.

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Figure 1-36.–Reflecting telephoto lens.

The overall physical length of a telephoto lens isusually only about one half of its focal length. A basic,long-focal-length lens must be placed one focal lengthaway from the film if it is to form an image of a subjectat infinity. In the case of a telephoto (or mirror) lens, thelens-to-film distance is reduced considerably while stillretaining the effects of a long-focal-length lens. Thus a1000mm telephoto lens rear element may only be500mm away from the film when the lens is set atinfinity.

Those 35mm camera lenses that range from about85mm to 135mm are good for shooting pictures ofpeople. They allow you to shoot from about 6 feet awayand still fill the frame with the subject’s face. Six feetfrom the subject is a good working distance. It is not tooclose for comfort, and it is not so far away that intimacyis lost.

Telephoto compression is the apparent compressionof perspective. A telephoto lens does not compressperspective; it only appears that way! Remember,perspective does not depend on the lens being used, buton the position of the camera.

So then, how does a telephoto lens produce theeffect of compressed perspective? Several factors areinvolved:

A telephoto lens is used from farther away toobtain the same size image that would be produced bya shorter lens at a closer distance. The more distantcamera position produces a flatter perspective. But,because the long lens magnifies the subject, it stillproduces a normal size image. Thus the looks are flatterthan expected.

The distance from which the print is viewed alsohas an effect. An X-times enlargement should be viewedfrom X-times the focal length of the lens used to makethe picture in order for the perspective to appear natural.Therefore, a 6X enlargement of a negative shot with a50mm lens should be viewed from 6X 50mm = 300mmor 12 inches, while a picture made with a 500mmtelephoto lens and enlarged 12 times should be viewedfrom20feet(12 x 500mm=600 x 0.04 = 240 ÷ 12 = 20feet). (Note: To convert millimeters to inches, multiplythe known millimeters by 0.04.)

A reflecting telephoto lens, the so-called mirrorlens, has folded up optics. It uses internal mirrors toreflect the light twice. This enables the lens barrel to bemuch shorter, but because of the mirrors, it must also bemuch broader. As shown in figure 1-36, light that entersthe lens through a glass plate is converged and reflectedback by a concave mirror at the back of the lens. Thisreflected light is directed to a small backward-facing

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JO1 Petcr D. Sundberg302.19

Figure 1-37.–Out-of-focus highlights caused by a mirror lens.

mirror lens element at the center of the front glass plate.In turn, the mirror lens reflects the light back through ahole in the concave mirror to a focus on the film.

Mirror lenses have the advantage of long focallength, relatively short physical size, and large aperture.But they also have disadvantages, the main one beingthat a diaphragm cannot be used and the lens mustalways be used at maximum aperture. Therefore,exposure must be controlled by the shutter alone or bythe use of neutral density filters, or both. Because of thisaperture disadvantage, mirror lenses have limited depthof field. Another disadvantage is that out-of-focushighlights record as rings of light (fig. 1-37).

Variable Focal-Length Lenses

A variable focal length, or zoom, lens is designed sothe focal length can be changed by mechanically movingthe elements within the lens. The movement of lenselements, in unison and in precise order, gives a smoothchange of image size while maintaining acceptablysharp focus throughout the entire adjustment. Thesimplified drawing of a zoom lens (fig. 1-38) illustrateshow the movement of elements within the lens can

change the focal length while maintaining correctlens-to-film distance.

While only the shortest and longest focal lengths forthis particular lens are shown in the drawing, variousother focal lengths are possible.

The biggest advantage of a zoom lens is that youhave many focal lengths in one single lens. You do nothave to change lenses to use a different focal length.Sometimes it is impossible to change your viewpoint toimprove a picture. But with a zoom lens you can zoomin and out (change focal length) until you get the exactimage you want. One disadvantage is the extra bulk andweight of the zoom lenses. There is also some loss inpicture quality when compared to the performance of afixed focal length lens. There are four basic types ofwide to telephoto zoom lenses for 35mm cameras:

Wide-range zoom lenses have focal lengths fromabout 28mm to 80mm. They often take the place of fixedfocal-length lenses of 28mm, 35mm, 50mm, and 80mm.

Mid-range zoom lenses have focal length that donot extend very far on either side of a normal lens focallength. Mid-range zooms for 35mm cameras have a

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Figure 1-38.–Variable focal-length (zoom) lens.

variable focal length from about 35mm to 70mm. Theyare usually small and lightweight. They are designed tobe used instead of a normal focal-length lens, not toreplace a range of focal length lenses.

Long-range zoom lenses start at about 35mm andinclude the popular 100mm or 105mm focal lengths.They can take the place of four, fixed focal-lengthlenses: the 35mm, 50mm, 85mm, and 105mm.

Telephoto-range zoom lenses have focal lengthsthat range from about 50mm to 135mm, 90mm to23Omm, 75mm to 150mm, and even 135mm to 600mm.

The most popular telephoto zoom is from about 80mmto 200mm.

Now you have some basic knowledge of the waylight reacts when striking various objects. You alsoknow how it forms an image through a lens. Withpractice, you will be able to apply these principles inphotographic practices. By using various focal-lengthlenses and aperture settings, you can control image sizeand depth of field as well as the apparent perspective ofyour photographs. In the next chapter, light-sensitivematerials are discussed. This will enable you to recordpermanent images.

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CHAPTER 2

LIGHT-SENSITIVE MATERIALS

Many substances are affected in some way by light.The light-sensitive substances used in photographic filmto record an image are silver salts and are called silverhalides. The silver halides react to ultraviolet radiation,violet, and blue light only; however, they can be madesensitive to other colors of light and infrared radiationby the addition of dyes. Depending on the amount oflight and the type of silver halide, the light produces avisible or invisible change in the halides of a film orprinting paper. An invisible change is made visible bydevelopment.

Photographic films and papers are composed of twobasic parts: the emulsion and the base, or support. Theemulsion is the light-sensitive portion of a film or paperthat records the image. The emulsion contains the silverhalides and any special sensitizing dyes suspended in abinder of gelatin. The gelatin holds the silver halidesevenly dispersed and prevents action by a developeruntil the silver halides have been made developableeither by exposure to light or chemical action. Also, thegelatin acts as a sensitizer for the silver salts.

In photographic films and papers, the primarypurpose of the base is to support or hold the emulsion inplace. The base, or support, may be transparent oropaque, depending upon how the recorded image is tobe used. A transparent base is used for transparenciesthat are viewed by transmitted light and for negativesthat are printed with transmitted light. An opaque baseis used for prints that are viewed by reflected light.

The latest state of the art in light-sensitive materialsused in photography is the use of the electronic medium.Video disks do not contain an emulsion or a base. Whenelectronic mediums are used, light is converted toelectrical impulses and these impulses are storedmagnetically on a tape or disk. Since it is the cameraitself that converts light to electrical impulses, therecording medium and all stages of the photographicprocess can be carried out in normal room light.

BLACK-AND-WHITE FILM

The characteristics and use of black-and-white filmdepend largely on the actual construction of theemulsion. These characteristics include the following:the degree of sensitivity to light, response to various

colors of light (color or spectral sensitivity), contrast,exposure latitude, emulsion latitude, and emulsiondefinition.

There are many types of black-and-white filmsavailable. Each type differs somewhat from the others.You should become acquainted with the characteristicsof films. This knowledge is helpful in selecting the filmmost suitable for each photographic assignment.

EMULSION SENSITIVITY TO LIGHT

The silver halides and sensitizing dyes of most filmemulsions are very sensitive to small amounts of light.This light causes invisible changes to the emulsion andis called the latent image. The latent image can bephysically made visible by the chemical step ofdevelopment. The extent of the reaction to the light ofthe emulsion is affected greatly by the size of the silverhalide grains and the amount of light reaching the film.The inherent property of a film emulsion to respond tolight is termed film speed.

Film Speed

Film speed is important, since it is related to theamount of exposure required to produce an acceptableimage. Emulsions are rated as slow, medium, or fast,depending on the amount of light required to produce animage satisfactorily. Fast emulsions require less light toproduce an acceptable image than slow emulsions.

To calculate the exposure for a film emulsionaccurately and consistently with a light meter, themanufacturer has developed a system of rating emulsionspeed. The rating system used is the IS0 film speedsystem. ISO film speed is a numerical value assigned toan emulsion used for determining exposures.

The International Standards Organization (ISO) isa federation of all the national standard bodies of theworld. It has approved a uniform set of film speedstandards. The standards call for a universal expressionof both arithmetic and logarithmic speed values with theISO designation. The ISO designation generally lookslike the following:

ISO 100/21°

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302.258Figure 2-1.–IS0 of film.

The ISO assigned to a film is labeled on thepackaging material and on the film cassette or paperbacking (fig. 2-1). Some types of black-and-white filmsare assigned one ISO number; others are assigned twoor more. Whether one or more film speeds are assigneddepends on whether the film responds differently todifferent colors or color temperatures of light. Often,this results in a film having one speed for daylight andanother for tungsten light. The ISO for a particular filmis valid for calculating correct exposure only when thatfilm is developed as recommended by the manufacturer.

An exposure index is another numerical valueassigned to some films for exposure calculation. Theexposure index is a more accurate method of film speed,because it is determined by processing a particular filmthrough the actual process in an imaging facility.Exposure indexes are generally assigned to films usedfor copying or for technical applications.

SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY.–The response of anemulsion to specific colors of light or radiant energy istermed coIor or spectral sensitivity. You already know,from our earlier study of light in chapter 1, that thevisible spectrum is made up of violet, blue, green, and

red light. When speaking of film or emulsion sensitivity,you are also referring to its sensitivity to ultraviolet andinfrared radiation. Spectral sensitivity of an emulsionsimply means that the emulsion is sensitive to someenergy of the electromagnetic spectrum. Also,emulsions have color sensitivity, which means they aresensitive to one or more colors of the visible spectrum.In this chapter, the terms color sensitivity and colorresponse are used interchangeably. Color sensitivity orcolor response refer to ultraviolet and infrared radiationas well as visible light.

All silver halides are sensitive to ultravioletradiation, violet, and blue light. Color-blind emulsion isthe term given to emulsions sensitive only to theseradiations. The addition of sensitizing dyes to silverhalides can increase the sensitivity of emulsions andextend their sensitivity to green and red light andinfrared radiation. Increasing the color sensitivity of anemulsion to other than ultraviolet, violet, and blue iscalled dye, color, or optical sensitization.

The color sensitivity of a black-and-white film is animportant characteristic, since it controls the waycolored objects record as tones of gray in the negative

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or print. The color sensitivity determines how the filmis classed. There are four general classes ofblack-and-white film emulsions. The four classes are asfollows: colorblind (monochromatic), orthochromatic,panchromatic, and infrared. Some of these emulsionsrespond to a wide range of wavelengths of light. Othersrespond to only a narrow band of wavelengths.Light-sensitive emulsions are sensitive to allwavelengths of ultraviolet radiation. For all practicalpurposes, the general classes of emulsions areconsidered insensitive to the shorter wavelengths ofultraviolet (UV) radiation. This is because glass lensesand the gelatin in most film emulsions completelyabsorb the shorter wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation.When UV is to be used for photography, a special filmwith a thin emulsion is required.

Color-blind Emulsions.–Black-and-white color-blind emulsions are sensitive only to UV radiation,violet, and blue light. Green and red objects record onlyas clear areas in the black-and-white negative andreproduce as dark areas in the print. Color-blind filmsare used primarily for copying and graphic artsphotography and may be assigned three or more ISOvalues; for example, ISO/50 for daylight, ISO/8 fortungsten light, ISO/20 for white-flame arcs, and ISO/12for pulsed xenon.

Orthochromatic Emulsions.–Orthochromaticemulsions are sensitive to ultraviolet radiation, violet,blue, and green light. The sensitivity to green light isgained by the addition of a sensitizing dye to thecolor-blind silver halides. The emulsions provide anapproximate correct reproduction of blue and greenobjects as corresponding tones of gray in a print;however, red objects record as clear areas in the negativeand black areas in the print. since the emulsion is notsensitive to red. Various orthochromatic films withdifferent degrees of contrast, color sensitivity, andemulsion speed are available. Their trade names usuallycontain the word ortho. Orthochromatic emulsions areused primarily for copying and graphic artsphotography.

Orthochromatic emulsions that may be used ineither daylight or tungsten light are assigned twoseparate ISO film speeds. This is because theseemulsions are highly sensitive to the predominantly bluecolored daylight and less sensitive to the tungsten lightthat has a higher content of red light.

Panchromatic Emulsions.–Panchromatic emulsionsare sensitive to UV radiation, violet, blue, green, andred. The emulsion spectral sensitivity to green and redlight is gained by adding sensitizing dyes to the

color-blind silver halides. Panchromatic film of varyingdegrees of contrast, color sensitivity, and emulsionspeed is available. Panchromatic emulsions are used forcopying, portraiture, and general black-and-whitephotography.

Panchromatic emulsions are assigned only one IS0film speed. This is because panchromatic emulsions aresensitive to red light and have an almost equal responseto predominately blue-colored daylight andpredominately red-colored tungsten light.

Infrared Emulsions.–Infrared (IR) emulsions aresensitive to UV radiation, violet, and blue light, withlittle or no sensitivity to yellow-green light but withadditional sensitivity to red and IR radiation. Thesensitivity to infrared radiation is gained by adding asensitizing dye to the color-blind silver halides. Infraredemulsions are commonly used for aerial and medicalphotography as well as forensic photography(photography used for evidence). For best results ablack-and-white UV film should be exposed only withIR radiation. To prevent any IR radiation or visible lightfrom affecting the infrared emulsion during exposure,you must use a dark, red filter over the camera lens.

Since infrared radiation does not focus at the samepoint as visible light, a lens focus adjustment isnecessary for critical focusing. Most lenses have acalibrated infrared focusing position on the focusingscale. This position is usually marked by a small, red dotor the letter R in red.

Determining a useful exposure index becomes aproblem with infrared film, because exposure meters arecalibrated for visible light and similar light sources canemit different amounts of infrared radiation. When usinginfrared film, you should make trial exposures for eachparticular film and photographic situation.

Contrast

In the development process, the silver halide grainsin a black-and-white film exposed to light remain in thefilm. These grains form the image of the original scene.The colors of the scene are recorded in the negative asdensities of gray instead of appearing as their originalcolors. These densities of gray can range from verydense to very thin. This depends upon the brightness ofthe objects in the scene, their color, and the colorsensitivity of the film. The ratio of the maximum to theminimum brightness of objects in a scene is referred toas the scene brightness range. Most long scaleblack-and-white films are capable of recording scenebrightness ranges up to 128:1. In a negative, a

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light-colored object records as a heavy-density (dark)area, and a dark-colored object records as a low-density(thin) area; therefore, a negative image is reversedcompared to the original scene. This reversal isproduced by a bright object in the scene reflecting morelight than a darker object. The greater amount ofreflected light from the brighter object affects moresilver halides in the emulsion.

The portions of the negative where the most silverhalides have been affected are referred to asHIGHLIGHTS. The portions that are least affected arereferred to as SHADOW AREAS. The light reflectionsfrom objects other than the brightest and darkest arereferred to as MIDTONES.

The amount of metallic silver deposit in any portionof a negative is referred to as density. The amount oflight that a negative transmits in a given period of timeis controlled by the density of the metallic silverdeposits. Therefore, density is used to describe thelight-stopping ability of a negative.

The difference in densities between areas in anegative is known as contrast. The total contrast(density range) of a negative is defined as the differencein density between the least-dense shadow area and themost-dense highlight area in a negative.

Emulsion Latitude

The inherent ability of a black-and-white film torecord a range of scene brightness differences asdifferences in density is termed emulsion latitudeNormal- and low-contrast emulsions can record a widerange of scene brightness values and are considered tohave a wide emulsion latitude or long scale.High-contrast emulsions record a short range of scenebrightness values and are considered to have a narrowemulsion latitude or short scale.

Exposure Latitude

The amount the exposure can be varied (increasedor decreased) from the ideal exposure and still providean acceptable negative is termed exposure latitude.

The least amount of exposure that records sufficientshadow detail generally provides the best qualitynegative and is considered the ideal exposure. The useof a determined exposure index leads to the idealexposure for a particular film and process combination.Generally, the use of the assigned ISO speed providesacceptable results.

Emulsion Definition

Several factors, including graininess, resolvingpower (resolution), and acutance, affect the definitionor capability of an emulsion to produce a clear, sharpimage.

GRAININESS. –The negative image consists ofnearly an infinite number of density deposits of metallicsilver. To the naked eye, these grains of silver appear asa smooth, continuous deposit; however, when the imageis magnified significantly, a speckled, granular, ormottledeffect becomes apparent. This appearance of theenlarged image is called graininess.

The graininess of a negative depends upon the sizeof the silver halides in the emulsion, the exposure theemulsion received, and the clumping action of themetallic silver grains during development. Althougheach emulsion has an inherent grain size, the graininesseffect in a negative can be minimized by giving the filmcorrect exposure and proper development. As a generalrule, slower speed emulsions have a finer grain(a smaller grain size) than faster speed emulsions.

The Eastman Kodak Company uses modem tabular,or T-grain, technology in some of their emulsions. Indoing so, flat, tabular crystals are used which are veryefficient in absorbing light. In T-grain emulsions, fewersilver halide crystals are needed, because the crystalshave a relatively large surface area for light to strike, butare thin and contain a small amount of silver halides.These properties provide higher resolution and lowergraininess compared to other films with the samerelative film speed.

Not all black-and-white films form the final imagein black metallic silver; for example, Ilford’s XP-1black-and-white film produces a dye image. Theadvantage of this technology is the film can be processedin color-processing chemicals along with color film andthen printed on black-and-white paper.

RESOLVING POWER.–This is a term used todefine the ability of an emulsion to record fine detail.The resolving power, or resolution, of an emulsion isexpressed as line pairs per millimeter. Resolving poweris determined by photographing a lined test chart at agreatly reduced size then counting the lines present inone millimeter of film.

ACUTANCE.–This is the ability of an emulsion toproduce sharp edges between image density differences.Do not confuse this with the ability of an emulsion toproduce sharp images controlled by lens focus.Although an image is in focus, the line between a

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Figure 2-2.–Cross section of black-and-white film.

highlight area and a shadow area is not perfectly sharp.This is because the high-density area tends to “bleed”onto the low-density area due to the scattering ordiffusing of light in the emulsion during exposure.

CONSTRUCTION OFBLACK-AND-WHITE FILM

Light-sensitive materials are composed of two basicparts: the emulsion and the base. The emulsion is thelight-sensitive portion that records the image. The baseis the support to which the emulsion is coated. Also,negative materials have additional layers that perform aspecial purpose. They are as follows: overcoating,antihalation backing, and noncurl coating (fig. 2-2). Thepurpose of the five parts of photographic film are asfollows:

1. Overcoating–The overcoating protects the filmfrom friction, scratches, or abrasions before develop-ment. The overcoating is a clear, gelatin layer that issometimes called the antiabrasion layer.

2. Emulsion–thin layer of gelatin that suspendsand supports the light-sensitive silver halides.

3. Base-This supports or holds the emulsion inplace. The base may be transparent, translucent, oropaque, depending upon how the recorded image is tobe used. The base is generally made of a celluloseacetate.

4. Antihalation backing-The antihalation backingprevents light from reflecting from the base back intothe emulsion. The antihalation dye is sometimesincorporated in the anticurl backing. The dye used toeliminate halation is a color to which the emulsion isleast sensitive. This dye is water soluble and is com-pletely dissolved during processing.

5. Noncurl coating-The noncurl coating is ahardened gelatin, about the same thickness as the

PROTECTIVE OVERCOATING

BLUE SENSITIVE EMULSION LAYER - PRODUCESYELLOW DYES

YELLOW FILTER - ABSORBS BLUE LIGHT

GREEN SENSITIVE EMULSION LAYER -PRODUCES MAGENTA DYES

RED SENSITIVE EMULSION LAYER - PRODUCESCYAN DYES

BASE

ANTIHALATION BACKING

NONCURL COATING

Figure 2-3.-Cross section of ordinary color negative film.

Figure 2-4.–Modern high-speed color film.

emulsion, and is applied to the back of the film. A filmemulsion swells when wet and shrinks when dry. Thiscontraction produces a strain on a film base because itis highly flexible. The noncurl coating prevents the filmfrom curling during the drying process.

COLOR FILM

Modern color films are constructed much the sameas black-and-white film, but color films consist of threeseparate emulsions on a single film base. Each of thethree emulsion layers records one of the three additiveprimary colors-red, green, or blue. The top emulsionlayer is sensitive to blue light and produces yellow dyes.Between the top emulsion layer and the middle emulsionlayer is a yellow filter (fig. 2-3). The yellow filterabsorbs the blue light that would otherwise affect themiddle and bottom emulsion layers. During processing,this yellow filter is dissolved. The middle emulsion layerrecords green light and produces magenta dyes. Thebottom emulsion records red light and produces cyandyes. Many of the modern high-speed color films havefast and slow emulsion layers for each primary color(fig. 2-4).

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In some color films where tabular-grain (T-grain)emulsions are used, high speed and increased sharpnessare combined. When these films are manufactured, theoverall thickness of the film is reduced By reducing theoverall thickness, you also reduce the scattering of lightwithin the film, resulting in improved sharpness. Also,double-emulsion layers, one fast and one slow, may beincorporated to improve film speed in color films.

Each emulsion layer of color film either has anincorporated dye coupler or a dye that is put into theemulsion during processing. A dye coupler is a chemicalthat produces a dye by combining with the oxidizedproducts that occur during color developer.

Color Negative Film

A color negative film records a scene in imagedensities opposite to the brightness of objects in thescene-the same as a black-and-white negative film.Color films can be recognized because they contain thesuffix “color,” such as Vericolor, Kodacolor, andFugicolor. These color films are used when a print is thefinal product. Most color negatives (other than colorfilm used for aerial photography) have an orange maskThis orange mask increases the color separation thatreproduces colors more accurately in the final print.

During development, colors are formed in theemulsion that are complementary to the color of theoriginal scene; for example, a red object in the scene isrecorded as cyan in the negative. It is a combination ofyellow, magenta, and cyan that records all the othercolors that you see in the scene. Color dyes in theemulsion layers control the colors of light passingthrough the color negative.

Color negative film images can be printed on colorpositive materials, such as color paper and color printfilm, to produce color prints or color transparencies.Color negatives can also be printed on a specialpanchromatic black-and-white paper to produceblack-and-white prints.

Color Reversal Film

Color reversal films produce positive images indensities directly proportional to the reflectivebrightnesses of objects and in the same colors as thosein the original scene. Reversal films are recognized bythe suffix “chrome” in their names, such as Ektachrome,Kodachrome, and Fujichrome.

The positive image of most color reversal film isproduced by a two-stage development process. This

process causes chemical fogging and color developingof the portions of the silver halide emulsions that werenot affected by camera exposure or the firstblack-and-white developer. Like color negative film,color reversal film has three emulsion layers that aresensitive to blue, green, and red light and producesyellow, magenta, and cyan dyes, respectively. The filmcontains dye-forming chemicals that are put into theemulsion layers during manufacturing. A colordeveloper produces three dye images in the emulsionlayers. The three dye images in a developed colorreversal film control the colors of light passing throughthe film.

Kodachrome film does not contain dye-formingchemicals in the emulsion layers. They are introducedduring processing from three separate color developersolutions. Kodachrome film has high resolving powerand tine grain and produces a fine image. ProcessingKodachrome film is a complex operation and can onlybe performed by a Kodak processing plant.

Developed color reversal film can be used as atransparency (slide) for direct viewing, printed directlyonto a color reversal paper, copied on a black-and-whitefilm for producing black-and-white prints, or copied toa color internegative (copy negative) for producingcolor prints.

Color Balance

Color balance is the acceptable relationship amongthe three color images in a positive color print or slide.This means that when the color print or slide lookscorrect, color balance has been achieved.

To help achieve this acceptable relationship, themanufacturer balances color film emulsions forexposure with a specific Kelvin temperature (K).Remember, daylight usually has a higher content of bluelight than red light, while tungsten illumination usuallyhas a higher content of red light than blue light. Tocompensate for the lower proportion of red light indaylight, the manufacturer balances color films fordaylight, so they have a higher sensitivity to red lightthan to blue light. To compensate for the lowerproportion of blue light in tungsten illumination, themanufacturer balances color films for tungstenillumination, so they have a higher sensitivity to bluelight than to red light.

Generally, color films are referred to as daylight(outdoor) or tungsten (indoor), indicating their broaduse without filters. Specifically, daylight films arebalanced for use in sunlight or with an electronic flash

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that averages approximately 5400 K. Tungsten films arebalanced for use with illumination of 3200 K withoutfiltration.

The Kelvin temperature of the exposing light forreversal films is much more critical than the color of theexposing light for color negative films. When anexposing light is used other than that for which colornegative film is balanced, adjustments to the filter packcan be made during printing to achieve proper colorbalance. With color reversal film, however, a slide isusually the final product. When the color of the exposinglight is other than that for which the film is balanced, thetransparencies are off-color. You should strive to exposeall color films with the color light for which the filmsare balanced.

Although color films have three separate emulsions,only one ISO film speed is assigned. An ISO film speedfor color film is most accurate when the illuminationused is the one for which the film is balanced.

Amateur and Professional Color Films

Much of the color film used in the Navy ismanufactured by Eastman Kodak Company. Kodakmarkets color films for both professional and amateurphotographers. Color films intended for use primarilyby professionals are identified by the word professionalin the name; for example, Kodak Vericolor IIIProfessional Film, Type S (VPS).

Both professional and amateur films have similarcolor quality, sharpness, and granularity characteristics.Also, they have emulsions made up of many differentchemicals that tend to change slowly with time. Startingfrom the day they are made, all color films begin tochange; and as the films age, their color balancechanges.

Amateur films are manufactured to age and reach apeak color balance much later than professional films.The manufacturer allows for the time amateur film willbe in storage, on the store shelf, and in the camera beforeit is developed. The ISO speed assigned is adequate forcalculating exposure for normal picture-takingsituations.

Professional films are manufactured so they arevery near their optimum color balance at the time theyare shipped from the factory. These films should be keptrefrigerated or frozen until shortly before use.Refrigeration keeps film near the optimum point untilused and provides the photographer with confidence inconsistent results. Precise film speeds are provided for

professional films. The film is intended for promptprocessing to prevent any significant shift in colorbalance after exposure.

If you require optimum color balance and precisefilm speed within about 1/6 f/stop professional film isappropriate for your work; however, when you intend tobe away from home base for an extended period of timewithout refrigerated storage or processing facilities,amateur film should be your choice.

Instant Picture Film

Currently, the only manufacturer of instant picturefilm is Polaroid. There are two basic types of instantpicture film: peel apart and integral. After exposure andremoval from the camera, peel-apart film must be timedwhile the film develops. After it has developed for thespecified period of time, the negative backing is peeledaway and discarded. Integral films develop outside thecamera and have no negative backing to be removed.

Instant picture color films are tripack materials withbuilt-in processing. Peel-apart film uses a systemwhereby the exposed silver halides develop to a metallicsilver negative. When no metallic silver is present, dyespass to form the color image. Integral films use areversal process in which the areas of unexposed silverhalides are the locations where the dyes are produced toform the positive image.

Instant picture film is a very useful medium in animaging facility, particularly when still electronictechnology is not available. Instant picture film is usedcommonly for identification and passport photographs,but it is also valuable in determining test exposures.Before you make your final exposures on conventionalfilm, a Polaroid photograph can be taken to confirmcomposition, lighting, and exposure.

FILM SIZES

There are two types of film formats used commonlyin photography. They are roll film and sheet film. Bothformats come in a variety of sizes.

Roll Film

All roll film is packaged so the film can be loadedand unloaded from a camera in daylight. Number 120film has a paper backing that prevents the film frombeing exposed in daylight; 35mm film is wound in alighttight cassette that prevents the film from beingexposed by ambient light.

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Figure 2-5.–Notch codes used to identify the type of film.

Figure 2-6.–Location of notch code that indicates the emulsionis toward you.

The most popular medium-size format film is No.120. This film, depending on the camera format,provides negatives that are 6x6 cm (2 1/4 x 2 1/4inches), 4.5x6 cm, or 6x7 cm. No. 220 roll film is usedfor making the same size negatives, but because most ofthe paper backing is eliminated, the roll is longer than a120 roll and provides twice as many frames as 120 film.

Still picture 35mm films come prepackaged incassettes in lengths for producing 12, 20, 24, and 36frames per roll. Also, 35mm films come in rolls 100 feetlong that can be bulk-loaded into reusable cassettes.

Sheet Film

Sheet or cut film is made in a variety of sizes from4x5 to 11x14 inches and larger. The most common sizesare 4x5 and 8x10 inches. Most sheet film has no paperbacking and must be loaded into and removed from film

holders in the darkroom in total darkness or under theappropriate safelight. Eastman Kodak does market theKodak Readyload Packets that provide two sheets offilm in a paper packet. These packets can be loaded intoa Kodak Readyload Packet film holder or a Polaroid filmholder, Model 545. The Kodak Readyload Packets areavailable only in 4x5 format.

Most sheet films have reference notches in one edgeof the film. In the dark, this allows identification of thefilm type and the emulsion side of the film. Every filmtype has a different notch code (fig. 2-5). The emulsionside of the film is toward you when the notches are alongthe top edge in the upper right-hand corner, or on thebottom right edge in the lower right-hand corner of thefilm (fig. 2-6).

For those sheet films that do not have notches, theemulsion side of the film can be identified under asafelight. The emulsion side is lighter in color than thebase side. If the emulsion side of the film must beidentified in total darkness, wet your lips and place theedge of the film between them. The emulsion side of thefilm will stick to one of your moistened lips.

FLOPPY DISKS

Although the floppy disks used in electronicimagery are not light sensitive, they are, however, acommonly used image-recording medium. All floppydisks are the same. There are no black-and-white andcolor floppy disks. The camera and the printer beingused determine whether the image is black and white orcolor. Images are stored as magnetic impulses oncompact 2-inch still-video floppy disks.

The pictures are recorded on tracks on a still-videofloppy disk. Each picture is recorded either as a FRAMEor FIELD (the frame or field mode is selected on thecamera). When the frame mode is selected, each pictureis recorded on two tracks. Twenty-five images can berecorded on a floppy disk in the frame mode. When thefield mode is selected, each picture is recorded on onetrack In the field mode, 50 images can be stored on eachdisk. The result of using one track per photograph is theimages are less detailed than those recorded on twotracks (frame mode). The quality of the frame-recordedimage is superior to that of the field-recordedphotograph. A combination of field and frame imagescan be stored on the same disk; however, for higherquality use the frame mode.

Sound can also be recorded on a floppy disk. Soundis not recorded on the same track as the image. It isrecorded right after the image is recorded. The sound

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associated with the picture can be heard duringplayback

Floppy disks used in electronic imaging can bereused for endless times-the same as any other magneticrecording medium. No chemicals or darkroom tech-niques are required to produce these images. Once theimage is captured on the floppy disk, it can betransmitted over the telephone lines, edited, and printedusing a video printer-all under normal room-lightingconditions.

BLACK-AND-WHITE PRINTING PAPER

The performance and use of black-and-whitephotographic printing paper, like black-and-white films,depends on the characteristics of the paper material.While the many types of photographic papers differ intheir characteristics, they all basically consist of theemulsion on a paper support or base. Photographicprinting papers (both black and white and color) aremanufactured in both various cut sheet sizes, rangingfrom 5x7 to 20x24 inches and rolls up to 1,000 feet long.

Photographic papers used in Navy imagingfacilities are either coated with polyethylene or areresin-coated. These papers are coated on both sides ofthe base. This clear coating is treated so the paper doesnot stick to the surface of other prints during processing.Polyethylene-coated papers (manufactured by Ilford)can be marked on with pencils and pens. Coated papershave water-resistant bases that provide short processingtimes. Most black-and-white papers with these coatingshave developing agents incorporated in the emulsion.The developing agents are activated when the paper isexposed to an alkali solution. The characteristics ofresin-coated paper make it ideal for machine processing,but they may also be tray-developed in a regular printdeveloper.

The image on black-and-white film is usuallynegative or recorded in tones of gray in reverse of thereflective brightness values of a scene. When thenegative image is projected onto black-and-white paper,the resulting image is positive or recorded in tones ofgray relative to the reflective brightness values of theoriginal scene. A negative is usually used or viewed bytransmitted light. A paper print (or simply a print) isusually viewed by reflected light and may be referred toas a reflection print or reflection positive.

Emulsion Sensitivity

The emulsions used for printing paper are muchslower (less sensitive to light) than most film emulsions.

Figure 2-7.–Cross section of variable-contrast black-and-whitepaper.

A high sensitivity to light is not needed. Prints are oftenmanipulated by providing additional exposure or byholding back exposure to selected areas of the print. Ifthe paper emulsions were fast, exposure times would beextremely short and print manipulation would not bepossible.

The color or spectral sensitivity of a paper emulsionindicates the response to specific colors of light orradiation-the same as that for a film emulsion. The termscolorblind, orthochromatic, and panchromatic are alsoused to describe the spectral sensitivities of paperemulsions. The response of a paper emulsion towavelengths other than ultraviolet radiation, violet, andblue light is achieved by the addition of sensitizing dyesto the emulsion during manufacturing.

The ranges of sensitivity for all paper emulsionsbegin in the near-ultraviolet region of the invisibleportion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The colorsensitivity of undyed silver emulsions extend to blue andblue-green. Panchromatic printing papers are sensitiveto ultraviolet radiation, violet, blue, green, and red light.The color sensitivity of a black-and-white paper is NOTa determining factor for selecting a paper to print aspecific black-and-white negative. Panchromaticpapers, however, are normally used to produceblack-and-white prints from color negatives. Colorsensitivity DOES determine whether or not a safelightis required an, if so, what color of safelight can be used.

Variable Contrast Papers

Variable contrast papers are used almost exclusivelyin Navy imaging facilities. The contrast of the printimage on variable contrast papers is controlled by thespecific color of the exposing light. Variable contrastpapers have two emulsion layers. The top layer is ahigh-contrast emulsion and is sensitive to blue light. Thesecond emulsion layer is a low-contrast emulsion and issensitive to green light (fig. 2-7). When a normalcontrast negative is exposed through a variable contrastfilter with blue light, a harsh, contrasty print is produced.

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RED SENSITIVE EMULSION LAYER - PRODUCESCYAN DYES

GREEN SENSITIVE EMULSION LAYER -PRODUCES MAGENTA DYES

BLUE SENSITIVE EMULSION LAYER - PRODUCESYELLOW DYES

Figure 2-8.–Cross section of color printing paper.

When the same negative is exposed on another sheet ofpaper with green light, a flat or not enough contrast printis produced. When the normal-contrast negative isprinted with the proper combination of blue and greenlight, a print with natural contrast is produced; therefore,to control contrast when using variable contrast papers,you can use a series of yellow and magenta filters tocontrol the amount of blue and green printing lightduring exposure.

COLOR PRINTING PAPERS

Color printing papers are for printing colornegatives or color transparencies. Like color negativefilms, color printing paper can be identified by thesuffixes “color” and “chrome.” These papers aredesigned for printing color negatives and colortransparencies, respectively.

Like color films, color papers have three emulsionlayers. The order of the emulsions is reversed incomparison to color films (fig. 2-8). The top emulsionlayer is sensitive to red light and produces cyan dyes,the middle emulsion layer is sensitive to green light andproduces magenta dyes, and the bottom emulsion layeris sensitive to blue light and produces yellow dyes.

PAPER SURFACES

Photographic papers are available in a variety ofpaper surfaces, such as matt, semimatt, lustre, highlustre, pearl, and glossy. The use of different papersurfaces depends on the final application of thephotograph. There are two paper surfaces that arc usedfrequently in Navy imaging facilities: glossy and matt.Paper that has a smooth, glossy surface provides a printwith higher contrast and higher densities or colorsaturations, resulting in an apparently sharper image.This is due to the direct reflection quality of the papersurface (fig. 2-9, view A). Glossy papers are alwaysused for photographic prints that are used to show finedetail, such as equipment damage or intelligencephotographs.

Light reflected from MATT paper is diffused andprovides a softer, lower contrast image (fig. 2-9, viewB). Because of the lower contrast, subject detail does notappear as sharp as an image on glossy paper. Matt papersare used commonly for portraiture and scenicphotographs.

PROPER HANDLING AND STORAGE OFFILMS AND PAPERS

Care in handling films and papers preventsfingerprints, abrasions, and scratches on the surfaces ofthese materials. You should particularly avoidunnecessary contact between an emulsion surface andany other object. Only handle light-sensitive materialsby the edges.

Light-sensitive materials should be removed fromtheir packages in a room that is clean, dust-free, andlightproof. The workbench and your hands should beclean and dry. Light-sensitive materials should be

Figure 2-9.–Reflection of light of different surface paper.

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handled in total darkness or under safelight conditionsspecified by the manufacturer.

Unexposed light-sensitive materials deteriorateslowly with time even when the materials are storedunder ideal conditions. High temperatures and highrelative humidity accelerate this deterioration. Youshould protect light-sensitive materials from theharmful effects of temperature, humidity, x rays, gases,and vapors that may be present in darkrooms, transport,and adverse storage conditions. Storage instructions areprinted on the packaging materials of most photographicproducts.

Kodak papers and sheet film are packaged inhumidity-sealed boxes to protect them from changes inrelative humidity (RH). Keep these materials in theiroriginal packaging until you are ready to use them.When the RH gets at 60 percent or higher for longperiods of time, not only do cardboard packages, labels,and metal containers become damaged, but mold,fungus, and bacteria start to grow. Fungi can destroyfilm and paper by digesting the gelatin in them. Ideally,film and paper should be stored below 50 percent RH.

The usable life of a light-sensitive material varieswith the type of material, but generally, color materialsdeteriorate more rapidly than black-and-whitematerials, and black-and-white materials withhigh-speed emulsions deteriorate more rapidly thanblack-and-white materials with slow-speed emulsions.

Cold storage in a refrigerator or freezer isrecommended for all light-sensitive materials; however,refrigerators and freezers that contain food or unsealedcontainers of liquids have a high relative humidity.Therefore, food should never be stored in the samerefrigerator as film and paper.

Paper and professional film should be stored atabout 50°F (10°C) or lower in the original sealedpackage. All film, including amateur film, must beprotected from extreme heat. Never store photographicmaterials in extreme heat, such as in a glovecompartment, trunk, or the back window of a car. Onceopened, the original package should be used as soon aspossible. After opening, the materials are no longerprotected from humidity or chemical fumes.

When film or paper, black and white or color, isremoved from cold storage into a warmer atmosphere,allow a warm-up time before opening the originalpackaging; otherwise, moisture condensation may formon the film or paper. The warm-up time forlight-sensitive material depends on the type of materialpackaging, the size of the package, and the amount ofmaterial.

The warm-up times for packages of paper isconsiderably longer than for film. Paper is usuallypackaged in larger quantities, 100 to 500 sheets per boxand in rolls up to 1,000 feet long. Short roll film andmagazines take 1 to 1 1/2 hours to warm-up. Largepackages and rolls of film and paper should be allowedto warm-up to room temperature overnight or about 10hours.

FILM AND PAPER EXPIRATION DATES

Each package of film is marked with an expirationdate. Ideally, the film should be processed before thisdate for best results. If the film has not been used by thisdate, it should be tested photographically to confirm anddetermine its adjusted film speed and performance.Much of the film and paper found in Navy inventoryhas, in fact, expired. When not subjected to adversestorage and handling conditions, the film is probablystill usable for a reasonable time. You should considerthe expiration date as a guide only.

Use light-sensitive materials of the same type in theorder of their expiration dates. The material with theearliest expiration date should be used first. Oneexception to this is when you know that a material of thesame type with a later expiration date has been subjectedto improper storage conditions; for example, if film orpaper has been sitting on a pallet on the flight ramp inDiego Garcia for several weeks before being deliveredto the ship, you should test the material before using it.Film and paper stored under unfavorable conditions orfilm that has expired may have a loss of emulsion speed,undesirable contrast changes, stains, color shifts, or highgross fog.

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CHAPTER 3

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTERS

Filters are used in all the various steps of thephotographic process. Though often neglected in theshooting stage, the use of filters can tremendouslyenhance the final product in both black-and-white andcolor photography.

PURPOSE OF PHOTOGRAPHICFILTERS

The purpose of photographic filters is to alter thecharacteristics of light that reaches the light-sensitiveemulsion As light is transmitted through a filter, at leastone of the following alterations occurs:

1. The color of light is modified.

2. The amount of light is reduced.

3. The vibration direction of the light rays islimited.

The two most important reasons for usingphotographic filters are to create an effect with anemulsion and to control the exposure of an emulsion.Interlocked with the use of filters are characteristics oflight and characteristics of photographic emulsions. Theeffectiveness of a filter depends upon the ability of anemulsion to respond to the color of light transmitted bythe filter.

Colored filters modify the way colors are recorded.Without the use of filters, black-and-whitepanchromatic film records colors as gray tones. Thesegray tones correspond roughly to the tonal range as seenby the human eye. Colored filters selectively brightenor darken these tones. In color photography, coloredfilters are used to correct or distort color balance.

Filters of a specific color transmit most of the lightof that color and partially or completely absorb light ofall other colors. For example, a red filter transmits redlight and may partially or completely absorb blue andgreen light, depending on the deepness or purity of itscolor (fig. 3-1). Likewise, a yellow filter transmits redand green light and partially or completely absorbs bluelight. Remember, a secondary color of light is producedby combining two primary colors of light. Red and greenequal yellow; thus a yellow filter passes red and greenlight.

Figure 3-1.–Red and yellow filters.

Filters are available in three forms: optical glassdisks bound with metal rims, lacquered gelatin filmsquares, and glass squares. Glass disk filters are the mostpractical for general use. They are available in differentsizes called series numbers, such as Series 4,5, and 6 orin millimeter sizes, such as 52mm and 59mm. Glass diskfilters attach to a camera lens in two ways. Some havethreads and screw directly into the lens barrel, and theothers are held on the lens barrel by an adapter ring.Gelatin filters and square filters made of glass are eitherinserted into special filter holders that are part of thecamera, or they are held on the camera by a square filterholder.

FILTER DESIGNATIONS

Filters are usually identified by numbers. Thissystem of designating filters is used to identify KodakWratten filters. It uses designators, such as No. 6, No.8, and No. 11. Some filters have a descriptive namerather than a number; for example, polarizing, skylight,and neutral density. Color compensating and color printfilters have yet another designation system.

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FILTERS FOR BLACK-AND-WHITEPHOTOGRAPHY

Filters used with black-and-white film are classifiedas contrast, correction, and special purpose. All contrastand correction filters have a noticeable color. It isimportant to note that a filter must be used with anemulsion sensitive to the specific color of light ittransmits. Colored filters should normally be used withblack-and-white film only.

Special-purpose filters for black-and-white filmmay be colorless, contain a hint of color, be noticeablycolored, or almost visually opaque. Some special-purpose filters can be used with both black-and-whiteand color film. Special-purpose filters are covered laterin this chapter.

Contrast Filters

Contrast filters are available in all colors and aredesigned to exaggerate, reduce, or eliminate specificcolors of light. As their name indicates, these filters areused to increase or decrease contrast in a negative thatprovides differences between tones in the print.

To illustrate this, compare a red apple and a yellowbanana in a black-and-white print. With a red filter overthe camera lens, the apple appears lighter on the printthan the yellow banana. Both objects in this examplereflect the same intensity of light.

When you look through a red filter, the filterdefinitely appears red. This color is the effect it producesin your eye and the reason it is called a red filter. Thered filter is transmitting most of the red part of thespectrum, some yellow, and some magenta. The color itis not transmitting is cyan. If you think of this red filteras an anticyan (blue and green) filter, you will betterunderstand the way it works.

When a red filter is used, most of the reflected redlight from the red apple is transmitted through the filterand recorded as a dense area on the film. Only a portionof the yellow light is transmitted, so it is recorded as aless dense area on the film. Only some of the yellowlight is transmitted because the reflected light from thebanana consists of red and green light. Although the redportion of the yellow light is readily transmitted throughthe red filter, the green portion is absorbed to somedegree. Thus less light from the yellow banana reachesthe film emulsion.

When the negative is printed, the two print imageshave separation in contrast because of the differences innegative densities. The print image of the apple is lighter

than the print image of the banana because the negativeimage of the red apple is more dense than the negativeimage of the yellow banana.

When using a specific color of contrast filter toprovide separation between black-and-white images ofcolored objects, you should also take into account whateffect the filter has on the images of other coloredobjects in the scene. For example, when there are blueand green objects in the scene, the red filter absorbssome or all of the reflected blue and green light. The redfilter renders the negative images of these objects aslow-density areas. Thus the print images have darkertones or densities.

Contrast filters can also be used to filter out animage or filter out the image of a transparent stain on anoriginal document by copying it. This filtering-outprocess takes place by blending or matching the densityof the image to be filtered out with the image density ofthe surrounding area For example, to eliminate theimage of a yellow line on a white background, use ayellow filter. The yellow filter should be as deep (samecolor density) or deeper in color than the color of theline. The yellow filter reduces the intensity of the lightreflected from the white background by absorbing bluelight. The intensity of the light reflected from the yellowline is not greatly affected since the yellow filter readilytransmits the yellow light. The reduction of the intensityof the light reflected from the white background and theintensity of the light reflected from the yellow lineproduces equal densities on the negative and therebydoes not render an image of the yellow line. Conversely,when the yellow line is on a black background, a bluefilter does not allow yellow light to be transmitted.Therefore, light from the yellow object is not allowed toaffect the film emulsion. Thus the line appears as a thinarea that matches the black background and is thereby“eliminated”

Stains on a drawing or a picture can be filtered outwhenever the stain is transparent and reasonably pure incolor. The filter should be approximately the same coloras the stain. The stain may still show in the negative but,in the case of line material, proper paper contrast andprinting exposure get rid of the rest of the stain image.

Remember, the color of filter required to eliminatethe image of an object or stain is determined by the colorof the object or stain and the darkness or lightness of thesurrounding scene area. Also, always use a filter that isas deep or deeper in color than the color of the object orstain to be eliminated. Refer to table 3-1 for clarificationon ways to use contrast filters.

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Table 3-1.–Parallel Filter Bars

Filter Color and No. Filter Color and No.

Deep Red 29 Bluish Green 65

Red 25 Bluish Green 65

Light Red 23A Cyan 4

Orange 21 Cyan 44

Deep Yellow 15 Blue 47

Yellow 8 Deep Blue 47B

Yellowish Green 11 Violet 34A

Yellowish Green 13 Violet 34A

Green 58 Magenta 33

Green 61 Magenta 33

Use the parallel filter bars to choose contrast filtersfor black-and-white photography. Adjacent filterslighten colors next to them. Opposite filters darkencolors in the print; for example, a yellowish green No.11 filter lightens subjects that are yellowish green oryellow and darkens subjects that are violet. A No. 44cyan filter lightens blue and blue-green and darkenslight red and orange.

Correction Filters

Although panchromatic film responds to all thecolors the eye can see, it does not reproduce tones of red,green, and blue objects in the same relative values as theeye sees them. The human eye is much more sensitiveto green than it is to blue and red, and these colors lookdarker to the eye than green (fig. 3-2). Panchromaticfilm is more sensitive to blue and violet and looks lighterthan green in a black-and-white print. This highsensitivity to blue and violet causes an overexposure tothe film of blue objects as compared to green objects.This overexposure causes a dense negative image that

Figure 3-2.–Color sensitivity of the average human eye.

results in a light print image (fig. 3-3).

A No. 8 yellow filter with panchromatic film helpsto reproduce colors of a daylight scene with the samebrightness relationship as seen by the human eye.

When using tungsten lighting, you can use ayellowish green No. 11 filter to reproduce the naturalbrightness relationship with panchromatic film. Theyellow in the filter absorbs the ultraviolet radiation andsome of the blue light, while the green in the filterabsorbs some of the red light.

Figure 3-3.–Color sensitivity of panchromatic film.

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Table 3-2.–Recommended Filters for Use with Black-and-White Panchromatic Film in Daylight

Subject Desired Effect Filter to Use

Natural Yellow No . 8Darken Deep yellow No. 15

Blue Sky Very dark Red No. 25Near black Deep red No. 29

Seascape when Natural Yellow N o . 8sky is blue Dark water Deep yellow No. 15

Sunset Natural None/yellow No . 8Brilliance Deep yellow No. 15

R e d No. 25

Added haze for Blue No. 47distant effect

Landscapers Natural Yellow No . 8Reduce haze Deep yellow No. 15(little)Reduce haze (a lot) Red No. 25

Deep red No. 29

Green colors Natural Yellow N o . 8Light Green No. 58

Reddish colors Lighter Red No. 25

Bluish colors Lighter Blue No. 45

Wood, stone, Natural Yellow N o . 8sand, snow, Render texture Deep yellow No. 15fabrics, etc. Red No. 25

To obtain desired effects with the use of filters, refer LIGHT BALANCING FILTERSto table 3-2.

FILTERS FOR COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY

Problems associated with color materials are quitedifferent from those encountered with black-and-whitematerials. In color photography, the main problem isachieving correct color balance. The principal factorinvolved is the color temperature of the light sourcebeing used to illuminate the subject. This colortemperature provides a natural appearance to the finalproduct. Filters for color photography are classified aslight balancing, conversion, and color compensating.

Light balancing filters come in two series (not to heconfused with a series that indicate physical size): theSeries 81, yellowish filters, are used to lower the colortemperature of a light source; and the Series 82, bluishfilters, are used to raise the color temperature of lightfrom a light source. Both series are used when a tungstenlight source is used with color film.

These two series of filters permit minor adjust-ments in the color quality of an exposing light to obtaincooler (bluer) or warmer (more yellow) reproduction ofcolors; for example, when the color temperature of atungsten light source is 3100 K and a color temperatureof 3200 K is desired for the exposing light, a Series 82

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Table 3-3.–Light Balancing filters

Filter color

Yellowish

Bluish

Filter number To Obtain 3200 K from: To Obtain 3400 K from:

81 3300 K 3510 K81A 3400 K 3630 K81B 3500 K 3740 K81C 3600 K 3850 K81D 3700 K 3970 K81EF 3850 K 4140 K

82C+82C 2490 K 2610 K82C+82B 2570 K 2700 K82C+82A 2650 K 2780 K82C+82 2720 K 2870 K82C 2800 K 2950 K82B 2890 K 3060 K82A 3000 K 3180 K82 3100 K 3290 K

color balancing filter can be used to raise the colortemperature 100 K. Light balancing filters affect theentire visible spectrum of tungsten light and provide anadjustment from one Kelvin temperature to another.

When the color temperature of a tungsten lightsource is unknown, you can use a color temperaturemeter to determine it. When trying to determine whatlight balancing filter to use for producing a particularcolor temperature with a given light source, you may usethe following methods:

1. Refer to the scale on a color temperature meter.

2. Refer to the tables in the Photo-Lab-Index.

3. Consult the manufacturer’s publication for aparticular filter or meter.

4. Consult appropriate film or filter data sheets.

Light balancing filters are Series 81 and Series 82.Refer to table 3-3 to determine light balancing filters thatcan be used to raise or lower the color temperature of agiven color.

CONVERSION FILTERS

Conversion filters are used in color photographywhen a significant adjustment of an exposing light isrequired to convert the color quality of the exposinglight to the color temperature for which a film isbalanced.

Conversion filters generally come in two series. The80 series of filters are blue in color and convert tungstenlight to color qualities acceptable for use with daylightfilm. The 85 series of filters are amber in color andconvert daylight to color qualities acceptable for usewith tungsten film.

The correct filter to use for a given situation with agiven film can most accurately be determined byconsulting conversion filter tables in the Photo-Lab-Index or reading the filter and film data sheets.

COLOR COMPENSATING FILTERS

Color compensating (CC) filters are used to adjustthe overall color balance obtained from color film,particularly slide film. Without the use of colorcompensating filters, improper color cast can result.

For cameras, CC filters are normally used to colorbalance the light from sources, such as fluorescent,tungsten, and mercury-vapor lights, and the “bounce”light reflected from colored surfaces. They are also usedto balance lighting effects under unusual circumstances;for example, underwater lighting. These filters can beused to compensate for a known color deficiency of anunexposed color film. They can also be sandwiched(layered) when mounting a color transparency tocompensate for an off-color hue.

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Table 3-4.–Filters and Exposure Increase for Making Color Pictures by Fluorescent Light

Type offluorescent lamp Daylight

Type of color film

TungstenI

Cool White 30M + 2/3 f/stop

Deluxe Cool White 30C + 20M + 1 f/stop

Standard Warm White 40C + 40M + 1 1/3 f/stops

Deluxe Warm White 60C + 30M + 1 2/3 f/stops

50M + 60Y + 1 1/3 f/stops

10M + 30Y + 2/3 f/stop

30M + 20Y + l f/stop

10Y + 1/3 f/stop

White

Daylight

20C + 30M + 1 f/stop

40M + 30Y + 1 f/stop

40M + 40Y + 1 f/stop

No. 85B + 30M + 10Y + 1 f/stop

Whenever possible, you should conductphotographic tests in advance, using the type of light youexpect to encounter. Consult the Photo-Lab Index forthe most accurate filtration to use for your film, filter,and lighting situations. Table 3-4 provides an exampleof a good starting point for test exposures. When indoubt, you should use a filter that provides for averagecorrection. For daylight film, you should use a 30Mfilter with a 2/3 f/stop exposure increase. For tungstenfilm, you should use a 50R filter and a 1 f/stop exposureincrease.

CC filters may be used alone or in variouscombinations. However, when you use them incombination, the maximum number of filters in front ofa lens should not exceed three. More than three filtersadversely affect image quality. When combining CCfilters, you should avoid creating a neutral densityeffect. Neutral density is caused when all three of theprimary colors are present in the combined filters; forexample, a cyan (blue and green) filter and a red filter.

CC filters are available in blue, green, red, yellow,magenta, and cyan. Each color is available in a range ofdensities. The color and density of a CC filter areidentified in the filter designation, such as CC50Y. TheCC indicates color compensating, the 50 indicates apeak density of 0.50 to blue light, and the Y is the firstletter of the filter color-yellow. The peak density of aCC filter refers to the maximum absorption of the colorof light that is complementary to the color of the filter.CC filters are available only in gelatin squares.

The color star (fig. 3-4) indicates various colorrelationships of color compensating filters as follows:

1. Complementary colors are opposite each other:cyan is complementary to red, yellow is complementaryto blue, and magenta is complementary to green.

2. Any one color is a combination of the two colorsadjacent to it:

R = M + Y

Y = R + G

G = Y + C

C = G + B

B = C + M

M = B + R

C302.24Figure 3-4.–Color star.

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3. The warm colors are at the top of the horizontalaxis. The cool colors are at the bottom.

Table 3-5.–Neutral Density Filters

4. Filters of the same color are added andsubtracted normally:

30M + 20M= 50M

10B - 05B = 05B

5.When two filters of different colors and equaldensities are combined, the color of the combined filterschanges, but the peak density remains the same.

10M + 10C = 10B

10R + 10G = 10Y

6. A filter combination having all three primarycolors creates neutral density. To correct this neutraldensity, subtract the lowest density from each color.

10R + 20G + 30B

Density

.10

.20

.30

.40

.50

.60

.70

.80

.90

1.00-10 -10 -10

0R + 10C + 20B (Results)amount of exposure reduction provided, are shown intable 3-5.

SPECIAL-PURPOSE FILTERS

Special-purpose filters for use with black-and-whitefilm are those filters not classified specifically ascontrast or correction filters. Some of the special-purpose filters can be used with both black-and-whiteand color film. Two of these special-purpose filters areintended primarily for use with color film.

When you desire to reduce the depth of field butmaintain a given shutter speed, ND filters permit the useof a larger f/stop which in turn, reduces the depth offield. Neutral density filters are used extensively inmotion-picture photography where depth of field isusually quite deep. ND filters are also used with mirrortype of lenses where there is no aperture control.

NEUTRAL DENSITY FILTERS HAZE FILTERS

Neutral density (ND) filters reduce the amount oflight passing through a camera lens without changingthe reproduction of colors in the scene. These filters arenonselective in their absorption of colors of light andtherefore uniformly reduce the various colors of light inthe spectrum. Thus white light and colored light aretransmitted through an ND filter with only the intensityof the light being affected. These filters can be used withboth black-and-white and color film. Neutral densityfilters are gray in appearance. These filters may beneeded for pictures being made of a brilliant subject inbright sunlight. When you have set the fastest shutterspeed and the smallest f/stop and still cannot make thepicture without overexposing the film, you can use anND filter to further reduce the exposure. Neutral densityfilters manufactured by Kodak are called WrattenNeutral Density Filters and are available in severaldensities. The ten most popular densities, with the

Suspended in the earth's atmosphere are minuteparticles of vapor and dust that cause a veil-likeappearance called haze. This haze is most apparent indistant scenes. Haze is the result of sunlight beingscattered by minute particles of matter that are presentin the air. The amount of haze can vary due toatmospheric conditions. Haze should not be confusedwith mist, fog, smog, smoke, or clouds. These con-ditions can also produce a veil-like appearance, butfilters have no effect.

When sunlight is scattered, both green light and redlight are also scattered by the ever-present haze, but notnearly as much as ultraviolet radiation, violet, and bluelight.

When filters are used to absorb scattered sunlight,penetration of the haze is possible. A haze filter is anyfilter that absorbs atmospherically scattered sunlight. A

Exposure reducedby f/stops

1/3

2/3

1

1 1/3

12/3

2

2 1/3

2 2/3

3

3 1/3

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haze filter includes contrast and correction filters. Whencontrast and correction filters are used for hazepenetration, they may be considered special-purposefilters. Although contrast filters can be used for cuttinghaze, these filters affect the gray tone rendering ofcolored objects. The contrast and correction filters thatabsorb the shorter wavelengths are the most effective.The recommended contrast and correction filter colors,in the order of greatest to least effective for hazepenetration, are as follows:

Red

Orange

Yellow

Green

The use of an infrared sensitive black-and-whitefilm with an infrared filter provides the greatest hazepenetration of all. Special, visually opaque infraredfilters completely absorb the scattered ultravioletradiation and the visible light that produce haze. Thisabsorption by an infrared filter allows the scene to bephotographed entirely with unscattered infraredradiation. An infrared sensitive black-and-white filmwithout an infrared filter, or at least a red contrast filter,is not effective for haze penetration. Infraredblack-and-white film is sensitive to ultraviolet radiation,violet, and blue light as well as infrared radiation andred light. The gray tone rendering of a colored subjectin a black-and-white print produced from an infrarednegative is greatly distorted or contrasty.

The visually opaque infrared filters are identified bynumbers as follows:

87

87A

87B

87C

88A

89B

When the effect of haze is to be reduced with anequal change to the gray tone rendering of all coloredobjects in a black-and-white print, filters that primarilyabsorb ultraviolet (UV) radiation are required. Thesefilters have a very pale pink or yellow tint and may beidentified by numbers as follows:

2A

2B

2C

2E

Colorless haze or ultraviolet absorbing filters areoften used to protect the front element of a lens fromdamage. It is much cheaper to replace a filter than it isto repair or replace a lens.

The polarizing filter is another type of special-purpose filter that can be used to reduce the effects ofhaze.

POLARIZING FILTERS

Polarizing filters look like gray neutral densityfilters. However, their effect becomes apparent whenyou look at the blue sky through a polarizing filter whilerotating it. As you rotate the filter, the sky appears to getdarker, then lighter.

Polarizing filters are used in black-and-white andcolor photography for the following reasons:

1. Reduction or elimination of unwantedreflections (glare) from nonmetallic surfaces, such asglass and water

2. Exposure control, similar to ND filters

3. Reducing the effects of haze

4. Darkening the blue-sky image in both black-and-white and color photography

5. Increasing color saturation in a color photographwithout altering the hues of image colors

As discussed in chapter 1 of this training manual,the term polarize refers to a property of light that cannotbe seen-the direction in which light rays vibrate.Unpolarized light rays vibrate in all directions at rightangles to the ray itself. A light ray is polarized whenvibrations are in one direction only.

Any synthetic material that polarizes light may becalled a polarizer, or polarizing device. A polarizingscreen is a polarizer in sheet form.

There are a number of different polarizing filters.However, there are only two main types: one type fitsover the camera lens and the other is designed to be usedover a light source. Since they do not affect color,polarizing filters and screens may be used for bothblack-and-white and color photography. A polarizingdevice used over the camera lens may have small posts(known as indicator handles) projecting from the rim foraligning the axis of the polarizing grid.

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The polarizing filter may be thought of as a screen,with an optical grid or slots, that stops all light that is notvibrating in a plane parallel to the axis of the grid lines.

As the filter is rotated, the amount of polarized lightcan be controlled. When the rodlike crystals areperpendicular to the vibration direction of the light, thepolarized light is greatly absorbed. When the rodlikecrystals are parallel to the vibration direction of thepolarized light, the polarized light is almost totallytransmitted.

Because polarizing filters are colorless, they can beused as neutral density filters. Even when polarized lightis not present in a scene, polarizing filters can be usedto reduce the intensity of light. When two polarizingfilters are used, their combined densities can be variedconsiderably.

In color photography, the only way you canreproduce the sky darker without affecting the othercolors in the scene is to use a polarizing filter. You canachieve various effects from light sky to dark sky byrotating the fiter to various positions. You can see thiseffect by viewing the scene through the viewfinder of asingle-lens reflex (SLR) camera or by viewing the scenethrough the ground glass of a view camera. To see howmuch reflection control you are getting, rotate the filteras you are viewing the scene.

Getting the maximum effect with a polarizing filterdepends on your angle to the subject as well as therotation of the filter. When the reflection cannot becompletely eliminated, try changing your camera angleto the subject. The maximum control of unwantedsurface reflections and greatest reduction of lightintensity occurs when two polarizing filters are usedwith their optical grids perpendicular to each other. Thisarrangement can be either two filters in tandem in frontof the camera lens or one filter in front of the light sourceand another filter in front of the camera lens. You cannotcontrol reflections from bare metal surfaces because thereflected light is not polarized.

SKYLIGHT FILTERS

By absorbing ultraviolet radiation, a skylight (1A)filter adds warmth to a scene recorded on a colortransparency film. It does this by reducing the bluish castprevalent in distant scenes and in scenes photographedon heavily overcast days or in open shade. A skylightfilter is used primarily with daylight color reversal filmexposed under the above conditions. A skylight filter islight pink in color.

FILTER FACTORS

Filters function by absorbing a portion of the lightreflected from the subject to the camera. To compensatefor this absorption and the loss of light, you may haveto increase the exposure to compensate for the lightabsorbed by the filter. A numerical value is assignedcalled a “filter factor” or multiplying factor. Thisnumerical factor is based on several variables thatinclude the color sensitivity of the film, density of thefilter, color of the filter, and color temperature of thelight source. As these variables change, the filter factoralso changes to produce the correct exposureconsistently. Filters are often identified as “2 X yellow”or “4 X orange.” That implies that the filter factor is 2and 4, respectively. Remember, the filter factor does notalways remain constant when conditions change.

For example, a blue filter used with panchromaticfilm exposed with daylight requires a smaller filterfactor than when the same film and filter are used withtungsten light. The reason for this is daylight has a highercontent of blue light that is readily transmitted by theblue filter. Thus, with the same film and filtercombination and with the same camera shutter speedand f/stop, more exposing light is available at the filmplane with daylight as compared to tungsten light.

A filter that absorbs a great amount of illuminationfrom a given light source is assigned a larger filter factor.A filter that absorbs a lower amount of illumination fromthe same light source is assigned a smaller filter factor.

To obtain the necessary light at the film plane forcorrect exposure with a filter, you must increase theoriginal calculated exposure (without a filter). Thisincrease in exposure is determined with a filter factor.When a filter has a factor greater than 1, an adjustmentto the exposure must be made.

There are three general methods of using filterfactors to determine the exposure increase required:

1. Divide the ISO speed by the filter factor, and usethe product as the effective film speed.

Example: If the filter factor is 2 and the IS0 speed ofthe film is 100, the effective film speed is 50(100 + 2 = 50).

Thus setting a film speed of 50 on your light meterproduces the equivalent of 1 f/stop of additionalexposure.

2. Determine the required exposure without the useof a filter; then multiply the unfiltered shutter speed bythe filter factor.

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Table 3-6.–Filter Factor Equivalent Exposure Table

Example: The unfiltered exposure calls for l/60 second,and the filter factor is 3. The correct exposure is 1/20second (1/60 x 3 = 1/20 second). However, mostcameras do not have a 1/20 second shutter speed;therefore, use 1/15 second or the next slowest shutterspeed.

3. When you are using an SLR camera withthrough the lens (TTL) metering, put the filter on thecamera lens and adjust the exposure in the normalmanner. However, certain dark blue, red, and orangefilters may give faulty readings if used with TTLmetering systems because the meter reads 18 percentgray. The camera light meter may not be sensitive to thecolor of light passed by the filter.

4. Consult a filter factor equivalent exposure table.(See table 3-6.)

DARKROOM FILTERS

No types of filters are used almost exclusively inthe photographic darkroom. They are safelight filtersand printing filters. The printing filters include variablecontrast filters for printing black-and-white materialsand color printing filters for printing color materials.

SAFELIGHT FILTERS

The word safelight in photography is used todescribe filtered tungsten illumination or directillumination from a sodium-vapor lamp. The color of asodium-vapor lamp does not affect (expose)light-sensitive materials under prescribed darkroomconditions. The word safe is misleading since light-sensitive materials are never completely safe from

safelight illumination. The use of a safelight with sometypes of light- sensitive materials is not recommendedCompatible safelight filters for use with certainlight-sensitive materials should be selected on the basisof color sensitivity and emulsion speed of the material.The best method of selecting a darkroom safelight filteris to use the filter recommended by the manufacturer ofthe light-sensitive material. Safelight filters absorb thatportion of the visible spectrum produced by a tungstenlamp that would affect the light-sensitive material beinghandled.

Sodium-vapor lamp safelights use sodium gas toprovide safelight illumination. Incandescent sodium gasproduces a very narrow band of visible light in theyellow-orange portion of the spectrum. Colorblindprinting papers are not sensitive to this monochromatic(one color) band of light, whereas the human eye is verysensitive to it. Therefore, a brighter print room ispossible without the light affecting the printing paper.By using specially designed filters that further reducethe narrow band of sodium-vapor light, black-and-whitematerials sensitive to green and red light can be handledunder this illumination. Table 3-7 provides someexamples for the application of safelight filters. Alwaysconsult the Photo-Lab-Index to determine the bestsafelight for use with various light-sensitive materials.

VARIABLE CONTRAST PAPERPRINTING FILTERS

To obtain various degrees of contrast using variablecontrast printing papers, use a series of magenta andyellow filters. The magenta filters are used to printblack-and-white negatives that are low in contrast.

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Table 3-7.–Safelight Filters

Filter Designation Color

OA Greenish Yellow

Use With

Black-and-white contact and duplicating materialsand projection films

OC

No. 1

No. 1A

No. 2

*No. 3

Light Amber

Red

Light Red

Dark Red

Dark Green

Printing papers

Blue sensitive films

Orthochromatic copy films

Orthochromatic films

Panchromatic films

NOTE

*Use caution when processing panchromatic film under a No. 3 safelight. When a No. 3 safelight is used, thefilm should not be exposed to it until at least half of the developing time has passed. Then the film should beexamined quickly at a distance of about 36 inches from the safelight. Much experience is needed to judge propernegative development by the process of inspection, and it is rarely performed.

Yellow filters are used to print black-and-whitenegatives that are high in contrast. Variable contrastprinting filters are discussed in chapter 10 of thisTRAMAN.

FILTERS FOR COLOR PRINTING

Filters used to print color are as follows: colorcompensating (CC), color printing (CP), ultravioletabsorbing, and dichroic. Each one of these filters isdiscussed below.

Color Compensating Filters

The color compensating filters used for printingcolor materials are the same CC filters used with colorfilm. These filters are used to modify the color qualityof the exposing light needed to print the color negativesor transparencies. CC filters are used between the lensand the paper in the color printing process. These CCfilters are referred to as a filter pack

CC filters control the color of light that strikes theemulsion. They control the amount of light eachemulsion layer receives during exposure. That results inthe amount of color dyes formed in each emulsion layer.The overlapped colored dyes (cyan, magenta, and

yellow in proper proportions) represent the colors of theoriginal scene.

Color Printing Filters

Color printing (CP) filters are used in color printing,the same as CC filters with one exception. CP filters areplaced in the enlarger between the light source and thenegative or transparency being printed. That is donebecause CP filters are made of acetate and affect imagedefinition.

CP filters are available in red, cyan, magenta, andyellow with densities of 0.05, 0.10, 0.20, and 0.40. Thecolor of a filter and its peak density are identified thesame as CC filters.

Ultraviolet Absorbing Filters

Ultraviolet absorbing filters for color printingprevent the fogging of the color material by ultravioletradiation emitted by the exposing light source. This filteris not considered part of a printing filter pack, but it isalways present in color printing systems. An ultravioletabsorbing filter for color printing is identified as 2B.

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Dichroic Filters

Most photographic filters use colored dyes thatabsorb certain wavelengths and allow others to betransmitted. Such filters do not begin and endtransmission at precise wavelengths.

Sharp-cutting, narrow-band filters are producedusing wavelength interference rather than wavelengthabsorption. Dichroic or interference filters pass certainprecise wavelengths and reflect all others.

Dichroic filters are used extensively in colorprinting and photographic testing systems. Because oftheir stability and long life, dichroic filters provide moreaccurate and more precise filtration.

HANDLING AND STORING OF FILTERS

A gelatin filter is protected by a thin lacquer coatingthat provides little protection against careless handling.Handle these filters carefully and only the edges. Whennot in use, gelatin filters should be stored in their originalpackage, or they can be stored in clean paper betweenpages of a book. Gelatin filters should be kept flat andstored in a dark, dry place. Continued stress on gelatinfilters can deform them permanently. When stored inhigh-humidity areas, they can become cloudy.

Dust particles should be removed from gelatinfilters by brushing gently with a clean camel-hair brushor by clean, low-pressure air.

Glass filters or gelatin filters mounted between glassshould be treated the same as photographic lenses. Theyshould be kept in protective boxes or containers andshould never be exposed to dampness or dirt. Neverwash glass-mounted filters with water. When watercomes in contact with the gelatin at the edges of aglass-mounted filter, it causes it to swell and allow airto enter between the gelatin and the glass. That causes adefect in the optical properties of the filter.

When a glass-mounted filter becomes dirty, youshould not rub or breath on it. Use a piece of soft clothor lens tissue moistened with lens cleaner. Do not allowthe lens cleaner to touch the edges of the filter. Largepieces of grit should be removed with a camel’s hairbrush before attempting to clean the filter.

Do not expose gelatin or glass filters to temperatureshigher than 122°F (50°C). High temperatures, highhumidity, and time affect the stability of the dyes andshorten the life of the filter.

You should now have a basic understanding offilters and how they affect various wavelengths of tight.You should know the ways in which filters are used forexposing light-sensitive materials. Filters are an integrallink to high-quality products. This knowledge providesyou with an invaluable tool in filter application for allthe various stages of the photographic processes.

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CHAPTER 4

STILL CAMERAS AND CONTROLS

Cameras have gone through many changes indesign over the years. Several of your chiefs anddivision officers remember lugging around bulky,cumbersome 4x5 Speed Graphic cameras with filmholders and tripods just to cover routine assignments.Through the development of modern-day cameras andfilm, small, hand-held cameras are commonly used. Alarge variety of cameras are available in the imagingfacilities of the Navy. After learning the nature of yourassignment and the equipment available, you mustchoose the equipment that will get the job done best,whether it be a 4x5 view camera or a small, hand-heldelectronic camera.

The human eye may be compared to a camera Thereare several similarities. The eye is a physiologicaloptical instrument. The camera is a mechanical optical

instrument. The eye has a lens, and like the lens of acamera, it forms an image on a light-sensitive surface(fig. 4-1). The lens of the eye focuses light on the retina.The camera lens focuses light on the film plane. The lensof the eye focuses by changing its curvature, the cameralens by changing its focal length. The diaphragm on acamera is similar, like the iris of the eye. When the lightis bright, the iris closes down, reducing the brightnessof the image. Likewise, when the light is bright, thecamera diaphragm closes down When the light is dim,the diaphragm opens up. The components of the eye areheld together by the sclera, the components of thecamera by the camera body.

A camera in its simplest form (fig. 4-2) is a lighttightbox with a lens to form an image, a shutter to control thelength of time light is allowed to act on the film, a

Figure 4-1.–Comparison of human eye to a camera.

Figure 4-2.–A simple camera.

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R. B. Burrows302.4

Figure 4-3.–35mm single-lens reflex (SLR) camera.

diaphragm to control the brightness of the image, ameans of holding the film at the back of the camera, anda viewfinder so the photographer knows what the imageis, and of course a body to hold it all together.

Simple cameras, such as the one described, have limitedcapabilities. They have a fixed-focus lens that cannot pro-duce a sharp image of a subject closer than about 6 feet.Also, the shutter speed and diaphragm are preset andcannot be altered. The capabilities of a simple camera canbe enhanced by adding features to perform the following:

Change shutter speed to “capture” images ofmoving subjects

Use synchronized electronic flash

Meter the image brightness of the subject toeither manually or automatically adjust thediaphragm and shutter speed

Figure 4-3 illustrates a common 35mm camera andidentifies the various camera controls.

CAMERA TYPES

Focus on subjects at various distances

Adjust the lens for different lighting conditions

Change various lenses quickly to change focallength and fields of view

In this chapter, the characteristics and functionscommonly found on most cameras are discussed. Nosingle camera can meet the requirements of everyphotographic assignment. There are a number ofcameras to choose from in the fleet. These cameras

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Figure 4-4.–Design of a typical SLR camera.

produce negatives that range in size from 35mm to 8x10inches. You will learn to choose the camera that bestmeets the conditions of your assignment and thecustomer's photographic requirements.

The number and types of cameras available at animaging facility depend primarily on the mission of thefacility. All cameras have common features. Once youbecome familiar with the operation of one camera, youcan learn quickly to operate other types. There are threegeneral categories of cameras: small format, mediumformat, and large format.

is reflected to a viewing screen for focusing andcomposition. This allows you to see what the lens seesregardless of the lens focal length or the lens-to-subjectdistance. The reflex system is simple and reliable. It hasthree main elements: a hinged mirror, a matte focusingscreen, and a five-sided glass prism called a pentaprismThe mirror, in the viewing position, is below the viewingscreen and behind the lens. It is at a 45-degree angle andprojects the image formed by the lens up to the focusingor viewing screen. The pentaprism reflects the imagefrom the focusing screen, so you can see it in the cameraeyepiece. Figure 4-4 shows the design of a typical SLRcamera.

SMALL-FORMAT CAMERAS

Cameras that produce negatives smaller than 35mmare considered small-format cameras. Small-formatcameras are preferable when you need maximumfreedom of movement and a large number of negativeswithout reloading the camera. The accessories, lenses,and flash equipment can be carried easily, andcommonly 36 frames may be taken rapidly withoutreloading the film. This type of camera is helpful fornews and action photography where several picturesmust be taken in a short time from various ranges andunder varying light conditions. The primarydisadvantage of small-format cameras is they producesmall negatives. The smaller the negative, the more itmust be enlarged in printing.

When the shutter release is pressed, the mirrorswings up and out of the light path, so the light can reachthe film. It also seals off the viewfinder, so light enteringthe eyepiece cannot reach the film. After the film isexposed, the mirror swings back down, and the imageis visible again in the viewfinder.

CAUTION

The reflex mirror is thin glass coated on thefront with silver, so care must be taken not todamage it by touching or scratching it. Followonly the procedures listed in the PlannedMaintenance System (PMS) for cleaningcamera mirrors.

The most popular professional small-format camera Almost all 35mm cameras have focal-planeis the 35mm single-lens reflex (SLR). This camera has shutters. Focal-plane shutters simplify the constructiona mirror in the path of the image formed by the lens that of the camera and make interchangeable lenses smaller,

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Figure 4-5.–The shutter, aperture, and mirror operate in a preckesequence when exposures are made.

lighter, and less expensive. The shutter, aperture, andmirror work together in a precise sequence that isrepeated each time the shutter is tripped (fig. 4-5).

Most SLR lenses have an iris diaphragm. Thediaphragm is held wide open for focusing and viewing.

The aperture is then stopped down automatically to thepreset working aperture at the instant the exposure ismade. That means the image on the viewing screen isbright, easy to see, and focus; but only controlledbrightness reaches the film for exposure.

Focusing is done by turning the lens focusing ring.A screw thread that runs around the inside of the lensbarrel moves the lens closer or farther away from thefilm as the focusing ring is turned. The interchangeablelenses of most 35mm cameras are attached by a bayonetflange. Each lens mount differs slightly for eachmanufacturer of lenses and cameras, thus differentlenses and camera bodies cannot be interchanged.

Most 35mm SLRs have a built-in light meter thatreads through the lens (TTL). The light meter may readthe light falling on the mirror, the shutter curtain, thefocusing screen, or even on the film at the instant ofexposure. On an automatic camera, the f/stop or shutterspeed is adjusted automatically for correct exposures.On manual cameras, the light meter produces a displayin the viewfinder to indicate the correct camera settings.You must then set the camera controls to get the correctexposures.

MEDIUM-FORMAT CAMERAS

Medium-format cameras are very popular in Navyimaging facilities. Except for the increased size, thesecameras are just as versatile as small-format cameras.Interchangeable lenses, TTL metering, SLR focusingsystems, and both manual and automatic controls areavailable on medium-format cameras. The advantage ofa medium-format camera is the larger negative size of120 or 220 film. These cameras are commonly used forportraiture or when relatively large prints are requiredfrom the negative. The most common medium-formatcamera used by Navy imaging facilities is the BronicaETRS (fig. 4-6). This camera is available in almost allNavy imaging facilities, both afloat and ashore.

LARGE-FORMAT CAMERAS

Large-format cameras are used when you mustretain maximum detail in the negative. This is necessarywhen certain subjects are photographed to exact scaleor when large prints are required. Large-format camerasproduce negatives 4x5 or larger. The most commonlarge-format cameras are view cameras and copycameras. Features common to all large-format camerasare as follows:

Ground glass viewing and focusing

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FOCUS

Courtesy of Tamron Industries, Inc.302.267x

Figure 4-6.–Bronica ETRS medium-format camera.

Both front and rear focusing

Bellows that extend to permit at least a 1:1 imageratio

In addition to the features listed above, the viewcamera has additional features that control imagesharpness and distortion. The view camera is discussedlater in this chapter.

CAMERA CONTROLS

When you take a picture, the camera causes lightreflected from the subject to be imaged onlight-sensitive material. The camera controls this actionin several ways. The first control is focus. Cameras havecomponents to show what part of the scene will berecorded in sharp focus on the film. For example, somecameras use a coincidence or split-image range finder,and others use a focusing screen or ground glass.

The second camera control is the lens aperture.This control is located next to the focusing ring on mostcameras. As discussed in chapter 1, the aperture affectsboth focus and exposure.

The third control is shutter speed. The shuttercontrols the length of time light is admitted to the film.Shutter speed also has an effect on the way movementis recorded on film.

Focusing involves adjusting the distance betweenthe lens and the focal plane, or film plane, whenphotographing subjects at various camera-to-subjectdistances. When a camera lens is focused on a subjectpoint, all light rays from that point, and only that point,are brought to sharp focus at the film plane. When about600 or more feet from the camera, the subject isconsidered to be at infinity. A subject at infinity is so farfrom the camera that rays of light reflected to the lensfrom the subject are considered parallel. When a camerais focused on a subject at infinity, the distance betweenthe optical center of the lens and the film plane(lens-to-film distance) is equal to the lens focal length.At this point the lens is closest to the film plane. As thecamera-to-subject distance decreases, the lens-to-filmdistance must be increased to bring the subject intofocus.

When you are taking a picture of only one subject,focusing is simple; however, when you want to includeseveral subjects at different distances from the camerain the same picture and have them all in sharp focus, itbecomes more complicated. Unless the subject is distantscenery with nothing in the foreground, there is alwaysone object that is closer to the camera than another. Thenyou must decide what part of the scene is to appear insharp focus. In simple cases, such as a sailor standingagainst a plain background, the decision is simple-focuson the sailor. In more complex cases, when subjects bothclose and far from the camera must be in sharp focus,you should focus about one third of the distance into thescene. In other words, focus about one third of thedistance between the closest and farthest subject youwant in sharp focus. This is known as the depth of field.

The way you focus the camera will depend on whatpart of the picture is most important and its purpose; forexample, the pictures a civil engineer needs of a buildingat a naval air station is altogether different from thepictures a visitor to the air station wants to take home.The engineer needs pictures that show a maximumamount of detail throughout the scene. The visitor, onthe other hand, is more interested in pictures that bringback pleasant memories. The requirements of thepicture determine what you should focus on. Theengineer needs to have everything in the picture in sharpfocus. You might accomplish this as follows: Measurethe distance to the nearest point of the picture and thedistance to the farthest part of the scene. Then consultthe depth-of-field scale on the camera lens to focus ona point between these two distances. Now, when the lensis stopped down to a small aperture, the depth of field is

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Figure 4-7.–Focusing scale.302.268

increased. Both near and far points will appear in focus.In photographing the scene for a visitor, you may wantto emphasize only the entrance way to the building,rather than concentrating on getting everything in thepicture in sharp focus.

Focusing Systems

Accurate focusing and framing are essential to goodpictures, and modern cameras have many devices tohelp you get good focusing and framing results.

Because of the principles of depth of field, simplecameras are manufactured without any way of adjustingfocus. The lenses of these simple cameras areprefocused at the hyperfocal distance. Remember fromchapter 1, that the hyperfocal distance for a lens isdetermined by the focal length and the aperture. Thatallows “point and shoot,” ID, and passport cameras toproduce pictures where everything from about one halfof the hyperfocal distance through infinity areacceptably sharp.

Focusing is accomplished by adjusting the distancefrom the lens to the film. It does not matter which of thetwo is actually moved, the lens or the film. Withhand-held cameras the lens is moved in and out. Usuallyon large-copy cameras, the camera back (film plane) ismoved toward or away from the lens, That is because

the distance from the photographer to the lens board isusually too great to focus through the ground glass.

No matter what system you use to focus the camera,there must be a means for you to determine when theimage is in focus. Some cameras have autofocusingsystems. Most camera systems used by Navy personnelare focused manually.

Focusing Scale

This is the simplest type of focusing system. It usesa scale of distances that indicates the distance where thefocus is set. Primarily, these scales are engraved on thelens barrel. To use the focusing scale, you can measurethe camera-to-subject distance, but, in most cases, youmust estimate the camera-to-subject distance. Thisdistance is then set to the focus index mark on the lens(fig. 4-7). Scale focusing can be useful when youanticipate quick action but do not have sufficient timeto focus the camera. When using scale focusing, a smallf/stop is helpful so you can rely on depth of field toprovide an acceptably sharp image.

Ground Glass Focusing

With some cameras, focusing is done by viewingthe image on a glass screen, called a ground glass. Theimage formed by a view camera is projected directly tothe ground glass for viewing and focusing. Accuratefocusing can be achieved using a ground glass. There isa drawback to this type of focusing. Because of thetexture of the ground glass, very fine detail of the imageis difficult to distinguish. That results in some leeway infocusing. Additionally, when you work too long atfocusing the image, your eye will adjust and accept animage that is less than sharp. For this reason, it is helpfulto place a magnifying loop directly on the ground glass.That helps in focusing quickly and accurately.

A ground glass focusing system shows directly theimage that will appear on the film. The image size anddepth of field records on the film the same as it appearson the ground glass. Ground glass focusing systems arecommonly found on copy cameras and view cameras.The image on the ground glass appears upside down andbackwards.

Reflex Focusing

A reflex focusing system also uses a ground glassor focusing screen; however, instead of the image being

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Figure 4-8.–Twin-lens reflex camera.

formed directly on the ground glass or focusing screen,the lens forms the image on a mirror that reflects theimage to the focusing screen or ground glass.

TWIN-LENS REFLEX.–The twin-lens reflex(TLR) system uses a matched set of lenses for focusingand viewing. One lens is the viewing lens; the other isthe picture-taking lens. The viewing lens is always wideopen. That makes focusing and viewing easy, but depthof field cannot be viewed. Depth of field must bedetermined by a scale that is provided on the lens orcamera body.

An advantage of the twin-lens reflex system is thatthe image is visible on the focusing screen, before,during, and after exposure. A disadvantage of twin-lenssystems is that parallax errors occur. Parallax refers tothe difference between the image seen through theviewing lens and the image transmitted to thepicture-taking lens (fig. 4-8). For distant subjects thedifference is not very great or noticeable; however,when your subject is close to the camera, parallax ismuch more noticeable. You see a different image areathrough the viewing lens than what is being transmittedthrough the picture-taking lens. Some twin-lens reflexcameras have an indicator in the viewing lens, so youcan compensate for parallax. Another disadvantage ofthe twin-lens reflex camera is that it takes practice to

Figure 4-9.–Split-image focusing.

follow action and compose the subject. The image seenon the focusing screen is backwards from the actualimage. Twin-lens reflex cameras are no longercommonly used in Navy imaging, but they are stillaround.

SINGLE-LENS REFLEX.–Single-lens reflex(SLR) cameras have a focusing and viewing system thatshows you the image formed by the picture-taking lens.SLR cameras are designed so the distance between thefocusing screen and the lens is exactly the same as thedistance between the lens and the film; therefore,whatever appears in focus on the focusing screen willalso be recorded in focus on the film. With an SLRcamera, there is no parallax error.

Sometimes two small prisms or a split screen isincluded in the central area of an SLR camera viewingscreen. When the image is out of focus, it appears splitin this area (fig. 4-9). Some screens have a central gridof minute prisms that produce a shimmering effect whenthe image is out of focus.

An SLR camera is focused by rotating the focusingring on the lens until the image seen through theviewfinder is in sharp focus. SLR cameras are the mostcommonly used camera in Navy imaging today.

Direct-Vision Range Finder Focusing

Cameras that use direct-vision range finderfocusing produce a double image in the viewfinder untilthe subject is in focus on the film plane. This system hasa coupled range finder optical device that is linked to thefocusing ring. To focus a direct-vision coincidence orsplit-image range finder camera, you must align twoseparate images of the subject. When looking throughthe camera viewfinder, you see a pale or tinted area inthe center of the viewing window. This area shows thedouble image. To set the correct focus, you aim thecamera so the subject you want in sharpest focus is inthe pale area. You then turn the lens focus ring, or camera

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Figure 4-10.–Direct-vision range finder focusing.

focus knob, until the double images coincide and only in the direct-vision range finder system. Everythingone image is seen (fig. 4-10). appears sharp through the viewfinder window.

The disadvantages of a direct range finder systemare that it does not couple to a large variety of lenses,thus restricting its use to only several differentfocal-length lenses. Unlike the ground glass and SLRfocusing systems, depth of field cannot be determined

Autofocus

Most autofocus cameras use the same principle as adirect-vision range finder camera. The autofocuscamera determines the subject distance by comparing

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PHC Ed Baily302.269

Figure 4-11.–Use of selective focus.

the contrast brightness of two images: one reflectedfrom a fixed mirror, the other from a movable mirror.This system works on the theory that the sharpest imageshave the highest contrast. When maximum contrast isreached, an electronic device converts the contrastbrightness information into impulses. These impulsesstart a motor that moves the lens to the point of sharpfocus. This type of autofocus system does not performeffectively when the subject is all one color or does notcontain much contrast.

Another type of autofocus camera uses sonar orinfrared These systems emit either a sonar or infraredsignal to determine subject distance. The distance isdetermined by the amount of time it takes thetransmitted energy to reflect back from the subject to asensor on the camera. This information is then sent to amotor that moves the lens to the point of sharp focus.The sonar autofocus system has a disadvantage. Youcannot photograph subjects through glass. The sonarreflects off the glass and not the subject.

SELECTIVE FOCUS

You do not always want everything in yourphotographs to be in sharp focus. By using selectivefocus, you can emphasize the main subject and drawattention to it. “Selective focus” means the use of ashallow depth of field to isolate or emphasize the subject(fig. 4-11). Selective focus is the control of the zone ofsharpness, or depth of field, in your photographs.

Once the lens has been focused on the main subjectof the picture, using a progressively larger aperture(f/stop) will reduce the zone in front of and behind thesubject that is in focus. Long-focal-length lenses aremore effective for selective focusing because of theirlarger real apertures. Wide-angle or short-focal-lengthlenses are not as effective for selective focus because ofthe great depth of field they provide at most apertures.The following factors provide the maximum selectivefocus control by minimizing depth of field:

Working close-up

Using a wide aperture

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Using a long-focal-length lens

Focusing on near objects

APERTURE

The aperture, or f/stop as it is commonly called, isused to regulate the diameter of the lens opening. Thatcontrols the luminance on the film plane. Besidescontrolling the luminance on the film plane, the f/stopalso controls image sharpness by partially correctingvarious lens aberrations.

The most commonly used aperture control device isthe iris diaphragm. An iris diaphragm is an adjustabledevice that is fitted into the barrel of the lens or shutterhousing. It is called an iris diaphragm because itresembles the iris in the human eye (fig. 4-12). An irisdiaphragm is a series of thin, curved, metal blades thatoverlap each other and is fastened to a ring on the lensbarrel or shutter housing. The size of the aperture ischanged by turning the aperture control ring. The bladesmove in unison as the control ring is moved, forming anaperture of any desired size. The control ring is markedin a series of f/stops that relate to the iris opening. Theaperture controls the intensity of light that is allowed topass to the film and the parts of the image that willappear in sharp focus.

40.163Figure 4-12.–Iris diaphragm.

Depth of Field

Depth of field is that zone both in front of and behindyour subject that are in acceptably sharp focus. Thefocusing controls on most cameras are easy to use,providing you understand the factors that effect depth offield. To produce professional quality photographs, youmust know how to control the depth of field.

Aperture, or f/stop, is the most important factor incontrolling the depth of field. The smaller the f/stopopening, the greater the depth of field; for example, atf/16, a normal lens focused on a subject 16 feet from thecamera may show everything in focus from 8 feet toinfinity. At f/5.6, depth of field may range from about 3feet in front of the subject to about 6 feet behind thesubject. At f/2, only the subject focused on is sharp. Asshown in figure 4-3, a shallow depth of field results ina blurry foreground and background, whereas greaterdepth of field results in more overall sharpness.

Camera-to-subject distance also has an effect on thedepth of field. In general, the closer you are to thesubject, the shallower the depth of field. Even at f/16with a normal lens, if you focus on a subject only 3 feetfrom the camera, the depth of field may only be about 1foot. At f/2, the subject's eyes may be in sharp focus, butthe nose and ears are blurred. As you increase thecamera-to-subject distance, the depth of field increasesrapidly. Using an aperture of f/16 and focusing at 6 feet,the depth of field may extend from a foot in front of thesubject to about 3 feet in back of the subject. Still using

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Table 4-1.–How to Control Depth of Field

If you want less

Use a larger f/stop (lower number).

Use a longer focal length lens.

Move closer to the subject.

Use a filter to reduce the amount oflight allowed to be transmitted anduse a larger f/stop.

If you want more

Use a smaller f/stop (higher number).

Use a shorter focal length lens.

Back up from the subject.

Use a faster film or a slower shutterspeed and use a smaller f/stop.

Focus at the hyperfocal distance.

f/16 but focusing now at about 16 feet, the depth of fieldis almost at infinity. Most normal lenses for 35mmcameras produce these maximum ranges of sharpness atabout 16 feet. Focusing any farther from the camera onlyreduces foreground sharpness. You must remember thispoint when attempting to get the greatest possible depthof field.

Lens focal length is also a factor in depth of field.The shorter the lens focal length, the greater the depthof field at a given aperture. In other words, a wide-anglelens provides more depth of field at f/8 than a normallens, and a normal lens provides more depth of field atf/8 than a telephoto lens.

You know that a small aperture like f/16 providesmore depth of field than a wide aperture like f/2. Withexperience, you can predict the best aperture for thedepth of field desired. Even with experience, you do notalways have to guess the aperture setting or calculate thehyperfocal distance, near distance, and far distance byusing formulas. Most lenses have a depth-of-field scaleto guide you (fig. 4-13). The depth-of-field scaleindicates the distance range from the camera that thesubject(s) appear in acceptably sharp focus. The depthof field on an SLR is marked between the aperture ringand the focusing scale. Use the depth-of-field scale asfollows:

1. Focus on the subject.

2. Select the f/stop.

depth-of-field scale. You may have to estimatethe distances.

You can see in figure 4-13 that the lens is focusedat a distance of 30 feet with the aperture set between f/16and f/22. You can see from the depth-of-field scale thatthe depth of field extends from approximately 11 feet tobeyond infinity. If the aperture is opened up to f/8, thedepth of field will range from about 16 feet to infinity.

At any given aperture, depth of field is maximizedby focusing the lens at the hyperfocal distance. That isthe closest point of acceptable sharp focus shown on thedepth-of-field scale when the lens is focused at infinity.When you are changing the focus setting to thehyperfocal distance, the zone in front of the subject thatis sharp is increased, and infinity is still the farthest point

3. Look at the depth-of-field scale and locate themarks that correspond to your chosen f/stop. Thef/stop appears twice, once on either side of thescale center line.

4. Read the two distances on the focusing scale thatare adjacent to the two f/stops on the

PHC Ron Bayles302.102

Figure 4-13.–Depth-of-field scale.

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302.101Figure 4-14.–When the lens is focused at 20 feet and set at f/22, the

depth of field ranges from about 10 feet to infinity

in sharp focus. In figure 4-14, when the lens is set at f/22and focused at infinity, the depth of field ranges fromabout 20 feet (the hyperfocal distance) to infinity;however, when you change the lens focus to 20 feet, thedepth of field ranges from about 10 feet to infinity.

The lenses of modern SLR cameras stay at theirmaximum aperture until the shutter is tripped. Theselenses provide a bright image in the viewfinder to focus.As a result, when you look through the viewfinder, youonly see the depth of field for the maximum aperture andnot the working f/stop. Most SLR cameras have adepth-of-field preview button to compensate for this.When you press it, the aperture closes down to the setf/stop. Although the viewfinder becomes darker, youcan see the actual depth of field at the selected aperture.

Image Sharpness

The outer edges of a lens are least likely to producea well-defined or aberration-free image; therefore,proper use of the diaphragm, aperture, or f/stop canimprove image sharpness by blocking off light rays thatwould otherwise pass through the outside edges of alens.

There is a limit to how far the aperture can bestopped down and still increase image sharpness. Whenthe aperture is very small, it causes diffraction of lightrays striking the edge of the diaphragm. Diffraction

results in a loss of image sharpness. This loss of imagesharpness is especially noticeable in copy work

Physical limitations in the design of lenses make itimpossible to manufacture a lens of uniform qualityfrom the center to the edges; therefore, to obtain the bestquality with most lenses, you can eliminate the edges ofthe lens from being used by closing down the apertureabout two f/stops from wide open This recommendedadjustment is called the optimum or critical aperture.The optimum aperture for a particular lens refers to thef/stop that renders the best image definition.

When a lens is stopped down below the optimumaperture, there is an actual decrease in overall imagesharpness due to diffraction. Although the depth of fieldincreases when a lens is stopped down below theoptimum aperture, image sharpness decreases;therefore, increased depth of field should not beconfused with image sharpness. For example, the imageformed by a pinhole camera has extraordinary depth offield but lacks image sharpness. When the lens apertureis closed down to the size of a pinhole, it behaves likeone. This is an important factor for subjects in a flatplane (such as copying) where depth of field is notneeded.

SHUTTER

A camera shutter controls both the exact instantwhen the film is exposed to light and the duration of thatexposure. The shutter is used in conjunction with thediaphragm to control the exposure of the film. The mostimportant function of the shutter is that it limits the timethat light is allowed to pass through the lens and act onthe film. There are two types of camera shutters: leafand focal plane.

Leaf Shutter

The blades of this type of shutter are usually locatedbetween or near the lens elements and close to thediaphragm. It is sometimes called a between-the-lensshutter; however, a more correct term for this type ofshutter is a leaf or diaphragm shutter.

Leaf shutters have several blades made of thinspring steel. When the shutter is closed, these blades, orleaves, are at rest and overlap each other. This preventslight from reaching the film. When the shutter releasebutton is pressed, the blades move apart or open quicklyand allow light to pass and expose the film. They remainopen for the duration of the preset exposure time beforespringing shut again (fig. 4-15).

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Figure 4-15.–Leaf shutter operation.

Leaf shutters have an important advantage overfocal-plane shutters. Leaf shutters can be used withelectronic flash at all shutter speeds. This is not true withfocal-plane shutters. Focal-plane shutters can only beused at slow shutter speeds, usually at 1/125 second andbelow.

Focal-Plane Shutter

A focal-plane shutter is essentially two lightproofcloths or thin metal curtains that move across the filmaperture in the same direction. This type of shutter ishoused entirely within the camera body and is mountedon two rollers, one on each side of the film aperture

Figure 4-16.–Focal-plane shutter.

(fig. 4-16). As the curtain is moved from one roller tothe other by spring tension, the second curtain follows,forming an opening that permits light to pass from thelens to the film. After the opening has passed, the secondcurtain stops and prevents additional light from reachingthe film. In the design of focal-plane shutters, thecurtains form a slit that travels across the film apertureto expose the film. When a slow shutter speed is set, thesecond curtain waits a relatively long time before itfollows the first curtain; in this case, the slit is quitewide. When a fast shutter speed is set, the second curtainquickly follows the first and only a narrow slit is formed.

Shutter Speed

A range of shutter speeds is available onprofessional cameras. Common shutter settings are asfollows: T, B, 1 second, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/15, 1/30, 1/60,1/125, 1/250, 1/500, 1/1000, and 1/2000 second. Thefastest between-the-lens (leaf) shutter speed is 1/500second. Some focal-plane shutters can be as fast as1/12000 second. In addition to a given set range ofspeeds, most shutters are made so they can be openedfor an indefinite period of time. At the setting marked"T" (time), the shutter opens the first time the shutterrelease button is depressed and remains open until theshutter release button is depressed again. At the settingmarked “B” (bulb), the shutter remains open as long asthe shutter release button is depressed, but closes as soonas it is released.

The interval that you want the shutter to remain openis selected by moving a lever or shutter speed dial to thatparticular setting on the shutter speed scale. Unlikef/stops, the shutter speed you select must align exactlywith the index mark You cannot select a shutter speedin between two indicated shutter speeds. On the shutter

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speed dial, the top part of the fraction (numerator) is notindicated; for example, the shutter speeds 1/60, 1/125,1/250, and so forth, are indicated as 60, 125, and 250.

When a camera with a focal-plane shutter is usedwith an electronic flash, a predetermined shutter speedmust be set. At this speed the shutter and flash unit aresaid to be in synchronization. When the flash and shutterare synchronized, the shutter opening is wide open at thesame instant the flash fires. Usually, the slowest shutterspeed that syncs with a flash unit is indicated in red oranother off color or a lightning bolt symbol on theshutter speed dial.

Function

The shutter serves two functions: controlling theduration of the exposure and controlling subjectmovement. These two functions are entirely separateand distinct. You must determine the shutter speedrequired for each condition. After determining theshutter speed, you select the f/stop that provides thecorrect exposure for the film speed and lightingconditions. Normally, the duration of exposure is shortenough to prevent image blurring. You can always setthe shutter speed faster than the speed required to stopimage motion, but it should not be longer if you wantthe image to be sharp; for example, when a shutter speedof 1/125 is sufficient to stop subject motion, you can setthe shutter speed to 1/250 or faster, but not at 1/60 if youwant to stop the motion and produce a sharp image. Eachtime you change the shutter speed, the diaphragm isadjusted to produce a properly exposed image.

The correct sequence in determining the diaphragmand shutter to produce a properly exposed negative is asfollows:

1. Compose and focus the image.

2. Stop down or open up the diaphragm until thedesired depth of field is achieved.

3. Select the shutter speed that will produce aproper exposure when combined with youraperture setting.

4. Determine whether the shutter speed is fastenough to prevent image blurring.

5. If the selected shutter speed is too slow, reset itto a faster speed and open up the apertureaccordingly.

When you increase the shutter speed, youcompromise and loose depth of field. Sometimes this isthe only way to produce a useable image. If you cannot

sacrifice some depth of field, there are severalalternative you can use: select a faster film, increase thecamera-to-subject distance, select a shorter focal lengthlens, or change the camera angle, so the relative motionof the subject to the camera is decreased.

Selecting the Shutter Speed

Knowing what shutter speed produces the righteffect for each picture is a skill you, as a NavyPhotographer’s Mate, must acquire. Your pictures mayeasily be spoiled by movement of either the camera orthe subject. In some instances, this movement canactually improve your photographs.

Novice photographers often find it hard to believeanything can happen during the brief instant the camerashutter is open. This is not true; images can be blurredwhen a shutter speed as fast as 1/250 of a second is used;for example, when the camera or subject moves duringthe fraction of a second the shutter is open, the imagemay be recorded on the film as a blur. Blurring causedby camera movement is noticeable in all images withinthe photograph. When blurring is caused by subjectmovement only, the background or some other part ofthe scene will be sharp, and the subject blurred. Cameramovement blur can be corrected by supporting thecamera properly or by using a faster shutter speed.Subject image movement can be reduced by using eithera faster shutter speed or by panning the subject.

As explained previously, when a faster shutter speedis used, a wider aperture is required to produce correctexposure. For this reason you should know whatminimum shutter speed is required to stop or freezedifferent actions. You must take into account conditionsthat exist when taking photographs. Strong winds,vibrations, or a ship rolling from side to side must beconsidered. There is a general rule you must follow fordetermining shutter speed when handholding a camera.The slowest shutter speed recommended to preventcamera movement blur is to set the shutter speed so itmatches the focal length of the lens. When a shutterspeed does not exist for the focal length of the lens,select the next highest shutter speed; for example, 1/30second for a 25mm lens, 1/50 second for a 50mm lens,1/125 second for a 100mm lens, 1/250 second for a200mm lens, and so forth.

When a subject is in motion during exposure, theimage on the film also moves. Even though the durationof exposure may only be 1/1000 of a second, the imagemoves a small fraction of an inch during this time. Theproblem you encounter is how much image movement

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PH3 Tim O’Neill302.95

Figure 4-17.–Panning with a moving object.

can be tolerated before it becomes objectionable andadjust your shutter speed accordingly. To determinewhat forms an objectionable blurring of the image, youmust visualize how the photograph is going to be used.An image of a contact print can be much blurrier thanan image that is magnified many times. A print that isviewed up close must be much sharper than a printviewed from a distance.

Once you know how the photograph is to be used,you can determine the shutter speed required to producean acceptably sharp image. In some situations, it maynot be possible to produce an image that is completelysharp. When you want a sharp image of a fast-movingobject, use the panning technique. When using thepanning technique, you move the camera and follow theaction of the subject until you make the exposure. Thismethod may blur the background but can provide a sharpimage of a moving object even at relatively slow shutterspeeds (fig. 4-17).

There are five factors that determine the distance animage moves on the film during exposure. You mustconsider these factors each time you photograph amoving object. These five factors are as follows:

1. The lens-to-subject distance

2. The lens focal length

3. The speed of the object perpendicular to the lensaxis

4. The direction of movement

5. The exposure time

Whenever one of these five factors change, thedistance the image moves during exposure also changes.The first four factors determine the speed that the imagemoves across the film. The fifth factor limits the time itis allowed to move, thereby limiting the distance ofimage movement.

Subject movement on the film plane is greatestwhen the subject is moving across the angle of view of

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the lens (perpendicular to the lens axis). For example,when the subject is moving straight towards or straightaway from the camera, it may appear as though it ishardly moving and a fast shutter speed is not required toproduce a sharp image; however, when that same subjectmoves at the same speed across the field of view of thecamera, the speed of the subject appears much faster. Afaster shutter speed is required to stop the action in thiscase.

The camera-to-subject distance also affects theamount of image movement at the film plane; forexample, a car moving across your field of view at 55mph from a distance of 700 yards appears to be movingslowly. The same car moving at 55 mph and only 15 feetaway appears to be moving very fast; therefore, thecloser a moving object is to the camera, the faster theshutter speed must be to capture a sharp image. Whenthe subject is moving diagonally across your angle ofview, movement is more apparent than when movingstraight away or toward the camera, but less apparentthan when moving straight across the field of view.

Remember, long-focal-length lenses exaggerate theeffects of camera and subject movement, and short-focal-length lenses reduce the effect.

Experience and common sense are your best guidesfor determining shutter speed that will minimize imagemovement, but the following can be used as a guide tohelp make these determinations:

Double the shutter speed when the subject speedis doubled.

Halve the speed when the speed of the subject ishalved.

Double the shutter speed when the camera-to-subject distance is halved.

Halve the shutter speed when the camera-to-subject distance is doubled.

Double the shutter speed when the focal lengthis doubled.

Halve the shutter speed when the focal length ishalved.

When in doubt, use the next higher shutter speed.

There are mathematical formulas used to determineappropriate shutter speeds for subjects moving at allspeeds when photographed with various lenses, but theuse of these formulas is not practical. Table 4-2 showsstop motion relationships when a 50mm lens is used.This table is not intended to be memorized but is only

intended to provide a better understanding of therelationship of subject motion, distance, and direction.

COMBINING APERTURE ANDSHUTTER SPEED

So far three camera controls have been discussedseparately: focus, aperture, and shutter. Focus is themost straightforward because it is used to produce asharp image of the subject. Aperture and shutter eachaffect the image in two distinct ways. They both controlthe amount of light that makes the exposure, and theyboth affect image sharpness. The aperture alters depthof field, and the shutter controls the image movement orblur.

The light-sensitive material must receive the correctamount of light to produce a quality photograph. Undermost lighting conditions, it does not matter whether youuse a wide aperture with a fast shutter speed or a smallaperture with a slow shutter speed. When thecombination is correct, both provide the same amountof exposure.

Aperture and shutter speeds each have a doublingand halving effect on exposure. This doubling andhalving relationship of aperture and shutter allows youto combine different f/stops and shutter speeds to alterthe image, while, at the same time, admitting the sameamount of exposure to the light-sensitive material; forexample, you have determined that the correct camerasettings for your subject is 1/125 second, at f/16. Insteadof using this combination of shutter speed and f/stop,you could double the shutter speed (to stop action) andhalve the f/stop. In this example your new camera settingcould be 1/250 second at f/11, 1/500 second at f/8, or1/1000 second at f/5.6, and so on. Or when you needmore depth of field, 1/60 second at f/22 or 1/30 secondat f/32, and so on, can be used. These shutter speed andf/stop combinations are called equivalent exposures.Equivalent exposures are used to control depth of fieldand to stop motion. Table 4-3 shows some equivalentexposures of a typical situation.

Each of the combinations in table 4-3 produces thesame exposure; however, the amount of depth of fieldand image blur are different in each image. Thecombination of shutter speed and f/stop is used to bestcapture the subject and effect you want to create.

You should use a light meter for most of thephotographs you take. The light meter provides you witha number of f/stop and shutter speed combinations;however; depending on the situation, the level of lightalone can determine the camera settings. For example,

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Table 4-2.–Action Stopping Shutter Speeds for Normal-Focal-Length Lenses

Speed MPH Type of Action Distance Direction of Action

5

10

25

100

Slow walk, working with thehands

Fast walk/ work,slow-moving vehicles

Running, sports, very activepeople, vehicles moving at amoderate speed

Very fast-moving vehiclesand aircraft

Table 4-3.–Equivalent Exposures EXPOSURE CONTROL

Shutter Speed

1/2000

1/1000

1/500

1/250

1/125

1/60

1/30

1/15

12 1/500 1/250 1/12525 1/250 1/125 1/6050 1/125 1/60 1/30

100 1/60 1/30 1/15

12 1/1000 1/500 1/25025 1/500 1/250 1/12550 1/250 1/125 1/60

100 1/125 1/60 1/30

122550

100

1/2000 1/1000 1/5001/1000 1/500 1/2501/500 1/250 1/1251/250 1/125 1/60

2550

100200

1/20001/10001/500

1/2000 1/10001/1000 1/5001/500 1/2501/250 1/125

f/stop

f/4

f/5.6

f/8

f/11

f/16

f/22

f/32

f/64

the light level may be so low that you have to use a slowshutter speed and the largest f/stop to get the properexposure. After determining the correct exposure, youcan decide how to present the subject. Remember, depthof field can be used to emphasize your subject, andshutter speed affects subject blur.

Across Fieldof View

Diagonally StraightToward orAway

The term exposure in photography means theamount of light that reaches the film or otherlight-sensitive material. The mathematical formula forexposure is the product of light intensity and the amountof time that the light acts on a light-sensitive material.There are two ways a formula is presented inphotographic publications. They are as follows:

E = I x T

and

H = E x T

Where:

E or H = Exposure (lux-seconds or meter-candleseconds)

I or E = Intensity or illuminance (lux or metercandles)

T = Time (seconds)Both of these formulas represent exposure. The secondformula is presented in the more current publications.

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As explained previously, camera exposures arecontrolled by the shutter speed and aperture. The shutterspeed controls the time light is permitted to reach thefilm. The illuminance (or intensity as it is sometimescalled) is controlled by the aperture of the camera. Theterm illuminance means the amount of light reaching thefilm plane. By adjusting these controls, you allow thecorrect amount of light to reach the film. The correctamount of light varies, depending on the film speed.Correct exposure for negative films is defined as theexposure required to produce a negative that yieldsexcellent prints with the least amount of difficulty.Correct exposure for color reversal film produces colorimages in densities that represent the appearance of theoriginal scene.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT EXPOSURE

You must consider four major factors that affectexposure when you are taking photographs. Thesefactors are as follows:

Film speed (ISO)

Reflected properties of the subject

Lighting conditions

Bellows extension

Film Speed

As explained in chapter 2, ISO is a system of ratingfilm speed or sensitivity to light. ISO numbers arearithmetic; that is, an ISO number that is twice as highas another ISO number is twice as sensitive to light.Each time an ISO film speed is doubled, the exposureshould be halved. When the ISO is halved, the exposureshould be doubled; for example, if the correct camerasetting is 1/250 second at f/16 with ISO 100 film, thesame subject photographed with ISO 200 film wouldrequire only half the exposure or 1/500 second at W16or 1/250 second at f/22, and so on.

Daylight Conditions

The two primary considerations for determiningyour exposure under daylight conditions are theintensity and the direction of daylight.

INTENSITY.–From early morning until laterevening, even on a clear day, the intensity of daylight isconstantly changing as the sun rises, moves across thesky, and sets. Although the intensity of daylight variesthroughout the day, the time between about 2 hours after

sunrise until about 2 hours before sunset is considereda time when the light intensity for the same geographicallocation remains constant for exposure purposes.

Daylight conditions for camera exposures can bedivided into the following five intensity conditions.

Bright Sun on Light Sand or Snow.–Bright sun isdaylight that is not affected by any apparent atmosphericinterference. Because of the amount of reflected lightfrom sand or snow, the intensity of light in these scenesis greater than that of a scene with average reflectance.This greater intensity of light requires a higher f/stop ora faster shutter speed to provide approximately one halfof the exposure required for the basic exposure withbright or hazy sun.

Bright Sun.–This type of daylight illumination isproduced on a bright, sunny day where distinct shadowsare present. Bright sun is the condition that determinesthe BASIC EXPOSURE for an average scene.

Cloudy Bright.–A weak, hazy sun is the result of aheavier or thicker haze or cloud cover as compared tothe bright sun condition. The condition causes adecrease in the daylight intensity and an increase in thediffusion of daylight. This lighting condition producesshadows that are soft or indistinct. A lower f/stop orslower shutter speed is required to approximatelydouble the basic exposure to compensate for thisdecreased daylight intensity.

Cloudy.–Cloudy conditions are the result of a layerof clouds that further reduce the intensity of daylight anddiffuse the light completely. This condition occurs on anovercast day when the position of the sun can be locatedonly as a bright area in the clouds. Shadows are notpresent under this lighting condition. The scenebrightness range is low and therefore photographs madeduring this condition usually lack good contrast. Anincrease of four times (two f/stops) from the basicexposure is required to compensate for the decreasedintensity of light.

Heavy Overcast or Open Shade.–This conditionexists when the position of the sun cannot be located.The scene brightness range is low and thereforephotographs made during heavy overcast conditionsusually lack good contrast. An increase of eight times(three f/stops) to the exposure is required horn the basicexposure to compensate for the decreased intensity oflight.

DIRECTION.–The direction of the sun or lightsource illuminating your subject also affects your basicexposure. The camera settings recommended for films

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Figure 4-18.–Lighting directions.

exposed during bright sun on light sand or snow, bright direction from which the light is falling on your subject,sun, cloudy bright, and cloudy conditions are for scenes you may have to compensate the camera exposure.that are front-lighted only. The direction of the light There are three basic lighting directions with which yousource from heavy overcast or open shade conditions must become familiar. These lighting directions are asdoes not affect exposure because it is extremely diffused follows: frontlighting, side lighting, and backlightingand the direction is not apparent. (fig. 4-18).

The amount of light reflected from the scene Frontlighting.–Whenever light originates fromchanges, as the direction of the light changes. As the behind the camera and illuminates the front of thelighting direction is changed from in front of the subject subject, it is called frontlighting. A subject appearsto behind the subject, the amount of light reflected from brightest and reflects the most light toward the camerathe subject is reduced; therefore, depending on the when the subject is front-lighted.

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Side Lighting.–As the camera is moved in an arcaway from frontlighting, less light is reflected from thesubject into the lens. Whenever the light source has a90-degree relationship with the camera, the incidentlight on the subject is called side lighting. In side lightingsituations, part of the subject is in shadow. Photographsof side-lighted scenes usually require two times (onef/stop) more exposure than frontlighted subjects whenyou want detail in the shadows.

Backlighting.–When the light source is directlybehind the subject and aimed toward the camera, it iscalled backlighting. In back-lighted situations, thesubject is in shadow and the light reflected from thesubject toward the camera is decreased greatly. Asilhouette effect (no shadow detail) of a back-lightedscene is produced by closing down one f/stop from thebasic exposure. If shadow detail is desired, an increaseof four times (two f/stops) from the basic exposure isrequired.

Reflection Properties

Otherwise the intensity and direction of light fallingon the subject, the texture of the surface, and the colorsand shades of the scene also have an effect on filmexposure.

SURFACE TEXTURE.–Smooth, glossy surfacesscatter or diffuse reflected light very little; therefore,these objects reflect a large percentage of light to thelens. Rough surfaces greatly scatter and diffuse light.Less light from rough surfaces is reflected to the lens.

COLORS AND SHADES.–Not all light that fallson the surface of a subject is reflected. A brilliant whiteobject reflects a high percentage of incident light, and ablack object reflects very little of the light. Betweenthese two extremes are the numerous tones of gray andcolors of various hues and brightnesses. Each colored orgray object in a scene reflects a specific amount of light.A scene that consists primarily of light-colored orlight-toned objects usually requires an exposurecompensation to decrease the exposure as compared tothe basic exposure for an average scene. A scene thatconsists primarily of dark-colored or dark-toned objectsusually requires an exposure compensation to providemore exposure as compared to the basic exposure for anaverage scene. The primary reason light scenes and darkscenes require less exposure and more exposure,respectively, as compared to the average scene, is tomaintain detail in the highlight of the light scenes anddetail in the shadow areas of the dark scenes.

The color quality of a light source also has an effecton the amount of light reflected from an object; forexample, a blue object does not reflect as much lightwhen illuminated with a red light source, as comparedto the same object being illuminated with a blue lightsource. This difference in reflectance is caused by theblue object absorbing the reddish light and reflecting thebluish light.

Any man-made light is an artificial light source.This light may be a tungsten lamp, a fluorescent lamp,a mercury-vapor lamp, and so on. The same factors thataffect exposures for daylight apply to artificial light aswell. Artificial light has some advantages. Distance,direction, and color temperature can be controlled usingthese light sources.

Bellows Extension

When copy cameras or view cameras are used,many subjects are photographed at very close distances.When you are photographing at these close distances, itis not uncommon for the bellows of these cameras toextend beyond one focal length. The farther the bellowsare extended, the larger the image size produced at thefilm plane. When a 1:1 subject to image ratio (on thefilm plane) is needed, the bellows are extended to twotimes the focal length of the lens; for example, when a6-inch lens is used to produce a 1:1 ratio, the bellowsare extended to 12 inches. The distance the bellows areextended is determined by measuring the distance fromthe optical center of the lens to the film plane.

When the bellows are extended beyond one focallength, an exposure compensation is needed. Becauselight must travel a greater distance, some of the intensityis lost. This loss of light intensity must be compensatedfor by opening up the aperture or increasing theexposure time. There are two formulas used to adjust theexposure when the bellows are extended.

Generally, the exposure time is extended tocompensate for bellows extension, because viewcameras and copy cameras are mounted securely and thecritical aperture is used to produce the sharpest image.To adjust the exposure time, use the following formula:

BE2

FL x T = NEW EXPOSURE TIME

Where: BE = Bellows extension

FL = Lens focal length

T = Indicated exposure time

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EXAMPLE: You are photographing a document with acamera that has a 5-inch lens and the bellows areextended 7 inches. Your light meter indicated anexposure of 1/30 second at f/4. The new exposure timeis determined as follows:

To adjust the aperture, use the following formula:

EXAMPLE: A 4-inch lens is extended to 4 inchesbeyond one focal length. The original camera settingsare 5 seconds at f/11. Using the above formula, theproblem is solved as follows:

f/16 RULE

You should use a light meter for most of thephotographs that you take in the fleet. These light metersare either built into the camera or are separate hand-heldmodels; however, there may be times when your lightmeter does not operate properly, or you do not have timeto use it in order to “grab” an awesome shot. The f/16rule of exposure allows you to determine basic cameraexposure settings for both black-and-white and colorphotography without the aid of electronic devices.

The f/16 rule states: The basic exposure for anaverage subject in bright frontal sunlight is

f/16 at:1

film speed

Therefore, to calculate the BASIC exposure forbright, sunny conditions, set f/16 on the camera lens anduse the IS0 speed of the film for the shutter speed; forexample, when you use IS0 125 film, set the shutterspeed at 1/125 second and the lens aperture at f/16. ForIS0 64 film, set the shutter speed at 1/60 second and thelens aperture at f/16, and so on. When the camera doesnot have a shutter speed corresponding to the IS0 of thefilm, use the shutter speed that is closest to the IS0 ofthe film.

The f/16 rule is based on the correct exposure for anaverage subject under bright, sunny conditions. If thesun goes behind a cloud, however, then the lighting onthe subject is decreased and you must change the basic

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exposure. The aperture settings for different daylightintensities are as follows:

Bright sun on light sand or snow-f/22

Bright sun-f/16

Cloudy bright-f/11

Cloudy-f/8

Heavy overcast or open shade-f/5.6

For each of these different daylight intensitysituations, you begin with the ISO speed to determinethe shutter speed, set the aperture to f/16, and open upor stop down the aperture for the lighting conditions.

After calculating the exposure, you can change thesetting to any equivalent exposure; for example, if youdetermine the required exposure to be 1/500 second atf/5.6 but you wish to use a small aperture for greaterdepth of field, you can change the setting to 1/60 secondat f/16.

Remember, the f/16 rule provides you with a basicexposure for front-lighted subjects only. When thesubjects are side-lighted or back-lighted, you mustdouble or quadruple the exposure, respectively.

Because many cameras are fully automatic, youmay wonder why you need to know basic exposure.There are three good reasons for knowing andunderstanding the basic principles of exposure. First,you want to control the depth of field and stop actioninstead of the camera controlling it. Second, a lightmeter cannot think All a light meter does is respond tothe light it receives. You must know when to overridethe camera; for example, when the subject is side-lighted or back-lighted. Third, meters are mechanicaland can fail. They can be inconsistent, consistentlywrong, or fail altogether. When you can workout in yourhead, roughly what the camera exposures should be, youwill know when the camera or light meter is wrong.Knowing when a light meter is giving incorrect readingscould make the difference between success or failure ofan important photographic assignment.

LIGHT METERS

The correct use of a light meter greatly increases theaccuracy in determining your camera exposure. Youshould also understand that the incorrect use of a lightmeter can result in consistently unacceptable results. Toassure consistently acceptable exposures, you mustbecome thoroughly proficient with the correct operationof a light meter.

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PHC Ronald W. Baylcs302.91

Figure 4-19.–Hand-held light meter.

A light meter can be either built into the camera ora separate hand-held unit (fig. 4-19). Both types aresensitive instruments and should be handled with care.There is little maintenance, but they do require batteries.When you think a light meter is not working properly,have it checked by a qualified technician. Always besure to check your equipment before leaving on anassignment. Like all camera equipment, carelesshandling and excessive heat and moisture limit the lifeof a light meter. A light meter must not be subjected tohigh temperatures for prolonged periods of time. Unlessthe light meter is designed for underwater photography,it should be protected in inclement weather.

LIGHT METER READINGS

There are two methods of measuring light withhand-held light meters. These two methods are theincident-light method and the reflected-light method.

Incident-Light Method

This method requires the use of an incident-lightmeter. An incident-light meter has a diffusing dome thatcovers the photoelectric cell. When an incident-lightmeter reading is taken, the meter is held at the positionof the subject with the photoelectric cell pointed towardthe camera. The meter measures the light falling uponthe scene. The incident-light method of measuring lightis used extensively in motion-media photography andgives fast accurate results in all photography.

Most light meters are designed for use as eitherincident-light or reflected-light meters. By removing thediffusion dome from the photoelectric cell, you can usethe meter to measure reflected light.

Reflected-Light Method

When you are taking this type of light-meterreading, the diffusing dome should be removed from thephotoelectric cell and the meter pointed toward thesubject.

A reflected-light meter receives and measures thelight reflected from a scene within the angle ofacceptance of the meter. The term angle of acceptancecompares to the term angle of view of a lens. Both arepredetermined during manufacturing. The angle ofacceptance and the distance between the meter and thescene are the controlling factors as to how much of thereflected light from the scene is measured by the meter.When the angle of acceptance is greater than the angleof view of a lens (when using a telephoto lens forexample), the meter should be moved closer to thescene.

Light meters that are built into the camera arereflected-light meters. When these meters are used, theangle of acceptance is not greater than the angle of viewof the lens being used. The meter measures the lightfrom the scene as seen by the lens.

Some reflected-light meters have angles ofacceptance between 1 and 4 degrees. These meters canbe used from a distance to measure the reflected lightfrom specific objects within a scene. Exposure meterswith angles of reflectance this small are called spotmeters.

LIGHT METER OPERATION

You must understand the way light meters operateto determine whether the information they provide isaccurate. No matter what type of light meter you use, it

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is an electrical-mechanical device that can only provideinformation for which it is designed. You are responsiblefor translating this information into useful exposuredata.

Light meters are calibrated to see one shadeonly-middle gray. This means the information that themeter provides, no matter how much light is falling onthe subject or what the reflection characteristics are,reads the subject the same as though it were middle orneutral gray (18-percent gray). Theoretically, if you takea reflected-exposure meter reading from an 18-percentgray card and expose your film according to the reading,the result should be a picture that matches the tone ofthe gray card exactly; however, when you take a lightmeter reading of a white or black object, the light meterstill reads the objects as though they were 18-percentgray.

When you take a photograph that includes a gray,white, and black card, you will see how, depending onwhere you take the light meter readings, they affect yourphotograph; for example, when you take the light meterreading from the black card, the final picture reproducesthe black as middle gray, and the gray and white cardsas white. When you take the reflected-light meterreading from the white card, just the opposite occurs. Inyour final picture, the white card reproduces as middlegray, and the gray and black cards reproduce as black.

This example demonstrates overexposure andunderexposure. When the reading was taken from theblack card, the meter raised the black tone to middlegray, and the gray card tone was also raised so itreproduced as white. Thus both the black and gray cardswere overexposed The opposite occurred when theexposure was based on the reading from the white card.The white tone was lowered to middle gray and the graycard tone to black, resulting from underexposure. Onlya light meter reading taken from the gray card allows allthree cards to be imaged at their true tone.

A more practical example on the way a light meterreads 18-percent gray is illustrated in the followingexample. Suppose you are going to photograph a shipalongside a pier. Bright sunlight is striking the ship fromthe side, causing part of the ship to be in shadow. Thiscreates a brightness difference between the highlightarea and the shadow area. Both highlight and shadowareas are equal in size and importance. When you getclose to the ship and take a reflected meter reading ofthe highlight area alone, you expect the finishedphotograph, like the white card in the above example, tobe middle gray. When you stop down the aperture to therecommended exposure of the meter, you are also

reducing the amount of exposure from the shadow area.This results in a loss of detail in the shadow area of theship, because it is underexposed. The opposite effectoccurs when you take a meter reading from the shadowarea. In this case, the shadow tones are raised to middlegray and have detail, but the highlights are overexposedand completely “washed out.”

If, however, there was an area in this scene whosetone was midway between the highlight and shadowareas, you could use it to take your light meter reading(like the gray card was used in the previous example).In this example, assume there is no tone midwaybetween the two extremes. You can still get an accuratelight meter reading of the entire ship. Since the highlightand shadow areas are of equal size, the average lightmeter reading you get will represent a tone that ismidway between the two extremes.

REFLECTED LIGHT METER READINGVARIATIONS

There are variations of light meter readings used toprovide accurate light meter readings of different typesof scenes. These methods are as follows: the integrated,or average, method, the brightness range method, thedarkest object method, the brightest object method, thesubstitution method, and the bracketing method.

Integrated, or Average, Method

The technique of making reflected-light meterreadings from the camera position is called theintegrated, or average, method. This method was usedand explained in the examples above. This method isaccurate for the majority of photographs taken.

The integrated, or average, method of measuringreflected light is acceptable for scenes that consist ofapproximately equal portions of light and dark areas;however, when a scene is composed of eitherpredominately light or dark areas, the meter reading maynot be accurate.

The reason for these inaccurate meter readings canbe more easily understood by using an example ofphotographing a checkerboard with alternatingblack-and-white squares. When the meter is held at adistance to include the entire board, the reflected lightfrom both the black and the white squares influence themeter, so an average reading results. The light measuredfrom this position is the integrated sum of both the whiteand the black squares, as though the checkerboard wereone gray tone. The light meter reading from this pointshould produce an acceptable image.

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If you hold the meter so close to one of the whitesquares that the black squares have no effect on themeter reading, the reading is higher than the integratedreading and the meter indicates that the scene requiresless exposure. The same principle applies when areading is taken close to a black square. The readingindicates that the scene requires more exposure. Each ofthe meter readings is a measurement of 18-percent gray.You can apply this checkerboard example when youphotograph scenes that are predominately light or darkCompensation is required to expose such scenescorrectly.

As a general guide, you should double the indicatedexposure when the light measurement is taken from apredominately light scene and detail is desired in theshadows. When you take a light meter reading from apredominately dark scene and detail is desired in thehighlight areas, you should reduce the exposure by onehalf.

Brightness Range Method

This method requires you to take two readings fromthe scene: one from the highlight area where detail isdesired and another from the shadow area where detailis desired. You then base your exposure on a pointmidway between the two readings.

The brightness range method of determiningexposures for most scenes usually provides detail inboth the highlight and the shadow areas. An exceptionto this is when the exposure latitude of a film is notcapable of recording the brightness range of the scene.This can occur with scenes that have extremely greatbrightness ranges. A scene brightness range is thedifference between the brightest and the darkest areasof a scene and is usually expressed as a ratio. Theaverage brightness range of a normal scene is 160:1.Films used for pictorial work are capable of reproducingthis brightness range. When the scene exceeds abrightness range of 160:1, you must compromise theexposure. This compromise can be as follows:

Underexpose and sacrifice shadow detail toretain highlight detail.

Overexpose and sacrifice highlight detail toretain shadow detail.

Do not compensate and expose for the midtonesand sacrifice both highlight detail and shadowdetail.

Darkest Object Method

The darkest object method of determiningexposures is actually a variation of the brightness rangemethod. When you desire detail in the shadow area ordarkest object within the scene, you take the light meterreading from this area. This method actuallyoverexposes the film overall, causing the highlight areasof the scene to be greatly overexposed. Thisoverexposure occurs because the light meter averagesthe light reflected from the shadow area and indicatesan exposure to produce middle gray. When a greatamount of detail is not needed in the shadow area andyou want to expose the overall scene normally, you cantake your light meter reading from the darkest object orshadow area and stop down two f/stops. This methodprovides a good overall film exposure of the shadows,midtones, and highlights.

Brightest Object Method

Another variation of the brightness range method isthe brightest object method. The brightest object methodof calculating exposures is used when a highlight areawithin a scene is the only area within the scene fromwhich you can take a light meter reading. This methodcan also be used when you want to record detail in thehighlight area In both situations, you take only one lightmeter reading of an important highlight area. When youdo not want the highlight to record as a middle-gray toneand desire a good overall exposure of the scene, yousimply open up two or three f/stops from the indicatedexposure. When you need maximum detail in thehighlight area, you can use the reading that the lightmeter provides. This records the highlight area asmedium gray. This method underexposes the film inother areas of the scene that reflect less light.

Substitution Method

With the substitution method, you replace an objectwithin the scene with an object, such as a gray card. Youthen take a reflected-light meter reading from thisobject. You use this method when the other methods ofdetermining exposure are not possible. Such situationsmay be caused by excessive distance between the lightmeter and the scene, barriers in front of the scene, or thesize of the scene makes it impossible to get an accuratelight meter reading. The substitution method is oftenused in studio situations where objects may be too smallto obtain an accurate light meter reading.

You should select substitution objects that match thelight reflectance quality of the object in the scene; for

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example, a white card can be used to substitute highlightareas of a distant scene. A dark or a black card can beused to substitute a shadow area, an 18-percent gray cardcan be used to represent middle gray, or the back or palmof your hand can be used to substitute a gray tone.

When the substitution method is used, take the lightmeter reading from the substituted item under similarlighting conditions that exist in the scene. When thescene is in bright sunlight, the substituted object mustalso be in bright sunlight. Likewise, a scene in shaderequires a substitute light meter reading in shade.

You can use each of the methods discussedpreviously with the substitution method. An 18-percentgray card can be used for the integrated or averagingmethods, a dark and a light card can be used for the scenebrightness range method, a dark card for the darkestobject method, and a light card for the brightest objectmethod.

Bracketing Method

There are times when unusual lighting or subjectbrightness prevents you from getting an accurate lightmeter reading. In these cases, a good insurance policyis to bracket your exposure. To bracket, you should takeone picture at the exposure indicated by the light meter,and then take two more exposures: one at one f/stopunder the indicated exposure and another at one f/stopover the indicated exposure.

When you are in doubt about the correct exposurefor a negative type of film, it is always better tooverexpose than underexpose. Even though over-exposure produces excess densities in the negative, itstill provides a useable image that can normally becorrected in the printing stage. When underexposed, ifthe image does not exist on the film, no correctiveprinting techniques can provide image detail.

When shooting reversal film (slides), you shouldbracket in 1/2 f/stop intervals. Because the exposurelatitude of slide film is limited to ± 1/2 f/stop, you shouldbracket in 1/2 f/stop increments, both under and over theindicated light meter exposure reading. Color slides thatare 1/2 f/stop underexposed have more color saturationand are more usable than ones that are 1/2 f/stopoverexposed and appear “washed out” and light.

TAKING LIGHT METER READINGS

When taking light meter readings, you must be surethe reflected light that influences your light meter isactually from the object you want to photograph. Stray

light, backlighting, large dark areas, and shadows canall cause erroneous light meter readings. When using alight meter, be sure that shadows are not cast from thelight meter, camera, or yourself. When a hand-held lightmeter is used, the distance of the light meter to thesubject should not exceed the shortest dimension of theobject; for example, when taking a light meter readingof a person’s face that is approximately 9x6 inches, youshould hold your light meter about 6 inches from theface of your subject when taking the meter reading.When using a light meter that is built into a camera, besure to focus on the image before taking a light meterreading.

CAUSES OF FALSE LIGHT METERREADINGS

There are a number of reasons why light meters giveerroneous or bad readings that produce underexposedimages. You can prevent these bad readings by beingaware of the conditions that cause them.

Light Entering the Viewfinder

Light entering the viewfinder and falling on theviewing screen can cause underexposure. Most TTLmeters read the light falling on the viewing screen fromthe lens. When strong lighting is coming from behindthe camera, it can influence the light meter. When anoccasional underexposed frame in an otherwisesuccessful series occurs, the cause may be light enteringthe SLR viewfinder. Make a point of shielding the view-finder if you do not have a rubber eyecup. When you usea tripod, have the camera set on automatic and cap theviewfinder to prevent exposure errors.

Incorrect Film Speed Setting

When the majority of frames on a length of film areconsistently underexposed or overexposed, the mostlikely cause is you have the wrong ISO set on the filmspeed dial. For black-and-white film and color reversalfilm, it may be possible to compensate for this indeveloping if detected before the film is processed.

Bright Subject

A bright object or highlight area can affect thesensing area of a spot or center-weighted TTL meter.This results in an underexposed image. To prevent thisfrom occurring, you should ensure the sensor is pointeddirectly at a midtone within the scene, and use this asthe camera exposure. When you frame and compose

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237.192Figure 4-20.–4x5 Graphic View II camera.

your image, the light meter may indicate a differentsetting. Be sure to leave your camera set at the indicatedmidtone setting. Normally, light meters that takeintegrated or averaged readings of the field of viewcannot be fooled in this instance. But remember, evenintegrated systems cannot cope with extremely brightareas that take up a significant portion of the frame.

Bright Background, Dark Subject

When you are taking photographs that areback-lighted or against a light background, there isalways the danger of underexposing the main subject(unless you use special techniques to fill in shadows,such as using a reflector or a flash unit). Be careful totake a reading from only the shadow side of the subjectin these situations.

Too Little Light

The most frequent cause of underexposure is tryingto take pictures when there is not enough light. Lightmeter readings are not very accurate at these low-lightlevels. When you want to make photographs under theseconditions, be sure to use a tripod and bracket to providemore exposure than indicated by the light meter. Youalso can switch to a higher IS0 film. Some of the high-speed films marketed today can provide remarkableresults.

There are several other causes that may cause yourimages to be exposed incorrectly. Some of the mostcommon causes are listed as follows:

Wrong camera settings are set when transferringinformation from a hand-held light meter to the

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camera. This can also occur when you attempt tooverride an automatic camera.

Using a camera with TTL metering and placinga color filter with a high-filter factor over the lens.

Wrong aperture setting when flash is used.

Shutter speed is not synchronized with cameraflash.

Aperture or shutter speed setting is knockedwhile carrying the camera. Always check thecamera setting before taking a photograph.

Weak or incorrect battery in the light meter.

VIEW CAMERA

The view camera (fig. 4-20) is a flexible and usefulcamera that, due to laziness, is frequently overlooked byNavy imaging personnel. Through the use of rising orfalling fronts, swings, tilts, and shifts, you havecomplete control over the composition of the subject.View cameras are excellent for photographingconstruction, large groups of people, landscapes, smallparts, damaged material, buildings, and many othersubjects, because distortion can be controlled orcorrected The camera has bellows that may be extendedto make it suitable for copy work and photographingsmall objects. Most view cameras used in the Navy use4x5 sheet film. View cameras are not suitable for sportsor uncontrolled action situations where a hand-heldcamera is needed.

View cameras do not have viewfinders or rangefinders. Viewing and focusing is done on ground glass.The ground glass is located exactly the same distancefrom the lens as the film; therefore, the image viewedon the ground glass is the same that is recorded on thefilm. View cameras have interchangeable lenses andbetween-the-lens leaf shutters.

BASIC CONTROLS AND FUNCTIONS

All view cameras are basically the same. Generally,all view cameras have the following standard parts:

Monorail or bed. Serves as the base or support tohold all the other components.

Front lens standard. Permits the lens to be lockedinto any position on the monorail. The front lensstandard also permits the lens to swing, slide, tilt, rise,and fall.

Rear standard. The rear standard holds the filmholder and has swing, tilt, and slide controls.

Figure 4-21–Swing movement of front and rear standards.

Figure 4-22.–Correction for horizontal distortion.

Bellows. Connects the front and rear standardsand allows the two standards to move for focusing or toaccommodate various focal-length lenses.

Tripod head. Holds the monorail to the tripod.

L e n s .

Ground glass. Used for focusing, viewing, andcomposing the image.

There are four basic movements or adjustmentsused on a view camera. These basic movements performspecific functions. The four basic movements are asfollows:

1. Horizontal or lateral swing. Both the front andrear standards swing horizontally (fig. 4-21).

The swing back is used to correct distortion, orperspective, in the horizontal plane. When you arephotographing subjects from an angle, horizontal linesappear to converge at the distant side. To correct thisdistortion, swing the camera back so it is more parallelto the horizontal plane of the subject (fig. 4-22).

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Figure 4-23.–Front and rear vertical tilt movement.

The front standard swing allows the lens to pivothorizontally around its optical axis. The swing front isused to increase the depth of field. When the swing backis swung, the film is not parallel with the imageproduced by the lens. By swinging the lens, you canbring the image onto the same plane as the film.

2. Vertical tilt. Both the front and rear standardstilt vertically (fig. 4-23).

The tilt back is used to correct distortion, orperspective, in the vertical plane. When you angle thecamera up to photograph a subject, such as a building,the vertical lines on the ground glass appear to converge.When this distortion is not corrected, the subject appearssmaller at the top and the vertical planes bend towardthe center of the image (fig. 4-24, view A). To correctthis distortion, tilt the tilt back so it is parallel to thevertical plane of the subject (fig. 4-24, view B).

The tilt front is used to focus and increase the depthof field. When the tilt back is tilted to correct for verticaldistortion, the film plane is no longer parallel to theimage produced by the lens. By tilting the front standard,you can bring the image of the lens onto the same planeas the film.

PHAN M. Lakner302.138

Figure 4-24.–Uncorrected and corrected vertical distortion.

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Figure 4-25.–Sliding front and rear of view camera.

Figure 4-26.–Using sliding controls to center image.

Figure 4-27.–Using rising and falling front-to-center imagevertically.

3. Slide or shift. Both the front and rear standardshift or slide from side to side (fig. 4-25).

The sliding front or sliding rear is used to center theimage on the ground glass horizontally (fig. 4-26). Thesliding front or sliding rear is used when the image isnot centered after the camera is set on a tripod. Thesecontrols are used instead of moving the tripod. When thetripod is moved, the horizontal corrections are alteredand must be reevaluated.

4. Rising and falling front. The rising and fallingfront is used to center the image vertically on the groundglass (fig. 4-27). This control raises and lowers the lensboard. This prevents you from tilting the entire cameraand nullifying the distortion corrections made on thevertical plane.

VIEW CAMERA OPERATION

The view camera is easy to use, but this requiressome thought and patience to use it properly. The more

the camera is used, the more comfortable you will bewith it. The following progressive steps are used whenusing the view camera:

1. Set up and level your tripod.

2. Set the camera controls to the neutral position.The neutral position is the starting point for photographstaken with a view camera. In the neutral position, allcontrols are lined up and no corrective movements areset. Adjust the front and the rear standards so they canbe moved to focus the image.

3. Open the shutter and set the diaphragm atmaximum aperture.

4. Roughly compose the image on the groundglass.

5. Focus the image.

6. Check the image size and subject coverage.When required, change lens focal length,camera-to-subject distance, or both. Small image sizeadjustments may be made by sliding the monorailforward or backward.

7. Correct distortion by using the swing and tiltcontrols. The image must be refocused after each controlis moved.

8. Recenter the image horizontally by using thesliding front or the sliding rear. The image is recenteredvertically by using the rising and falling front.

9. Refocus the image. To obtain greater depth offield, swing or tilt the lens board so it is parallel with thefilm plane.

10. Refocus.

11. Determine your exposure. When necessary, besure to take the bellows extension into account.

12. Stop down the diaphragm and check the depthof field.

13. Check the circle of illumination. You will loosethe circle of illumination when extreme camera

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Figure 4-28.–How the loss of the circle of illumination appears on the ground glass.

movements are made. This is caused when the lens fieldof coverage is shifted from the film plane (fig. 4-28).

14. Be sure all camera adjustments are lockeddown and insert the film holder. Be sure the lens isclosed before removing the dark slide.

15. Make your exposure.

You cannot always correct 100 percent of thedistortion. Horizontal or vertical distortion can only becorrected on one plane; for example, when you take athree-quarter photograph of a building, only the front orside can be corrected at a time, not both in the samepicture.

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ELECTRONIC CAMERAS

Still-electronic cameras are becoming popular in allbranches of the Department of Defense. The operationof still-electronic cameras is basically the same asconventional cameras. The only difference betweenthese cameras is the way the images are recorded andstored. There are two different types of electroniccameras used currently in the Navy: the still-videocamera and the digital camera.

The Sony ProMavica MVC-5000 (Magnetic VideoCamera) is an example of a still-video camera.The ProMavica records images as magneticimpulses on a compact 2-inch still-video floppy disk.The images are captured on the disk by using two-CCD(charge-coupled device) chips. One chip storesluminance information, and the other separately records

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Figure 4-30.–Comparing the angle of view of a 35mm cameraand the Kodak DCS Digital camera.

the chrominance information. This camera provides a720,000 pixel image.

The images can be stored on the floppy disk eitheras a FRAME or a FIELD. When frame is selected, eachpicture is recorded on two tracks and up to 25 imagescan be recorded on each disk. When field is selected,each picture is recorded on only one track, allowing upto 50 images to be recorded. When you record yourpictures in the field mode, images are less detailed ascompared to images recorded on two tracks (frame).

Overtaking the still-video camera is the digitalcamera. The Eastman Kodak Company is leading theway in digital-imaging technology by introducing theDigital Camera System (DCS). Resolution with theKodak DCS 200 Digital camera is 1.54 million pixels,

PHAN(AC) April Hatton302.271

Figure 4-31.–Image captured and transmitted using theKodak DCS Digital camera.

providing four times the resolution of a still-videocamera. Kodak’s fully digital systems use a Nikon bodyand optics to capture the image. The image is thentransferred to a highly sensitive CCD that converts theimage directly into digital information. The CCD in theKodak DCS camera system only uses a small portion ofthe angle of view compared to conventional cameras;for example, a 28mm lens on the Kodak DCS DigitalCamera is equivalent to an 80mm lens on a 35mmcamera (fig. 4-30).

The exposure index (EI) of the DCS camera equatesto 50 to 400 IS0 for color images and 100 to 800 IS0for black-and-white images. The digital images storedon the DCS camera can easily be downloaded to acomputer, so it can be manipulated and printed or canbe transmitted around the world without loss in quality.The image in figure 4-31 was transmitted directly fromthe USS Ranger CV-61 via satellite to the Navy NewsPhoto Division in the Pentagon.

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CHAPTER 5

BASIC PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES

Today, photography is characterized by a rapidgrowth in the development of technology and ideas.Each year, millions of pictures are taken and anastonishing array of new films, cameras and imagingsystems enter the market.

One of the great attractions of the photographyfield is the ease with which basic skills can be learned.Unlike some of the older arts that take years oftraining to produce an acceptable product, anyone canquickly learn how to take a picture; however,photographic techniques must be mastered before youcan become an accomplished photographer;therefore, mastery of the basic fundamentals is thefoundation upon which you will build yourphotographic and professional skills as a NavyPhotographer’s Mate. The photographic techniquespresented in this chapter are essential in producingquality photographs, and you can apply each of thesefundamentals, to some extent, each time you take apicture.

KEEPING THE CAMERA STEADY

Many photographs have been ruined because ofcamera movement. Unless you want a blurredpicture, keeping your camera steady when shootingis crucial. The longer the exposure or focal-lengthlens you use, the more crucial holding your camerasteady becomes; therefore, there are many instanceswhen the use of a tripod or some other type of camerasupport is necessary.

The following section provides general guidelinesfor the various methods used to support a camera toensure quality results. These are not necessarily theonly or even the best ways to support a camera. Youshould practice supporting your camera using variousmethods; then select those that are most appropriatefor the situation and the subject being photographed.Practice should include all the camera functions younormally use on actual photographic assignments.Concentrate on composing through the viewfinder,focusing, selecting shutter speeds and f/stops, holding

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the flash off the camera, depressing the shutter release,and winding the film.

HANDHOLDING THE CAMERA

Of the various methods to keep your camerasteady, the best is to use a tripod, but often you maynot have one with you or the situation makes the useof a tripod impossible. In these situations, if you useproper precautions, it is possible to take high-qualitypictures using hand-held methods.

Under normal circumstances, you should nothandhold your camera at shutter speeds longer thanabout 1/60 second. When a long lens is used, thisbecomes even more critical, because the imagesproduced by long lenses are affected more by cameramovement. Also, it is more difficult to control theweight and greater size of a long lens when it ishand-held. As a general rule, the slowestrecommended shutter speed is the reciprocal of thefocal length of the lens; for example, when you areusing a 500mm lens, the slowest shutter speed youshould use is 1/500 second. When handholding yourcamera, be sure to have a good, solid, but not tensegrip on the camera. Use your whole body as a firmsupport. Your elbows should be close to your body andyour feet spread apart to provide good balance. In thisposition your body is acting as a tripod. Whenpossible, you should try steadying yourself by leaningagainst something solid like a wall, tree, or post.

When using an eye-level camera, press the cameraagainst your forehead and face. A waist-level camerashould be pulled solidly against your body. Just beforereleasing the shutter, take a deep breath, let out partof the air-hold the rest, and squeeze the shutter releaseas if firing a gun.

When nothing is available to support your cameraother than yourself, try sitting down, squatting, orkneeling, and firmly rest your elbows on one or bothknees. When you are taking low-angle photographs,lying on the ground with the camera in front of you isanother simple way to keep the camera reasonably

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Figure 5-1.–Handholding the camera.

steady. Even better results are obtained when you place the camera steady upside down against a roof or otherthe camera on a solid surface, such as a railing or a rock object within easy reach above your head, such as under(fig.5-1). a low archway or firm tree branch.

When taking high-angle photographs with atwin-lens reflex or waist-level camera, you could hold

Portable and compact supports, such as pistol orrifle grips, are available for hand-held cameras. These

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are particularly useful when covering fast events, whenusing long-focal-length lenses, or when a tripod is toocumbersome to use. These hand-held supports areusually fitted with a cable release for firing the shutter.

Camera shake can cause fuzzy photographs. Somecameras have built-in capabilities that help reducecamera vibration or shake; for instance, on a single-lensreflex (SLR) camera, the mirror “jumps” up when theshutter is fired-that causes vibration. On some SLRsyou can lock the mirror up before taking the picture toavoid this; however, the disadvantage of locking themirror is that you are unable to see through theviewfinder. Also, the pressure of your finger on theshutter release can cause some camera shake. ‘This doesnot happen on cameras with a delayed shutter releasebecause the camera compensates by automaticallydelaying the shutter release. Additionally, cable releasecan be used to fire the shutter without handling thecamera

CAMERA SUPPORTS

To ensure absolutely sharp photographs, you mustuse some type of camera support. Few photographerscan hold a camera absolutely steady, especially forexposures longer than about 1/60 second or even shorterexposures when using long-focal-length lenses. Whenusing telephoto lenses or shooting motion media, youmust remember that camera movement can becomecritical. Even the slightest camera movement ismagnified and becomes very apparent in enlargementsof still photographs or when motion-media footage isviewed.

The ideal camera support should be strong, firm,and allow as much adjustment of camera height andangle as possible. The design of a support to be carriedoutside the lab should be compact and lightweight, whilestill providing a firm, rigid camera support.

Most pictures are taken holding the camera by handbecause camera supports are often bulky, heavy, andinconvenient to carry on many assignments; however,you should use a camera support when it is appropriateto do so. This allows you to produce the sharp picturesthat are characteristic of a truly professionalphotographer.

Tripods

The best way to support your camera is with asturdy, rigid, tripod. Tripods are three-legged camerasupports with flat platforms or heads in which camerasare secured. Most tripods are equipped with a head that

has an elevator center post. The camera is attached tothis center post and is raised or lowered easily bycranking the post up or down. These elevators eliminatethe need for readjusting all three tripod legs for makingsmall, last minute adjustments to the camera height.

Tripods come in a variety of designs, sizes, andweights (fig. 5-2). The heavier models are the sturdiestand provide the best support; however, if too heavy, theyare not very portable. As a general rule, the heavier yourcamera, the heavier and stronger your tripod must be.For some of the light, full-size tripods, rigidity can beimproved by hanging a bag of sand or another weightfrom the tripod head This is especially useful in highwinds. Another method is to hang a strap from the tripodhead, and use the strap as a foothold on which to applydownward pressure (fig. 5-3).

Tabletop tripods are also available and can be usedalmost anywhere a flat surface is available. These smalltabletop tripods can even be braced against thephotographer’s chest. Because of their small size, theycan easily be carried in a camera bag.

To set up a tripod, extend one leg straight aheadtoward the subject. This way the camera may be aimedby pivoting the tripod on this one leg. Extend the othertwo legs and adjust them to level the tripod platformhorizontally. When setting up a tripod on level ground,you can waste a lot of time trying to get the tripod levelif the leg sections are not fully extended. An easysolution to the problem is to mark the tripod legs inspecific increments with a marking pen, pencil, orscribe. One method is to mark short lines at l-inchintervals and long lines at 6-inch intervals. Doing thisreduces your frustration, saves time, and allows you tolevel your camera on the tripod with less effort. When atripod is set up on an uneven surface, severaladjustments of the side legs are normally necessary.Readjustment of the front leg levels the cameravertically so the platform or head is level. Most newertripods have platforms that can be adjusted byeliminating the need for minor leg adjustments.

To mount the camera on the tripod head, you secureit in place by tightening the tripod screw into the cameratripod socket. Secure the camera by tightening thecamera clamp screw locknut. After the camera ismounted on the tripod, test the camera to ensure allcamera controls are accessible and function properly.The camera should be stable and not shake when thecamera controls are operated.

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Courtesy of Bogan Photo Corp.302.292X

Figure 5-2.–Tripods.

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Figure 5-3.–Using a foot strap to make a tripod more rigid.

Monopods

A monopod is a single pole on which a camera ismounted. Monopods are useful for keeping the camerasteady for location work when a tripod is too bulky ordifficult to use; however, the use of a monopod is notadvisable when using large, heavy cameras or whenshutter speeds below about 1/15 second are used.Standing or kneeling with a monopod braced againstyour body or leg provides a camera the extra support andsteadiness required for it to be an effective tool (fig. 5-4).

Clamps

Another practical way to support your camera is touse one of the many clamps available for this purpose.A camera clamp has a mount that screws into the tripodhole or socket on the camera and has jaws that can beclamped to a convenient object. Camera support clampscan be attached to furniture, doors, posts, fences, andother firm anchor points. There are even clamps withsuction cups for mounting cameras on smooth, flatsurfaces, such as a window.

PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPOSITION

Photographic composition is the pleasingarrangement of subject matter elements within the

Figure 5-4.–Using a monopod.

picture area. Creative photography depends foremoston the photographer's ability to see as the camera seesbecause a photograph does not reproduce a scene quitethe way we see it. The camera sees and records only asmall isolated part of the larger scene, reduces it to onlytwo dimensions, frames it, and freezes it. It does notdiscriminate as we do. When we look at a scene weselectively see only the important elements and more orless ignore the rest. A camera, on the other hand, sees allthe details within the field of view. This is the reasonsome of our pictures are often disappointing.Backgrounds may be cluttered with objects we do notremember, our subjects are smaller in the frame or lessstriking than we recall, or the entire scene may lacksignificance and life.

Good pictures are seldom created by chance. Tomake the most of any subject, you must understand thebasic principles of composition. The way you arrangethe elements of a scene within a picture, catch theviewer’s attention, please the eye, or make a clearstatement are all qualities of good composition. Bydeveloping photographic composition skills, you canproduce photographs that suggest movement, life,depth, shape, and form, recreating the impact of theoriginal scene.

How are photographic composition skillsdeveloped? You look, you study, you practice. Everytime you take a picture, look all around within theviewfinder. Consider the way each element will berecorded and how it relates to the overall composition.

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You must become thoroughly familiar with the cameraand learn how the operation of each control alters theimage. Experiment with the camera and look at theresults carefully to see if they meet your expectations.With experience and knowledge of your equipment, youbegin to “think through your camera” so you are free toconcentrate on composition. Devote serious study to theprinciples of good composition. Study books andmagazine articles on composition. You should analyzevarious media: motion pictures, TV, magazines, booksand newspapers, and evaluate what you see. What isgood about this picture or that TV image? What is badabout it? What principles of good composition couldyou apply in a different way to make the picture better.

Good or correct composition is impossible to defineprecisely. There are no hard-and-fast rules to follow thatensure good composition in every photograph. There areonly the principles and elements that provide a meansof achieving pleasing composition when appliedproperly. Some of these principles and elements are asfollows:

Center of interest

Subject placement

Simplicity

Viewpoint and camera angle

Balance

Shapes and lines

Pattern

Volume

Lighting

Texture

Tone

Contrast

Framing

Foreground

Background

Perspective

As you study these principles of composition, youshould soon come to a realization that some are verysimilar and overlap one another a great deal.

Because all or most of these principles must beconsidered and applied each time you take a picture, it

may all seem quite confusing at first. With experienceyou can develop a sense of composition, and yourconsideration and application of the principles willbecome almost second nature. This is not to suggest thatyou can allow yourself to become complacent orcareless in the application of the principles ofcomposition. Doing so will be immediately obviousbecause the results you produce will be snapshots, notprofessional photographs.

The principles of composition that follow applyequally to both still and motion media photography.

CENTER OF INTEREST

Each picture should have only one principal idea,topic, or center of interest to which the viewer's eyes areattracted. Subordinate elements within the picture mustsupport and focus attention on the principal feature so italone is emphasized.

A picture without a dominant center of interest orone with more than one dominant center of interest ispuzzling to a viewer. Subsequently, the viewer becomesconfused and wonders what the picture is all about.When the picture has one, and only one, dominant “pointof interest,” the viewer quickly understands the picture.

NOTE: “Point of interest,” as used here, has thesame meaning as center of interest; however, using theterm point of interest prevents giving the impression thatthe center of interest should be located in the center ofthe picture.

The specific topic, idea, or object to be portrayedmust be set in your mind as you prepare to take a picture.When there is nothing in the picture to attract attentionto a particular area or object, the eyes wander throughoutthe scene. The center of interest may be a single objector numerous ones arranged so attention is directed toone definite area

When the center of interest is a single object thatfills most of the picture area or one that stands out boldly,such as a white sail against a background of dark water,attention is attracted immediately to it. As may beexpected, not all subjects are as simple to arrange or asbold and impressive.

A photographer usually has at his or her disposalmany factors or elements that can be used and arrangedwithin the picture area to draw or direct attention to theprimary idea of the picture. Some of these elements arelines, shapes, human figures, tone, and texture.

Human figures attract attention more strongly thanalmost any other subject matter and unless they are the

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Figure 5-5.–Principle of thirds.

Figure 5-6.–Dynamic symmetry.

main object of the photograph should probably be keptout of the picture; for instance, a photograph showing aperson standing at some distance in front of a buildingmay leave the observer wondering whether the personor the building is the primary subject. When people areincluded in a scene for comparative size of objects orjust for atmosphere, keep them from looking directly atthe camera. When people look at the camera andtherefore at the viewer of the picture, the viewer tendsto return their gaze by looking directly back into theireyes. When they are not the intended point of interest,we miss the statement and purpose of the picture. Whenpeople are subordinate elements within the picture andthey are looking in a direction other than at the camera,the viewer’s attention is directed from the people to whatthey are looking at, which should be the center ofinterest; for example, when people are grouped arounda piece of machinery that is the center of interest of thepicture, have them look at the machine, rather than thecamera.

SUBJECT PLACEMENT

Sometimes good composition is obtained by placingthe center of interest in the geometrical center of thepicture; it is generally not a good idea to place it there.Too frequently it divides the picture into equal halvesand makes the picture uninteresting and difficult tobalance. By dividing the picture area into thirds, bothvertically and horizontally, and locating the center ofinterest at one of the intersections of the imaginary lines,you can usually create a feeling of balance to thecomposition (fig. 5-5).

In photographic composition there are two generalguides for determining the best location for the centerof interest. The first is the principle of thirds. The otheris dynamic symmetry. In the principle of thirds, theintersection of lines that divide the picture area into

thirds are marked by O’s. These intersections are goodlocations for the center of interest in most photographs.Notice we said THE center of interest. Remember, haveonly one center of interest to a picture-keep it simple.The principle of dynamic symmetry is a similar idea. Agood location for the center of interest is found bydrawing or imagining a diagonal line from one cornerto an opposite corner. Then, draw a second lineperpendicular to the first from a third corner (fig. 5-6).The intersections of the lines are the location for thecenter of interest.

SIMPLICITY

Simplicity is the key to most good pictures. Thesimpler and more direct a picture is, the clearer andstronger is the resulting statement. There are severalthings to be considered when we discuss simplicity.First, select a subject that lends itself to a simplearrangement; for example, instead of photographing anentire area that would confuse the viewer, frame in onsome important element within the area. Second, selectdifferent viewpoints or camera angles. Move around thescene or object being photographed. View the scenethrough the camera viewfinder. Look at the foregroundand background. Try high and low angles as well asnormal eye-level viewpoints. Evaluate each view andangle. Only after considering all possibilities should youtake the picture. See beyond and in front of your subject.Be sure there is nothing in the background to distract theviewer's attention from the main point of the picture.Likewise, check to see there is nothing objectional in theforeground to block the entrance of the human eye intothe picture.

A last point of simplicity-tell only one story. Ensurethere is only enough material in the picture to convey

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one single idea. Although each picture is composed ofnumerous small parts and contributing elements, noneshould attract more of the viewer's attention than theprimary object of the picture. The primary object is thereason the picture is being made in the first place;therefore, all other elements should merely support andemphasize the main object. Do not allow the scene to becluttered with confusing elements and lines that detractfrom the primary point of the picture. Select a viewpointthat eliminates distractions so the principal subject isreadily recognized. When numerous lines or shapes arecompeting for interest with the subject, it is difficult torecognize the primary object or determine why thepicture was made.

VIEWPOINT AND CAMERA ANGLE

The proper viewpoint or camera angle is animportant factor in good composition. Repositioningyour subject within the viewfinder frame and changingthe camera viewpoint or camera angle are two simpleways of controlling composition.

Photographing from a different viewpoint orcamera angle can often add drama and excitement oreven bring out an unusual aspect of a subject. Most ofthe subjects you photograph are three-dimensional andshould be photographed from an angle (to the right orleft of and/or from higher or lower than the subject) thatallows the viewer to see more than one side of thesubject. The photographer should study the subject fromdifferent sides and angles. Walk around the subject andlook at it from all viewpoints. See it from elevated andlow positions as well as from eye level to find the bestcomposition. This greatly assists in composing thesubject for the best balance and helps to select abackground that compliments, not distracts from thesubject.

The terms viewpoint and camera angle are oftenused in conjunction with one another and sometimesused interchangeably. They can also have differentmeanings depending on how they are applied.Viewpoint” is the camera position in relationship to thesubject. "Camera angle" is the angle in which the cameralens is tilted; for example, a picture of sailors marching,made from ground level with the camera held horizontalwith reference to the ground, may be referred to as a“low viewpoint” (or camera position); however, whenthis picture is made, again from ground level, but withthe camera pointed up, it may be referred to as a "lowcamera angle." Likewise, a picture made from anelevated or high position, with the camera again heldhorizontal with reference to the ground, or even pointed

straight down, can be referred to as a “high viewpoint”;however, if the camera is not held horizontal to theground or pointed straight down, but pointed at someangle between horizontal and vertical, the cameraposition could be referred to as a “high camera angle.”

Eye-Level Shots

With the camera held horizontal, eye-level shots areusualIy made at a height of about 5 1/2 feet, the heightfrom which the average adult sees, and with the camerahorizontal. With the camera held at eye level but pointedup or down, the camera position changes and you haveeither a low or high camera angle, respectively.

Low Viewpoint and Low Camera Angle

Low viewpoints and low camera angles can addemphasis and interest to many ordinary photographs. Alow viewpoint can be used to distort scale or add strengthto a picture or to emphasize certain elements within thepicture. A low camera angle is achieved when thecamera angle is located below the point of primaryinterest and pointed upward. Low angles tend to lendstrength and dominance to a subject and dramatize thesubject. Low angle shots are used when dramatic impactis desired. This type of shot is very useful for separatingthe subject from the background, for eliminatingunwanted foreground and background, and for creatingthe illusion of greater size and speed (fig. 5-7).

High Viewpoint and High Camera Angle

High viewpoints and high camera angles help orientthe viewer, because they show relationships among allelements within the picture area and produce apsychological effect by minimizing the apparentstrength or size of the subject (fig. 5-8).

BALANCE

Balance in photographic composition is a matter ofmaking pictures look harmonious. Each element in apicture has a certain amount of value in respect to all theother elements. Every tone, mass, shape, tree, rockfigure, building, line, or shadow contributes a certainamount of weight that must be arranged correctly in thecomposition to give the impression of balance. Thesubject placement within the picture area is the factorthat must be carefully considered.

Composition is kept in balance by two differentmethods: symmetrical, or formal, balance andasymmetrical, or informal, balance.

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302.293Figure 5-7.–Low viewpoint and low camera angle.

Symmetrical, or Formal, Balance

Symmetrical, or formal, balance in a photograph isachieved when elements on both sides of the picture areof equal weight (fig. 5-9A). The idea of formal balancecan be related to a seesaw, When there are two equally

weighted objects on the seesaw and they are equidistantfrom the pivot point, or fulcrum, the board will be inbalance.

Pictures with formal balance may look static andunexciting; however, they do present an air of dignity.

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Figure 5-8.–High viewpoint and high camera angle.

Formal balance does not always mean a picture has to the seesaw in perspective. The forces or weights arebe symmetrical. Symmetrical pictures, in which both presumed to be approximately equal; but, the imaginarysides are exactly the same, are produced only when you pivot point is set deep into the picture space. With thiswant a special effect; therefore, they are not often variation to symmetrical balance, a more interestingproduced. A variation of symmetrical balance deals with photograph is usually created (fig. 5-9B).

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237.214Figure 5-9A.–Symmetrical, or formal, balance.

302.41Figure 5-9B.–Symmetrical, or formal, balance.

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PHC Chet King302.42

Figure 5-10.–Asymmetrical, or Informal, balance.

Asymmetrical, or Informal, Balance

Asymmetrical, or informal, balance is usually muchmore interesting than symmetrical balance. Inasymmetrical balance the imaginary central pivot pointis still presumed to be present; however, instead ofmirror images on each side of the picture area, thesubject elements are notably different in size, shape,weight, tone, and placement. Balance is established byequalizing the element forces in spite of theirdifferences.

Asymmetrical balance is introduced when thepresumed weight of two or more lighter objects isequalized by a single heavier object placed on the otherside of the imaginary pivot point (fig. 5-10).Asymmetrical balance is more difficult to achieve thansymmetrical balance, because of the problem ofestablishing relative weight values for dissimilarelements within the picture area as well as presentingsome form of stability.

Aspects of Balance

There are many other factors to consider in order tomake pictures appear balanced. Some of these are asfollows:

An object far from the center of the picture seemsto have more weight than one near the center.

Objects in the upperpart of a picture seem heavierthan objects of the same size in the lower part of apicture.

Isolation seems to increase the weight of anobject.

Intensely interesting objects seem to have morecompositional weight.

Regular shapes seem to have more weight thanirregular shapes.

Elements on the right side of an asymmetricalpicture appear to have more weight than elements of thesame size on the left side of the picture.

The directions in which figures, lines, and shapesappear to be moving within the picture area areimportant to balance; for example, a person may bewalking in a direction, or his eyes may be looking in adirection, or the shape of some element creates a feelingof movement. When the feeling of direction is presentwithin a scene, it tends to upset the balance if judged onthe size of the subject alone.

Understanding the factors required to createpictorial balance is essential for you to produce goodpictures. To gain this understanding, you can continuallytest your feelings for balance as you look through yourcamera viewfinder. Once you gain an understanding ofthe principles of pictorial balance, achieving balance inyour photographs becomes an easy process.

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302.295Figure 5-11.–Silhouettes emphasize shape.

SHAPES AND LINES

Shapes and lines are important elements inphotographic composition. When properly used, shapesand lines can create a desired effect. As a photographer,you usually have control over the way shapes and linesare used in your pictures.

Shape

Shape is a two-dimensional element basic to picturecomposition and is usually the first means by which aviewer identifies an object within the picture. Form is

the three-dimensional equivalent of shape. Even thoughshape is only two-dimensional, with the properapplication of lighting and tonal range, you can bringout form and give your subjects a three-dimensionalquality. Lighting can also subdue or even destroy formby causing dark shadows that may cause several shapesto merge into one.

Shapes can be made more dominant by placing themagainst plain contrasting backgrounds; for example,consider again the white sail against the dark waterbackground. The greatest emphasis of shape is achievedwhen the shape is silhouetted (fig. 5-11), thus

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Figure 5-12.–Leading lines.

eliminating other qualities of the shape, such as textureand roundness, or the illusion of the third dimension.

Lines

Lines can be effective elements of composition,because they give structure to your photographs. Linescan unify composition by directing the viewer's eyesand attention to the main point of the picture or lead theeyes from one part of the picture to another. They can

lead the eyes to infinity, divide the picture, and createpatterns. Through linear perspective, lines can lend asense of depth to a photograph. (Linear perspectivecauses receding parallel lines to appear to converge inthe picture. This allows you to create an illusion of depthin your pictures.)

The viewer's eyes tend to follow lines into thepicture (or out of the picture) regardless of whether theyare simple linear elements such as fences, roads, and a

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Figure 5-13.–Diagonal lines convey a feeling of dynamic action.

row of phone poles, or more complex line elements,such as curves, shapes, tones, and colors. Lines that leadthe eye or direct attention are referred to as leading lines.A good leading line is one that starts near the bottomcorner of the scene and continues unbroken until itreaches the point of interest (fig. 5-12). It should end atthis point; otherwise, attention is carried beyond theprimary subject of the photograph. The apparentdirection of lines can often be changed by simplychanging viewpoint or camera angle.

Vertical, diagonal, horizontal, and curved linescreate different moods. Vertical lines communicate a

sense of strength, rigidity, power, and solidarity to theviewer. On the other hand, horizontal lines representpeace, tranquillity, and quietness. A generally acceptedpractice is to use a vertical format for pictures havingpredominantly vertical lines and horizontal format forpictures having predominantly horizontal lines. Again,this is a generally accepted practice, NOT a rule.

Diagonal lines represent movement, action, andspeed. A picture with diagonal lines conveys a feelingof dynamic action even when the subject is static(fig. 5-13). Curved lines present a sense of grace,

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Figure 5-14.–Use of curved lines in photographic composition.

smoothness, and dignity to a photograph (fig. 5-14). Themost common curved line is the S curve.

Lines are not only present in the shape of things butcan be created by arranging several elements within thepicture area so they form lines by their relationship withone another.

PATTERN

Creating your pictures around repeating elements orpatterns provides picture unity and structure. Patternrepetition creates rhythm that the eyes enjoy following(fig. 5-15). When lines, shapes, and colors within apicture occur in an orderly way (as in wallpaper), theycreate patterns that often enhance the attractiveness ofphotographs. Pattern, like texture, is found almosteverywhere. It can be used as the primary subject but ismost often used as a subordinate element to enhancecomposition. When pattern is used as a supporting

element, it must be used carefully so it does not confuseor overwhelm the viewer. Pictures that are purely patternare seldom used, because they tend to be monotonous.Patterns should be used to strengthen and add interest toyour subject.

Shape is the most common and powerful patternelement. Repeated lines, tone, and color can alsoprovide unity to your composition and combinations ofthese create interesting pictures. Triangles, squares, andcircles are the basic shapes to look for in a pattern.Triangles and squares are usually static but can be placedto create a tension-filled, dynamic effect. Circles andcurves are pleasing pattern shapes.

VOLUME

When photographing most subjects, you face theproblem of how to symbolize three-dimensional objectsin a two-dimensional picture. The solution becomes

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Figure 5-15.–Shapes used in composition.

simple when a distinction is made between the twodifferent ways three-dimensional objects appear: aspositive, or occupied space (volume) or as negative, orunoccupied space.

unit placed at the camera, you only symbolize empty ornegative space; however, a sense of depth is providedbecause of increasing darkness toward the back of theshop. Occupied or positive space (the machines) is

If you make a picture to show the entire machine front-lighted and appears shadowless and flat. On theshop aboard a repair ship using only one powerful flash other hand, if you use a series of lights along the sides

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of the machine shop to sidelight the machines, shadowsare cast at their sides and occupied or positive spaceappears three-dimensional; however, since all themachines, both near and far, are now lighted the same,you do not create a sense of depth, and empty or negativespace appears flat. For the best picture of the machineshop, you should light the machines in a way that thethree-dimensional form is represented, while creating asense of depth by reducing the intensity of illuminationtoward the back of the shop.

LIGHTING

Lighting is also an important creative element ofcomposition. By controlling the light and directing itwhere you want it, you can subdue objects or distractingelements in the scene to give more emphasis to the mainpoint of interest.

For good picture composition, you must develop anawareness of how changes in lighting can affect theappearance of things around you. Light and shadows canbe used in composition to create mood, to draw attentionto an area, to modify or distort shape, or to bring outform and texture in the subject.

Shadows are a key to apparent form inphotographs. Without shadows, the subject recordswithout form, curvature, or texture, appearing flat andlifeless. This does not mean that shadows must beharsh and black to achieve the effects of form,curvature, and texture. They may be soft, yet ofsufficient density to show the most delicate roundnessand form. Generally, harsh, black shadows areundesirable in a photograph due to the loss of detailin them. From a compositional standpoint, blackshadows can be very useful in balancing a scene anddirecting attention to the point of interest. Harshshadows can also be excellent for emphasizing textureand form, for creating interesting patterns, and fordirecting attention to the main point of interest;however, the same elements can also obscure detailand reduce form. When the lighting is harsh, such ason a clear, sunny day, shadows have sharply definededges and are probably very dark, sometimes to thepoint that they appear stronger than the primarysubject and attract attention to themselves.

TEXTURE

Texture helps to emphasize the features and detailsin a photograph. By capturing “texture” of objects beingphotographed, you can create form.

When people observe a soft, furry object or asmooth, shining surface, they have a strong urge totouch it. You can provide much of the pleasure peopleget from the feel of touching such objects by renderingtexture in your pictures. Texture can be used to giverealism and character to a picture and may in itself bethe subject of a photograph. When texture is used asa subordinate element within the picture, it lendsstrength to the main idea in the photograph. It usuallytakes just a little different lighting or a slight changein camera position to improve the rendering of texturein a picture. When an area in a photograph shows richtexture, the textured area usually creates a form orshape; therefore, it should be considered in planningthe photograph (fig. 5-16).

TONE

Tone is probably the most intangible element ofcomposition. Tone may consist of shadings fromwhite-to-gray-to-black, or it may consist of darksagainst lights with little or no grays. The use of darkareas against light areas is a common method of addingthe feeling of a third dimension to a two-dimensionalblack-and-white picture. The interaction of light againstdark shades in varying degrees helps to set the mood ofa composition. A picture consisting of dark or sombershades conveys mystery, intrigue, or sadness. When thetones are mostly light and airy, the picture portrayslightness, joy, or airiness.

CONTRAST

Contrast in photographic composition is aneffective means of directing the viewer's attention to thecenter of interest. Positioning of subject elements tocreate contrast gives them added emphasis and directsthe viewer's attention.

When we speak of contrast as it relates tocomposition, we are referring to both tonal contrast, asin black-and-white photography, and color contrast as itrelates to color photography. In black-and-whitephotography, contrast is the difference in subject tonesfrom white-to-gray-to-black or from the lightest tone tothe darkest tone. In color photography different colorscreate contrast.

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Figure 5-16.–Photograph emphasizing texture.

Tonal Contrast

In black-and-white photography, contrast isconsidered either high, normal, or low. A high-contrastscene or photograph consists primarily of white andblack with few or no middle gray tones. A black sailorin a white uniform against a light background is anexample of a high-contrast (contrasty) scene. Mostscenes you photograph have normal contrast. There willprobably be elements within the scene that are very lightor white, some that are very dark or black, and manytones or colors that reproduce as various tones of gray.A low-contrast (flat) scene has colors or tones in whichhighlights and shadows have very little difference indensities. In other words, all colors or tones within thescene are very similar in appearance. A white sailor in awhite uniform against a light background is an exampleof a scene with low contrast.

In black-and-white photography, high contrastconveys a sense of hardness and is characteristic of

strength and power. Low contrast conveys a sense ofsoftness and is characteristic of gentleness and mildness.

Color Contrast

Color contrast is an effective compositional elementin color photography, just as tone is in black-and-whitephotography. Colors with opposite characteristicscontrast strongly when placed together. Each coloraccentuates the qualities of the other and makes the colorimages stand out dramatically. Color contrast isenhanced when you create the contrast of detail againstmass. An example is a single, bright, red flower in aclear, glass vase photographed against a bright, greenbackground.

Cold colors (bluish) and warm colors (reddish)almost always contrast. Cold colors recede, while warmcolors advance. Light colors contrast against dark ones,and a bold color offsets a weak color.

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Figure 5-17.–Low-key scene.

PH2 Neil Crews302.301

LOW- AND HIGH-KEY SCENES.–When ascene contains mostly dark tones or colors, it is low key(fig. 5-17). When the scene contains mostly light tones,it is high key (5-18). Low-key and high-key picturesconvey mood and atmosphere. Low key often suggestsseriousness and mystery and is often used in horrorpictures, such as a dark-granite castle in a thunderstorm.High key creates a feeling of delicacy and lightness. Aphotograph of a fair-skinned, blond-haired motherdressed in a white gown against a light backgroundnursing her baby is a good subject for a high-key picture.

HIGH- AND LOW-KEY COLORS.–High-keycolor pictures contain large areas of light desaturatedcolors (pastels) with very few middle colors or shadows.Intentionally overexposing color film (exposing for theshadows) helps to create a high-key effect.

A low-key effect is created when the scene isdominated by shadows and weak lighting. Low-keypictures tend to have large areas of shadow, fewhighlights, and degraded colors. Naturally dark subjectsare best for low-key pictures. Low-key color picturescan be induced by exposing color film for the highlights.

FRAMING

Framing is another technique photographers use todirect the viewer's attention to the primary subject of apicture. Positioned around the subject, a tree, anarchway, or even people, for example, can create a framewithin the picture area. Subjects enclosed by a framebecome separated from the rest of the picture and areemphasized. Looking across a broad expanse of land orwater at some object can make a rather dull uninterestingview. Moving back a few feet and framing the objectbetween trees improves the composition.

An element used as a frame should not drawattention to itself. Ideally, the frame should relate to thetheme of the picture; for example, a line of aircraftparked on the flight line framed by the wing and prop ofanother aircraft.

Not only is framing an effective means of directingthe viewer's attention, it can also be used to obscureundesirable foregrounds and backgrounds. The illusionof depth can be created in a picture by the effective useof framing (fig. 5-19).

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Figure 5-18.–High-key scene.

JOC Guy Miller302.52

PH1 Michael D.P. Flynn302.302

Figure 5-19.–Framing used in photographic composition.

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Figure 5-20.–Blurred background creates subject separation.

FOREGROUND

A large percentage of otherwise good pictures isruined, because they include unnecessary or distractingforeground. This common fault can result from thephotographer standing too far away from their subjectwhen they take a picture, or the fact that normal focallength or standard lenses cover a relatively wide angleof view.

Undesirable foreground can be eliminated bymoving in closer to the subject, by making pictures witha longer than standard focal-length lens, or by changingviewpoint or camera angle. Many already existingpictures can be improved by enlarging only a section ofthe negative and by cropping out meaningless ordistracting foreground. In most cases, the foregroundshould be sharply focused and of sufficient depth tofurnish substantial support for the subject. No object inthe foreground should ever be so prominent that itdistracts from the subject. You should clear theforeground of items that have no connection with the

picture. The ultimate example of carelessness on the partof the photographer is to leave his or her camera casewhere it shows in the picture. Generally, the foregroundcontains the leading line that is the line that leads the eyeinto the photograph and toward the point of interest.Whether this line is an object or series of objects orshadows, it should be sharply focused. A fuzzy,out-of-focus foreground usually irritates the senses anddetracts from emphasis on the subject matter.

BACKGROUND

The background is almost as important an elementin good composition as the camera angle. Too often it isoverlooked when composing a scene since thephotographer normally gives so much attention to thesubject. Be particularly observant of the background tosee that it contains nothing distracting. A tree or pole thatwas unnoticed in the distance behind a person whencomposing the scene may appear in the photograph to

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be growing out of his or her collar or supporting his orher head.

The background should be subordinate to the mainsubject in both tone and interest. It should also make thesubject stand out and present it to best advantage.Unsharpness and blur are effective ways for separatingthe subject from the background. Unsharpness can beaccomplished by using a relatively large f/stop to renderthe background out of focus. In the case of subjects inmotion, the subject can be pictured sharply and thebackground blurred by panning the subject (fig. 5-20).Occasionally, you may want to reverse these effects andrecord the subject unsharp or blurred and thebackground sharp. This is done to create the impressionof the subject being closer to the viewer or to expressmotion by holding the camera still as you use a shutterspeed that is too slow to “stop” the motion.

PERSPECTIVE

Perspective refers to the relationship of imagedobjects in a photograph. This includes their relativepositions and sizes and the space between them. In otherwords, perspective in the composition of a photographis the way real three-dimensional objects are pictured ina photograph that has a two-dimensional plane. Inphotography, perspective is another illusion you use toproduce photographs of quality composition.

When you are making pictures, the camera alwayscreates perspective. Because a camera automaticallyproduces perspective, many novice photographersbelieve there is no need to know much about it. Thisattitude is far from correct. When you know theprinciples of perspective and skillfully apply them, thephotographs you produce show a good rendition of thesubject's form and shape, and the viewer is given thesensation of volume, space, depth, and distance.Additionally, the photographer can manipulateperspective to change the illusion of space and distanceby either expanding or compressing these factors,therefore providing a sense of scale within the picture.

Linear Perspective

The human eye judges distance by the way elementswithin a scene diminish in size, and the angle at whichlines and planes converge. This is called linearperspective.

The distance between camera and subject and thelens focal length are critical factors affecting linearperspective. This perspective changes as the cameraposition or viewpoint changes. From a given position,

changing only the lens focal length, and not the cameraposition, does not change the actual viewpoint, but maychange the apparent viewpoint.

The use of different focal-length lenses incombination with different lens-to-subject distanceshelps you alter linear perspective in your pictures. Whenthe focal length of the lens is changed but thelens-to-subject distance remains unchanged, there is achange in the image size of the objects, but no changein perspective. On the other hand, when thelens-to-subject distance and lens focal length are bothchanged, the relationship between objects is altered andperspective is changed. By using the right combinationof camera-to-subject distance and lens focal length, aphotographer can create a picture that looks deep orshallow. This feeling of depth or shallowness is only anillusion, but it is an important compositional factor.

Using a short-focal-length lens from a closecamera-to-subject distance, or viewpoint, produces apicture with greater depth (not to be confused with depthof field) than would be produced with a standard lens.Conversely, using a long-focal-length lens from a moredistant viewpoint produces a picture with less apparentdepth.

Rectilinear Perspective

Most lenses produce rectilinear perspective that aretypical of what the human eye sees. This is to say thatlines that are straight in the subject are reproducedstraight in the picture. Most pictures are made withrectilinear lenses.

Fisheye lenses and the lenses used on panoramiccameras produce a false perspective. A panoramic lensproduces panoramic or cylindrical perspective. In otherwords, all straight horizontal lines at the lens axis levelare recorded as straight lines, and all other straighthorizontal lines either above or below the lens axis levelare reproduced as curved lines. The other falseperspective is produced by a fisheye lens in which allstraight lines in the subject are imaged as curved linestoward the edges of the picture.

Vanishing Point Perspective

In vision, lines that are parallel to each other givethe sensation of meeting at vanishing points. Whenparallel lines, either horizontal or vertical, areperpendicular to the lens axis, the vanishing points areassumed to be at infinity. Other lines, those which areparallel to the lens axis, and all other parallel lines at allother angles to the lens axis meet at definable vanishing

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Figure 5-21.–Vanishing point perspective.

points. Thus lines that are parallel to the lens axis, ornearly parallel, start in the front of the picture and meetat vanishing points within the picture or at finite pointsoutside the picture (fig. 5-21).

Height Perspective

The place where the base of an object is located onthe ground in a picture is a clue to its distance from thecamera viewpoint; for example, in a landscape scene,the ground or ground plane rises toward the horizon. Thehigher up in the ground area of the picture (up to thehorizon) that the base of an object is located, the further

away it seems from the viewpoint and the greater itsheight perspective.

Overlap Perspective

Another clue to distance in a photograph is overlapperspective. When subjects within the picture are onabout the same line of sight, those objects closer to thecamera viewpoint overlap more distant objects andpartially hide them. It is obvious to the viewer that thepartially obstructed object is behind the unobstructedobject. This overlap is repeated many times within thepicture and gives the viewer a sense of depth and aperception of the relative distance of objects.

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Figure 5-22.–Dwindling size perspective.

Dwindling Size Perspective

Through the experience of vision, you are aware ofthe size of many common objects, such as people, trees,cars, buildings, and animals; for example, you are awarethat most adults are about 5 to 6 feet tall; therefore, whentwo people are shown in a picture and one appears twiceas tall as the other, you cannot assume that one is inreality taller than the other. Instead you assume the tallerperson is closer and the shorter person farther away fromthe camera viewpoint. In this same manner, you make asize relationship evaluation of all familiar objects. Thusyou can make a distance determination from this sizerelationship evaluation. The farther away an object isfrom the viewpoint, the smaller it appears; therefore,when subjects of familiar size are included in aphotograph, they help to establish the scale of the picture(fig. 5-22). Scale helps the viewer determine or visualize

the actual size or relative size of the objects in thepicture.

Volume Perspective

When a subject is lighted with very diffised light,the three-dimensional form or volume of the subject isdifficult to perceive because of the lack of distinctshadows. If, on the other hand, subjects are lighted withstrong directional light from angles that cause part of thesubject to be fully lighted and other parts to be inshadow, a visual clue of the subject's form or volume isprovided When a number of such objects are includedwithin the picture area, the perception of form, volume,and depth is increased. When front or side lighting isused, the length, depth, and shape of the shadows caston the ground provide a perspective of each object'svolume. Also, the distance between shadows cast on the

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Figure 5-23.–Atmospheric perspective.

ground helps you to perceive the overall depth of thescene.

Atmospheric Perspective

For all practical purposes, air is transparent. Formost photography, this is fundamentally true; however,when pictures are made of subjects at great distances,the air is actually less than fully transparent. This isbecause air contains very fine particles of water vapor,dust, smoke, and so on. These particles scatter light andchange its direction. The presence of scattering showsdistant subjects in pictures as having a veil or haze. Theappearance or effect of this scattering is proportional tothe distance of the objects from the viewpoint. Thegreater the distance, the greater the amount of veiling orhaze (fig. 5-23). The effects of this scattering of light areadditive, but vary with atmospheric conditions.

302.305

In atmospheric perspective several factors must beconsidered:

Contrast–The luminance of each object in a sceneis a direct result of the objects reflective quality and theamount of light falling on it. When objects are far away,light from highly reflective objects is scattered;therefore, when viewed from a distance (or imaged ona print), the darker portions of these distant objects donot appear as dark and the contrast is reduced. Whenthere are objects both near and far from the camera, thedifference in contrast provides a perception of distance.

Brightness–The particles in air that scatter lightare also illuminated by the sun. This causes an increasein the overall brightness of the objects seen. Thisincrease in luminance, coupled with a loss of contrast,causes objects in the distance to be seen and

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photographed as lighter in color than they would be at acloser distance.

Color saturation–The scattering of light not onlyaffects contrast and brightness but also color saturation.

Color is defined by three qualities: hue (the actualwavelength), saturation (intensity or chroma), andbrightness (reflective). A pure hue is fully saturated orundiluted. When a hue is desaturated or diluted, it is nolonger pure but has gray intermingled with it. The actualcolors of a distant scene appear to have less colorsaturation, because the light is scattered and alsobecause of the overall presence of the desaturated(diluted) blue light of aerial haze. The original scenecolors appear less saturated or pure when seen orphotographed from a distance than from close-up;therefore, color saturation or desaturation allows theviewer to perceive distance in a color photograph.

Sharpness–Because of atmospheric haze, there isa loss of image sharpness or definition in distant objects.This loss of sharpness is caused both by the lowering ofcontrast and the scattering of light. The loss of sharpnesscontributes to a sense of distance. This can be enhancedby setting the far limit of the lens depth of field just shortof infinity. This procedure throws the most distantobjects slightly out of focus. This combined with theother effects of aerial perspective intensities the senseof distance.

PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHTING

In this discussion of lighting, the basic lightingtechniques used by photographers are presented.Lighting used primarily with a certain segment ofphotography, such as motion picture, TV, portrait, andstudio, are discussed in the chapters relevant to thatparticular subject.

OUTDOOR LIGHTING

As a photographer, you work with light to producequality pictures. The color, direction, quantity, andquality of the light you use determines how yoursubjects appear. In the studio, with artificial lightsources, you can precisely control these four effects;however, most of the pictures you make are takenoutdoors. Daylight and sunlight are not a constantsource, because they change hourly and with theweather, season, location, and latitude. This changingdaylight can alter the apparent shapes, colors, tones, andforms of a scene. The color of sunlight changes most

rapidly at the extreme ends of the day. Strong colorchanges also occur during storms, haze, or mist and onblue wintery days. The direction of light changes as thesun moves across the sky. The shape and direction ofshadows are altered, and the different directions ofsunlight greatly affect the appearance of a scene.

The quality of sunlight depends on its strength anddirection. Strong, direct sunlight is “hard” because itproduces dark, well-defined shadows and brillianthighlights, with strong modeling of form. Sunlight ishardest on clear summer days at noon. Strong sunlightmakes strong colors more brilliant, but weak colors pale.Sunlight is diffused by haze, mist, and pollution in theair. This diffused or reflected light is softer; it producesweak, soft shadows and dull highlights. Directionless,diffused sunlight is often called “flat” lighting becauseit produces fine detail but subdues or flattens form.Weak, directionless sunlight provides vibrant,well-saturated colors.

Frontlighting

The old adage about keeping the sun at your back isa good place to continue our discussion of outdoorlighting. The type of lighting created when the sun is inback of the photographer is called frontlighting. Thisover-the-shoulder lighting was probably the firstphotographic advice you ever received. This may seemto be a universal recipe for good photography. But it isnot. The case against over-the-shoulder lighting is itproduces a flattened effect, doing nothing to bring outdetail or provide an impression of depth. The human eyesees in three dimensions and can compensate for poorlighting. A photograph is only two-dimensional;therefore, to give an impression of form, depth, andtexture to the subject, you should ideally have the lightcome from the side or at least at an angle.

Side Lighting

As you gain experience with various types ofoutdoor lighting, you discover that interesting effectscan be achieved by changing the angle of the light fallingon your subject. As you turn your subject, change thecamera viewpoint, or wait for the sun to move, the lightfalls more on one side, and more shadows are cast onthe opposite side of the subject. For pictures in whichrendering texture is important, side lighting is ideal.

Look at a brick wall, first in direct front sunlight andthen in side lighting. Direct, front sunlight shows thepattern of the bricks and mortar in a flat, uninformative

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PHC Ron Bayles302.88

Figures 5-24.–Comparison of front and side lighting.

way, but side lighting creates shadows in every littlecrevice (fig. 5-24). The effect increases as the light ismore parallel with the wall until long shadows fall fromthe smallest irregularity in the brickwork This can givean almost 3-D effect to a photograph.

Side lighting is particularly important with black-and-white photography that relies on gray tones, ratherthan color, to record the subject. Shadows caused by sidelighting reveal details that can create striking picturesfrom ordinary objects that are otherwise hardly worthphotographing in black and white. Anything that has anoticeable texture-like the ripples of sand on a beach,for example-gains impact when lit from the side.Landscapes, buildings, people, all look better whensidelighted.

This applies to color photography as well. Colorgives the viewer extra information about the subject thatmay make up for a lack of texture in frontlighting, butoften the result is much better when lit from the side.

Pictures made with side lighting usually have harshshadows and are contrasty. To lighten the shadows andreduce the contrast, you may want to use some type ofreflector to direct additional skylight into the shadowareas or use fill-in flash, whichever is more convenient.

Backlighting

When the sun is in front of the photographer, comingdirectly at the camera, you have what is referred to asbacklighting; that is, the subject is backlit. This type oflighting can be very effective for pictures of peopleoutdoors in bright sunlight. In bright sunlight, when

subjects are front-lighted or even sidelighted, they maybe uncomfortable and squint their eyes. Backlightinghelps to eliminate this problem. Backlighting may alsorequire the use of a reflector or fill-in flash to brightenup the dark shadows and improve subject detail.Backlighting is also used to produce a silhouette effect.

When you use backlighting, avoid having the sunrays fall directly on the lens (except for special effects).A lens hood or some other means of shading the lensshould be used to prevent lens flare.

EXISTING LIGHT

Existing light photography, sometimes calledavailable or natural light photography, is the making ofpictures by the light that happens to be on the scene. Thisincludes light from table, floor, and ceiling lights, neonsigns, windows, skylights, candles, fireplaces, automobile headlights, and any other type of light thatprovides the natural lighting of a scene-except daylightoutdoors. (Moonlight is considered existing light.)Existing light then is that type of light found in the home,in the office, in the hangar bay, in the chapel, in the club,in the sports arenas, and so on. Outdoor scenes attwilight or after dark are also existing light situations.

Photography by existing light produces pictures thatlook natural. Even the most skillfully lighted flashpicture may look artificial when compared to a goodexisting light photograph. With existing lightphotography, the photographer has an opportunity tomake dramatic, creative pictures. Existing light allowsthe photographer greater freedom of movement because

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extra lighting equipment is not required. Subjectdistance, when not using flash, has no effect onexposure; therefore, you can easily photograph distantsubjects that could not otherwise be photographed usingflash or some other means of auxiliary lighting. Withexisting light, you can make pictures that could not betaken with other types of lighting; for example, flashmay not be appropriate during a change of commandceremony or chapel service. Not only can the flashdisturb the proceedings, but it may not carry far enoughto light the subject adequately.

For existing light pictures, your camera should beequipped with a fast lens-at least f/2.8, but preferablyabout f/1.4. The camera shutter should have a B or Tsetting, and for exposures longer than about 1/60second, you need a tripod or other means of supportingthe camera.

Because the level of illumination for many existinglight scenes is quite low, you may want to consider usinga high-speed film. When making pictures with plenty ofexisting light or when you particularly want longexposures for special effect, you can use a slower film;however, the advantages of high-speed film are asfollows:

Allows you to get adequate exposure forhand-held shots.

Allows you to use faster shutter speeds to reducecamera and image motion.

Permits the use of longer focal-length lenseswhen the camera is hand-held.

Allows the use of smaller f/stops for greaterdepth of field.

Try not to pose your subject in a position where too muchof the facial features are in shadow, unless you are tryingfor a special effect, such as a silhouette. When youphotograph your subject in direct nondiffused sunlightcoming through a window, you have more light to workwith, but the light is contrasty and your subject has atendency to squint.

Indoor existing light, artificial or otherwise, may bequite contrasty; for example, when your subjects areclose to the source of light and well-illuminated, whileother areas of the scene are comparatively dark. Byturning on all the lights in the room, you can make theillumination more even and provide additional light forexposure and at the same time reduce the scene contrast.The contrast created by some artificial lighting can alsobe reduced in an average size room by bouncingauxiliary light off the ceiling or by using reflectors.Adding auxiliary bounce lighting or reflectors meansyou are not making true existing light pictures, but thisextra light helps to reduce contrast without spoiling thenatural appearance of the scene.

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When you are making existing-light color picturesindoors of scenes illuminated by tungsten light, use atungsten type of film. When the light for your indoorcolor pictures is daylight from a window or skylight, usea daylight type of color film or use tungsten film with aNo. 85B filter. Always use an exposure meter tocalculate your indoor existing light exposure. When abright window is included in the background, take acloseup meter reading of the subject to prevent the meterfrom being overly influenced by light from the window.

Pictures made indoors by existing daylight arepleasing to the viewer, because of the soft diffused lightand the squint-free expression of your subjects. Open allthe window drapes in the room to get the highest levelof illumination possible. Pose your subject to allowdiffused daylight to fall on the front or side of their face.

Fluorescent Lighting

Indoor scenes illuminated by fluorescent lightsusually appear pleasing and natural in real life; however,color pictures of these same scenes often have an overallcolor cast that makes them appear unnatural.Fluorescent light emits blue and green light primarilyand is deficient in red light. Most color pictures madewithout a filter under fluorescent light are also deficientin red and have an overall greenish appearance. Usedcorrectly, fluorescent light has some advantages overother types of available light. A room illuminated byfluorescent lamps is usually brighter and more evenlylighted than a room illuminated by tungsten lamps. Thishigher level of light makes it easier to get enoughexposure for your existing light photography and helpsrecord detail that may have been lost in the shadow areaswith other types of existing light. When photographingpeople, however, fluorescent lighting often causes darkshadows under the subject's eyes. These shadows causethe eyes to appear dark and sunk in.

For making color pictures under fluorescentlighting, a negative color film with the appropriate filteris most often your best bet. Color negative film has awide exposure latitude that permits, to some extent, avariation in exposure without detracting from the qualityof the finished print. The greenish effect caused byfluorescent lighting can be partially corrected when thecolor negatives are printed.

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For color slides with fluorescent light, a daylighttype of film with the appropriate filter is best. Tungstenfilm usually produces slides with too much blue or greenwhen made with fluorescent light.

As discussed in chapter 3, the use of filters for colorphotography helps to overcome the deficiency of redlight in fluorescent lamps. Always consult thePhoto-Lab Index for the best film filter combinations touse.

Pictures Outdoors at Night

Outdoor night scenes usually include large areas ofdarkness broken by smaller areas of light frombuildings, signs, and streetlights. Pictures of outdoorscenes are quite easy to make because good results areobtainable over a wide range of exposures. Using shortexposures emphasizes well-lit areas by preserving thehighlight detail, while the shadow areas are darkbecause of underexposure. Long exposures help retainthe detail of the dark areas, while highlight detail is lostbecause of overexposure.

Large, dark areas in night scenes make it difficult tomake accurate exposure meter readings from yourcamera position. The best meter reading results areobtained when you take closeup readings of importantscene areas.

Color outdoor pictures at night can be made oneither daylight or tungsten-type films. Pictures made ondaylight film have a warm, yellow-red appearance.Those made on tungsten film have a colder more naturallook; however, both films provide pleasing results, so itis a matter of personal preference which you use.

A good time to make outdoor night color pictures isjust before it gets completely dark. At this time, somerich blue (or even orange) is in the sky. This deep colorat dusk gives a dramatic background to your pictures.Neon signs, streetlights, and building lights make brightsubjects for your pictures. At night, right after it stopsraining and everything is still wet, is another good timeto make outdoor pictures. The lights in the sceneproduce many colorful reflections on the wet pavement,adding interest to what may otherwise be a lifeless, dullpicture.

Many buildings look rather ordinary in daylight, butat night, they are often interestingly lighted. Tryphotographing the hangar at night, with the lights on andthe hangar doors open. Also, your ship at night,especially a rainy night may make a very strikingpicture.

Outdoor events that take place at night in a sportsstadium are usually well-lighted and make excellentsubjects for existing light pictures. Most sports stadiums

(as well as streets) are illuminated by mercury-vaporlamps that look blue-green in color when compared totungsten lamps. Your best color pictures made undermercury-vapor lighting will be shot on daylight colorfilm, although they will appear bluish green because thelights are deficient in red.

Tips for existing light photography are as follows:

Carry a flashlight so you can see to make camerasettings.

If you do not have an exposure meter or cannotget a good reading, bracket your exposure.

Focus carefully; depth of field is shallow at thewide apertures required for existing lightphotography.

When you have a scene illuminated by acombination of light sources, use the type ofcolor film recommended for the predominantlight source.

For pictures of fireworks, support your cameraon a tripod, focus at infinity, and aim the cameratoward the sky area where the display will takeplace. Open the shutter for several bursts.

ELECTRONIC FLASH LIGHTING

In situations where there is little or no lightavailable, a portable electronic flash unit is an invaluablepiece of photographic equipment. With fast films andlong exposures, you may be able to shoot existing lightpictures, providing your subject remains still longenough. Although you can certainly get better lightingcontrol with elaborate photographic lights, thesimplicity and portability of electronic flash isunbeatable.

Electronic flash provides an excellent source ofartificial light for exposing black-and-white and colordaylight-balanced film. Light from an electronic flashunit (strobe) is characterized by softness, short duration,and color balance, approximating that of daylight.

By measuring the amount of light that actuallyreaches an object or scene, you can obtain a numericalvalue that can be converted directly into a flash guidenumber. The numerical value is the light output ratingof an electronic flash unit measured in beamcandlepower-seconds (BCPS) or more correctly,effective candlepower-seconds (ECPS).

Every electronic flash unit is assigned a guidenumber as a measure of its light output or power. Thehigher the guide number, the greater the light output.Guide numbers for various film speeds are usually

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provided with each electronic flash unit. Informationpackaged with film may also provide guide numbersappropriate to their speed in regard to the various powersof electronic flash units. Manufacturers tend to overratethe power of their electronic flash units. When guidenumbers are assigned by the manufacturer, they base theguide number on an average reflective subject and in aroom with 10-foot light-coloredceilings. By using thesemethods, the manufacturers are able to take advantageof the films exposure latitude.

Like exposure meters, guide numbers are notinfallible and some variation from assigned valuesshould be expected. To ensure accuracy of the flash unit,you must check the efficiency of your electronic flashunit to determine your own reliable guide numbers. Thesteps used to check efficiency are as follows:

1. Place your flash unit (on the camera) exactly 10feet from a live model who is holding a series ofcards-one for each f/stop marked on your lens.

2. Load the camera with the type of film you wantto test.

3. Focus the camera on the model and make anexposure at each of the f/stops marked on the cards.

For each exposure, instruct the model to hold up the cardmarked with the f/stop to be used so it shows noticeablyin the picture. Process your film normally, examine theproof sheet or slides carefully, and choose the one shotthat best reproduces the model’s skin tones. Multiply thef/stop on the card in that picture by 10 (theflash-to-subject distance) and you have the guidenumber for that particular film and flash unitcombination. If, for example, the best exposure wasmade at f/8, the guide number is 80 (8 x 10 = 80). Onceyou have determined the correct guide numbers for usewith various films, make up a reference chart and attachit to your flash unit.

Correct exposure with electronic flash dependsupon four factors:

The power or light output of the flash unit

The IS0 speed of the film being used

The flash-to-subject distance

The f/stop setting

Shutter speed is not a factor since the time of exposureis governed solely by the duration of the flash.

Notice we always speak of flush-to-subjectdistance, never camera-to-subject distance. With alltypes of artificial illumination (the same as with

sunlight), the only consideration is the amount of lightreflected from the subject. The distance between thecamera and the subject has no bearing on exposure.When the flash is used off of the camera, the basic f/stopis still calculated with the flash-to-subject distance.

AUTOMATIC ELECTRONICFLASH UNITS

Most electronic flash units can be operated in anautomatic exposure mode. An automatic flash uniteliminates the need to determine the correct f/stop foreach flash-to-subject distance, providing the subject iswithin the flash distance range of the unit.

On the front of an automatic flash unit, a sensorreads the light reflected from the subject that is producedby the flash. When this sensor is satisfied with theamount of light received, it automatically shuts off theflash. The closer the subject is to the lamp, the quickerthe sensor shuts off the light.

Some automatic electronic flash units allow you toselect two or more apertures to control depth of field. Todetermine an f/stop in the automatic mode, you can usethe calculator dial, located on the unit that is being used.By matching the indicator to an IS0 film speed numberon the dial, you can use the f/stop within a minimum andmaximum distance. Once an f/stop is selected and set,it becomes a constant factor regardless of the flash-to-subject distance, providing it is within the flashdistance range of the unit. This feature allows thephotographer to move closer to or farther away from asubject without having to calculate an f/stop for eachchange of flash-to-subject distance (fig. 5-25).

Figure 5-25.–The automatic operating range, using JSO 100 filmat f/2.8, is 1.6 to 50 feet.

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Figure 5-26.–Manual exposure scale.

When the flash unit is in the manual mode, the f/stopmust be changed each time the flash-to-subject distancechanges. A scale on the flash unit indicates the properf/stop to use for the various distances. To determine theflash-to-subject distance for on-camera flash, focus onthe subject and read the distance directly from thefocusing ring on the camera. Figure 5-26 indicates withIS0 100 film at full power the proper aperture setting at10 feet is between f/11 and f/16.4 feet is f/32, 40 feet isf/2.8, and so forth.

SINGLE FLASH

The majority of your indoor photographs will beproduced using a single-flash unit. Numerousreenlistments, frockings, and promotion ceremonies areconducted indoors where the lighting conditions areunfavorable for available light photography. There arevarious methods in which a single flash can be used toproduce high-quality professional photographs thatdistinguish you, the Photographer's Mate, from theamateur snapshooter.

On Camera Flash

A commonly used flash technique is to have theflash unit attached to the camera in synchronization withthe shutter and aimed directly at a subject. An advantageof having your flash unit attached to the camera is itprovides you the chance to capture the unexpected-thetruly candid shot. When spontaneity sparks the actionand quick-camera handling is a must, the fewer piecesof equipment you have to worry about or handle thebetter. Rather than two pieces of gear-the camera and

the flash-you have only one-the camera with the flashattached to it; however, this technique usually producesobjectionable shadows behind the subject.

To help reduce the harshness of the shadowsproduced behind your subject when a single flash is usedat the camera, place some diffusion material, such as awhite handkerchief, cheesecloth, or frosted celluloseacetate, in front of the flash. Of course, diffusion reducesthe intensity of the light, and the exposure has to beincreased accordingly when using the manual mode onthe flash unit.

Most imaging facilities are equipped with flashbrackets. When you are using a flash bracket, it ispossible to rotate the flash when changing formats fromhorizontal to vertical. When shooting people in thevertical format using a flash unit, always position theflash above the lens. If the flash is below the lens, longobjectional shadows are cast behind the subject, and thesubject has an unnatural, eerie, sinister effect.

Red Eye

A result that may appear with direct flash is“red eye.” Red eye occurs in pictures of peopleand animals when the flash is used close to theoptical axis of the lens and the subject is lookingat the camera. Light reflecting from the bloodvessels at the back of the eye causes this effect.The darker the room is, the stronger the effect,because the pupils of the eyes become moredilated. Red eye can easily be avoided bymoving the flash away from the lens opticalaxis. Also, the effects of red eye can beminimized by turning up the room lights.

Bounce Flash

One of the better methods to illuminate a subject orscene with a single-flash unit is to use bounce flash.There are times when you want a very soft light in orderto lessen the tonal range between highlights andshadows and to soften harsh background shadows. Youcan achieve this soft lighting by bouncing, or reflecting,the flash off a light-colored surface. By doing so, youare changing the narrow spot of light from a flash unitinto a wide diffused area of light. When shooting colorfilm, avoid colored walls and ceilings. They reflect theircolor onto the subject, causing a color cast over theentire subject area. You should use bounce flash in all

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302.306Figure 5-27.–Effects of direct, diffused and bounce flash.

situations where there is a 8- to 10-foot-white ceiling.Your photographs of reenlistments, frockings, awards,and so forth, will have a more pleasing effect.

Most bounce flash pictures are made with the lightdirected at the ceiling, either above the photographer orabove the subject, or somewhere between. A silhouetteeffect can be produced by bouncing your flash off theceiling behind the subject. To accomplish this, aim yourflash unit so most of the light bounced off the ceilingfalls on the background behind the subject and calculatethe exposure for the background.

For the flattest bounce light, try bouncing the lightoff a wall behind the camera. With this lighting, you willhave practically no shadows. Here, you have to calculateyour exposure based on the flash-to-wall-to-subjectdistance.

For side lighting, bounce your flash off a wall to theside of your subject. This type of lighting helps add afeeling of three dimensions to your picture.

For the best control, use a large reflector designedfor bounce lighting. Special-made reflectors areavailable that are lightweight, compact, and portable.For closeup work, the best bounce reflector is about 3by 4 feet square. For full-length subjects, try a reflectorabout 6 by 6 feet.

To determine the exposure for bounce flash usingthe manual mode on your flash, you must determine theflash-to-ceiling-to-subject distance and determine your

f/stop and then open the aperture two additional f/stops.The two additional f/stops are added to compensate forloss of light due to scattering and absorption by thereflecting surface.

When an automatic flash is used in the automaticmode, it is not necessary to open up two f/stops. Thesensor automatically cuts off when the proper amountof light is reflected from the subject to the flash unit.

When the ceiling is high or dark, a compensation tothe basic exposure may be required. For effective use ofthe bounce-flash technique, a considerable amount ofpractice is required. As with any flash photographytechnique, identify any areas or surfaces that may bepotential problems. Remember, one of the basicprinciples of reflected light is that the angle of incidenceis equal to the angle of reflectance. Highly polished orglass surfaces should be considered before the subjectis photographed. Items, such as windows, glasstabletops, glass framed photographs and polished metal,can cause glare or a “hot spot” in your photograph.When you are using bounce lighting techniques, “hotspots” of vertical surfaces are normally prevented,because the light source striking the surface is angledfrom above or the side; however, when you are usingbounce lighting techniques, horizontal surfaces, such asglass coffee tables and overhead light fixtures, can causea strange diffused lighting pattern in the photograph.

When using a single, on-camera flash, experimentwith direct, diffused, and bounce-flash techniques and

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determine which method provides the best results undervarious conditions. The method you choose to light thesame subject separates you from the average snapshotshooter (fig. 5-27).

Off Camera Flash

Some of your best flash pictures can be made withthe flash unit off the camera. Holding the flash off thecamera and above the lens tends to throw the shadowsdown and behind the subject. This is a good way tominimize distracting background shadows that occurwhen a subject is standing close to a wall. A flash heldhigh above the lens, either left or right, makes the viewerless conscious of the flash illumination. People areaccustomed to seeing things lit from above, and byplacing the flash above the subject, it closely resemblesthe lighting of the sun or ceiling lights.

Light that is far enough off the camera to illuminatethe subject from an angle produces modeling orroundness. This type of light creates the illusion of athird dimension-depth-and is more pleasing to theviewer than the two-dimensional flat effect you get withdirect, front lighting. Light from an angle can also beused to bring out the texture of a subject.

Indoors, two factors are important whendetermining the modeling and texture effects you willget: first, the surface of the subject itself; second, theway you light that subject. To illustrate these points, tryphotographing a Ping-Pong ball and a tennis balltogether. When you use direct, front lighting, yourpicture records a two-dimensional visualization ofheight and width, but little of roundness, depth, ortexture. When you light the balls from the side, bothacquire the illusion of depth; however, only the tennisball reveals texture. The Ping-Pong ball is muchsmoother and is almost textureless.

Now substitute a young child and an old person forthe balls. With frontlighting, most of the lines andwrinkles in the old person’s face will be minimized bythe evenness of the light; however, when lighted fromthe side, almost every crease will become a shaded areaand the ridges will be highlighted. Thus the texture ofthe old person's face is emphasized. The child, on theother hand, when side lighted, is still almost texturelessjust as in the case of the Ping-Pong ball.

LIGHTING RATIO

Lighting ratio can be considered as a measure ofcontrast. Lighting ratio refers to the combined intensity(at the subject) of the main and fill lights as compared

to the intensity of the fill light alone; for example, boththe main and fill light of equal intensity are shining onthe subject. A reflected light meter reading is taken offan 18-percent gray card at the subject position thatindicates there are 100 units of light falling on thesubject. Now, with the main light turned off and thefill-in light still illuminating the subject, the reflectedmeter reading indicates there are only 50 units of lightfalling on the subject; therefore the lighting ratio is 2 to1. Lighting ratio is usually expressed as the comparisonof two light intensities, such as 1:1, 2:1,3:1, and so on.

The largest number in a lighting ratio indicates themost intense illumination at the subject position; forexample, a 2:1 ratio indicates the most intensely lightedportion of the subject (highlights) is receiving twice theamount of illumination as the least intensely lightedportion of the subject (shadows). The light that producesthe most intense illumination is called the main, key, ormodeling light. The light that produces the least intenseillumination is called the fill, or fill-in. A fill or fill-inlight, as the name implies, fills in and softens theshadows produced by the main light.

Because a lighting ratio is a comparison of thecombined main and “fill light” illumination intensitiesto the fill light illumination intensity alone, the fill lightmust be in a position so it completely illuminates theportion of the subject visible to the camera. This requirespositioning the fill light close to the lens.

As a rule, 3:1 lighting is considered the best generallighting ratio for both black-and-white and colorphotography. This 3:1 ratio provides normal contrastbetween the highlights and shadows and produces goodnatural-looking photographs.

Some automatic electronic flashes allow you tocontrol the output of light. When set in the manualposition, you can adjust the light output by changing theintensity of the flash unit to 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, and soforth. This allows you more control of flash-to-subjectdistance as well as aperture (depth of field) control.

Achieving the desired lighting ratio with anautomatic flash unit where the flash intensity can becontrolled is quite easy. To achieve a 2:1 ratio, you setboth flash units at the same distance and at the sameintensity (either full power, 1/2, 1/4, and so on). Toachieve a 3:1 ratio, set both flash units at the samedistance and set the main light flash at full power andthe fill flash at one-half power. A 5:1 or even higherlighting ratio can be obtained by setting both flash unitsat the same distance and the main flash at full power andthe fill flash at one-fourth power, and so on. In order to

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select a wider aperture to control depth of field, start bysetting your main flash at one-half or one-fourth powerand adjust your fill flash appropriately.

Adjusting lighting ratios by flash-to-subject-distance is another method to control lighting ratios. Aneasy way to calculate footage for a 3:1 ratio with twolights of equal intensity is to think of the full f/stops (2,2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, etc.) as distances in feet. Placethe main light at the desired distance closest to one ofthe "f/stops," and place the fill light at the distanceindicated by the next larger number; that is, 5.6 feet and8 feet or 16 feet and 22 feet, and so on.

Another easy method to control the lighting ratiosusing an automatic electronic flash is to use the flashunit in the automatic mode. When set in the automaticmode, the flash-to-subject distance is not supercritical,and there is some leeway as long as the flash units arewithin their operating range.

To obtain a 2:1 lighting ratio, you simply have bothflash units set at the same automatic setting and atapproximately the same distance from the subject. Fora 3:1 lighting ratio, use the same automatic setting andapproximately the same flash-to-subject distances, butset the fill flash at twice the film speed as the film beingused (main flash setting). For a 5:1 or even higherlighting ratio, use the same automatic setting andapproximately the same flash-to-subject distance andset the fill flash at four times more than that of the mainflash, and so on.

Any lighting ratio can be obtained when using anautomatic flash unit. By controlling the power outputintensity, adjusting the film speed setting, changing themain and fill flash distances, or a combination of thethree, you can manipulate the lighting ratio easily to anyratio. As with any stage of photography, practice andtesting with your camera and flash combinations invarious situations produces the best results.

SYNCHRO-SUNLIGHT

Bright sunlight, used as the only means ofillumination for an exposure, can produce deepobjectional shadows on a subject. When a flash unit isused as a fill-in source of illumination, it reduces theseshadows and is known as synchro-sunlight photography.

Improperly handled, the synchro-sunlighttechnique can produce an effect that makes thephotograph appear as if taken at night with a single flash.This effect occurs when the flash illumination is moreintense than the sunlight.

The first step for proper exposure with synchro-sunlight is to calculate the correct exposure for daylight,and set the shutter speed and f/stop as though a flash isnot being used; however, keep in mind when using afocal-plane shutter, the shutter speed must besynchronized with the electronic flash unit. Avoid usinga fast film in bright sunlight when using a cameraequipped with a focal-plane shutter. In this case, you arelimited only to your aperture to control the exposure ofthe film, because your shutter speed is nonadjustable. Aleaf shutter has an advantage over a focal-plane shutter.When a leaf shutter is used, it provides more control overdepth of field since the shutter synchronizes at all shutterspeeds.

When you are using an automatic flash, the sameprinciples apply for synchro-sun that were explained inthe section for lighting ratio. The sun is used as the mainlight, and your camera settings are determined directlyfrom your light meter. The easiest method is to set thefilm speed (ISO) on your flash unit to twice the filmspeed being used for a 3:1 lighting ratio and four timesthe film speed being used for a 5:1 ratio. A fraction ofthe manual power output can also be used to achieve thedesired lighting ratio.

Remember to compensate your exposure byopening up two f/stops for a backlit subject and onef/stop for a subject that is sidelighted when taking yourlight meter reading from a distance. For colorphotography, you should normally use a 2:1 or 3:1lighting ratio. For black-and-white photography, a ratioof 3:1 to 5:1 is acceptable.

MULTIPLE-FLASH UNITS

Multiple flash is the use of two or more flash unitsfired in synchronization with the camera shutter. Theflash units can be auxiliary flash units, connected to thecamera by extension cords, or they can be slave flashunits. Slave units usually have self-contained powersources and are fired with a photoelectric cell when lightfrom a master flash unit strikes the cell of the slave unit.

With multiple flash, exposure calculations are basedon the distance between the subject and the flash unitthat produces the most intense illumination to thesubject; therefore, you can have numerous auxiliaryflash units or slaves for a scene and only calculate yourexposure from the mainlight source. All other flash unitsshould be equidistant or at a greater distance from thesubject as compared to the flash unit on which theexposure is based.

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When two flash units of equal intensity and at equaldistance from a subject illuminate the same area, theexposure for one unit should be determined and then theexposure should be halved because twice the intensityof light is reflected from the subject.

OPEN FLASH

Flash pictures can be made without the camerashutter and flash being synchronized, using a techniquecalled open flash. In the open-flash method, the camerashutter is set at T or B, the shutter is opened, the flashunit fired, and the shutter closed. The open-flashtechnique is sometimes used when the level of light overa large scene is very low or at night. This method of flashphotography allows the photographing of large scenesthat ordinarily are quite difficult to illuminate withartificial light. The photographer can walk into a scenewith the flash unit and illuminate sections of the sceneor the entire scene. Any number of flashes can be usedduring the exposure while the shutter remains open. Asilhouette of your body can be recorded if your bodygets between the flash and the camera.

To arrive at the exposure for an open-flash pictureusing a manual flash, determine your flash-to-subjectdistance and f/stop. Keep the distance equal to theobjects being illuminated when using manual flash; forexample, when the f/stop for the scene is f/5.6 based ona flash-to-subject distance of 10-feet, every flash withinthe scene should be 10 feet from that section of the scenebeing illuminated, When an automatic flash is used, theflash automatically shuts off when the proper amount oflight is reflected from the subject, providing the objectis within its distance range. When you are using amanual flash, the exposure for open flash is determinedas previously discussed. This is true unless two or moreflash units with equal intensities are used at equaldistances, or two or more flashes from the same unit atthe same distance are used to illuminate the subject.

MULTIPLE EXPOSURES WITHELECTRONIC FLASH

Interesting multiple exposures can be made withonly one or two electronic flash units. Multiple exposurepictures, besides being artistic and interesting, are oftenused to study subject motion and position. This can beaccomplished by the following procedures:

1. Darken the room and position your subjectagainst a black background.

2. Allow enough background area for the numberof different exposures you intend to make. When you

are using a ground glass camera, mark off on the glass,with grease pencil, the areas where the subject shouldbe for each different exposure. If not using a groundglass camera, make a pencil sketch to help you positionthe subject.

3. Set up the electronic flash lights so the minimumamount of illumination falls on the background itself.

4. Turn off all room lights and make your firstexposure. Then, without advancing the film, move yoursubject to the next position for the second exposure.Repeat this procedure for each image you want to recordon the film.

PHOTOGRAPHING ACTION WITHELECTRONIC FLASH

Action of any kind, no matter how slight, can addinterest to most pictures. Each type of action requires adifferent camera technique, but because of the shortduration of light from electronic flash, it is ideal forrecording any action ranging from a fleeting expressionto a sports triumph. Most electronic flash units have amaximum flash duration (the length of time the light ison) of about 1/800th second, and a minimum flashduration as short as 1/20000th second, thus you can“freeze” almost any action with the flash.

Indoors, where there is little existing light, you haveno problem because the electronic flash itself stops theaction; however, outdoors in daylight, you mayencounter ghost images. Ghost images can occur whenexisting light and a slow shutter speed are used inconjunction with electronic flash. A ghost image appearsas a blur when one image is recorded by the existinglight and a second sharp image by the electronic flash.

ELECTRONIC FLASH AT NIGHT

Flash photography, outdoors at night, can producevery underexposed photographs if not taken properly.Outdoors, flash does not carry very far; therefore, it canbe difficult to light objects from a distance; however,this limited coverage also gives you great control.Indoors, part of the output of a flash unit is reflectedfrom the ceiling and walls back to the subject. Rarely doyou find such reflective surfaces outside, so some lightis lost. To compensate for the light lost, you must openup your aperture when photographing objects at anydistance. Because so much light is absorbed in theselarge areas, it may not be uncommon to open up youraperture two or three f/stops. Tests should be conductedbefore shooting in large, indoor areas, such asgymnasiums and hangar bays or outdoors at night, to

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determine which flash, camera, and film combinationproduces optimum results.

At night a single on-camera flash produces starklighting, and your subject is flatly lit and the backgroundgoes completely black. Close foreground detailsbecome very overexposed, and it is better to excludethem. Such simple lighting is ideal for action shots; forexample, capturing leaping karate experts in midair atmidnight. Subjects such as these benefit by beingisolated from the background, but you may get moreinteresting lighting by using the unit off camera on anextension cord.

If the necessary flash-to-camera distance is greaterthan the length of your extension cord, use theopen-flash method. Do not allow the camera to “see” theflash unit during the open-flash exposures.

Now that you have a basic knowledge of photographic techniques, it is important that you apply andpractice the basic principles. Each and every time youpick up a magazine, book, or newspaper or watch TV orsee a movie, you are exposed to various composition andlighting techniques. Study them and apply them everytime you look through the viewfinder of a cameraRemember, experiment with different camera angles tocreate interesting perspectives of your center of interest.Whether using available light or flash photography,notice what results the direction, intensity, and type oflight have on your final product. Continual applicationand refinement of the principles of composition andlighting can greatly enhance the quality and aestheticvalue of your photography.

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CHAPTER 6

PHOTOGRAPHIC ASSIGNMENTS

Photography in the Navy has long been an importanttool for monitoring the strength and improving themethods of our nation’s fighting forces, as well asserving to record for historical permanence thesignificant events that have shaped our nation’s destiny.From the moment that Matthew Brady exposed hisphotographic plates on the decks of the federal ironcladship, Monitor, in 1862, the Navy has used photographyas a significant recording medium. It has influenced thedevelopment of weapons and ships in the Navy and hasbeen an invaluable aid in training the men and womenwho make up today's Navy.

Today we can go to the archives and look back withpride at the visual evidence of the Navy's growth,generation after generation. The historical record tellsus where we have been, what we were, how far we haveprogressed, and how we have changed-enhancing ourperspective of the past and clarifying our perception ofthe future.

The “grandfather” of our profession, still photog-raphy, is the oldest of photographic skills in the Navy.Where events of historical significance occur, such asmilitary exercises, ships being commissioned and de-commissioned, and newsworthy events of interest toNavy personnel, there are Navy photographersrecording events as they happen.

PLANNING

Planning prevents disappointment. If only I hadan idea of what to expect, this picture might have beenbetter. How many times have you said this to yourself?Planning does not cover all the bases on everyassignment, but it can be valuable on many of them.

Color or black and white . . . small, medium, orlarge format? This question may sound basic, but youshould consider it thoroughly when preparing for anassignment. Take time to consider the finished productand its intended use.

Punctuality is the only policy. As a minimum, beon time. However, why not get there 10 or 15 minutesahead of the assigned time? You can use this time tolook over the area for lighting, background, props, andso forth. Also, discuss the assignment and what you needwith the people connected with them. Take charge

courteously. Politely ignore harassers. Begin work atonce and give clear, concise directions. But do not thinkthis approach takes the place of your responsibility toBE COURTEOUS AT ALL TIMES.

Dependability versus creativity. Strive to shoot forthe results that your customer requested. Then shootwhat you consider to be an improvement on the originalrequirement.

Pictorial details are important. Before the shuttercatches that moment, make sure you have checked orconsidered the foreground, background, arrangement,expressions, clothing, angle, and lighting. You have tomentally put all these items together and say to yourself,Will this tell the story?

Identify. When the photograph has been recorded,begin taking identification Caption information shouldinclude name, grade, and title. If possible, you mighthave someone on the scene taking identification whileyou are shooting.

Always check your equipment before leaving for ashooting assignment. As a minimum, you should takeseveral extra rolls of film and a spare synchronization(sync) cord. When using a flash and a large number ofphotographs are to be taken, you may need an extrabattery pack. Always be prepared and attempt toovercome the unexpected.

EQUIPMENT

After learning the nature of your photographicassignment and making a complete analysis of theassignment, you must choose the proper equipment toget the job done. The variety of photographic equipmentavailable and suited for location assignments isextremely broad; for example, the assignment mayrequire the use of a 35mm, medium format, or even a4x5 view camera The lighting equipment you choosemay range from a small, compact electronic flash unitto a complex array of lighting equipment and reflectors.Exposure meters, color temperature meters, tripods, andinterchangeable lenses are just a few of the otheraccessories you may need on a location assignment.

“Be prepared.” At one time or another we have allheard that familiar quotation. But have you ever thoughtwhat this could mean to your assignment? For want of

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a gizmo, a photograph was lost; for want of aphotograph, an assignment was ruined; and for want ofan assignment, your reputation as a photographer wasdestroyed. No, we are not really concerned with gizmoshere. What we are concerned with is your equipment.Do you have everything you need when you get to yourassignment and does it work? Nearly all photographicequipment has one or more critical components-thefailure or loss of which may put a vital piece of gear outof operation. With cameras, one of these items is thebattery, because it may power both the meter and theshutter. Check the battery before you leave the lab, andALWAYS carry a spare. You have a super deluxeall-powerful electronic flash unit that can light up theentire hangar deck in the wink of an eye. Or can it? Didyou check it out and was it working before you left thework center? Did you remember the power cord and anextra sync cord? Speaking of synchronization, did yourmake sure the flash was in sync with the camera shutter?Or was the shutter even working? What about thecamera lens-is it clean, does it focus correctly? Thediaphragm-is it working?

In the studio, a minor failure usually only causesembarrassment and gives the impression of un-professionalism. You can usually get a spare camera,lights, and tripod into service. But when you are out onlocation, you are limited in what you can take with you;therefore, it is important that ALL your equipment bethoroughly tested and operating correctly BEFORE youleave the work center.

MARKING YOUR EQUIPMENT

If you have been issued your “own” equipment, putyour name on it. Of course, you should not put yourname on it permanently. Use stick-on labels. Havingyour name on your equipment does not keep anyonefrom stealing it; it is only there to let other people in theworkcenter know it is “yours” and they best keep theirhands off. Navy photo equipment must be markedpermanently with both a serial number and “U.S. NavyProperty.” If the manufacturer did not include a serialnumber on the equipment, a local serial number isassigned, using the unit identification code (UIC) underwhich the equipment is assigned, plus a dash and a twoor three-digit number that identifies the specific piece ofequipment; for example, if you receive a new light meterwithout a manufacturer’s serial number, your workcenter UIC is 62093, and you have 76 other pieces ofequipment assigned local serial numbers, then the serialnumber for the new meter is 62093-077.

EQUIPMENT SECURITY

In the photo lab, your equipment should be securedwhen not in use. Most imaging facilities have acamera-crew ready room or locker that is kept locked soonly authorized personnel have access to valuable photoequipment. On location, however, security is anothermatter, particularly when away from your home station.There may be times when you must leave equipment ina BEQ or motel room. There are measures you can taketo protect this equipment. The first principle is do notadvertise your equipment. Do not put anything on theequipment cases to indicate they contain photographicequipment. Do, however, put your command address onthe cases. The second principle is not to leave photo gearout of your sight any longer than necessary. Carrying acamera bag with you to chow may be inconvenient-butthis is better than leaving it unattended somewhere.Also, do not leave your photo gear in a location whereit could easily be picked up or stolen. Keep a strapattached to the bag or case, and drape it over your knee.

PHOTOGRAPHING PEOPLE

People are probably one of the most rewardingsubjects for photography. Good pictures of peoplecapture the gestures and expressions that convey vitalityand character without the subject appearingself-conscious.

Basically, assignments for photographing peoplefall into two general categories: pictures of a singleperson and pictures of a group of people.

For the mediocre photographer, all the picture of aperson must do is identify a person. But good photog-raphers steer away from these identification pictures.The photographer is after something different, some-thing not too loose and not too formal-something thatpictures the person, not just his features. One approachto capture these characteristics is the candid photograph.

CANDID PHOTOGRAPHY

Most photographers are familiar with candid shotsof people they do not know. It may be true that theaverage photographer thinks of a candid photograph asone that is not set up or one the subject does not knowis being taken. Photographers have learned that candidtechniques can be used just as effectively to makepictures of people they know, even when the peopleknow they are being photographed. The key to successas a candid photographer is to keep a low profile, butyou do not have to be sneaky. A candid shot is a candidshot, whether it is of the admiral at a news conference

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or a “genuine candid” of a sailor you just happen to see.The technique is the same in both cases. All that isimportant is for the pictures not to appear posed. Thesubjects of candid photographs are not posing or acting;they are simply being themselves and behaving asthough the photographer is not there.

The compactness of 35mm cameras make themideal for candid photography. SLRs with their fast,interchangeable lenses, TTL metering, and large filmcapacities make candid photography one of the mostrewarding areas of our profession. A long-focal-lengthlens is also a good choice for this type of photography.The long lens lets you maintain distance betweenyourself and the subject, and, if people are aware of yourpresence, they will not be as self-conscious. If you aretaking “real” candid shots, a long lens is a necessity.

When people know you are shooting them, get themto occupy themselves, so they will “forget” there is acamera watching them. Only then, can you get a trulycandid picture. When the person notices what you aredoing, ask their permission before you shoot. Peopleusually will not object, particularly if you are polite andwork quickly. Stay casual and relaxed. People soon getused to seeing you with the camera, and you will be onyour way to some good candid pictures.

Preset your focus and exposure whenever possibleso you can respond quickly and avoid attractingattention to the camera. Estimate the likely subjectdistance, set it on the lens focus scale, and stop down forgreater depth of field. Camera handling must be fast andsmooth. Time does not allow for fumbling with cameracontrols, flash equipment, exposure meters, and filmloading.

Keep alert, keep looking, and keep shooting. Shootplenty of film. Do not be stingy; in the long run, film ischeap. You will miss enough good pictures by the verynature of your subjects-people-and being tight-fistedwith film does not increase your chances for gettinggood pictures.

Do not try to control the people you are shooting.Let them assume a natural “pose” in an appropriatesetting. You may tell them, “please do not look at thecamera.” Try to capture the details of their environmentin your pictures. This adds interest to what they aredoing. And finally, make your candid pictures reflect thepeople and events around you.

There are situations when you do not have the timefor a candid approach, or it just is not feasible. You canstill produce interesting people pictures by using the"frame approach."

FRAMING PEOPLE IN THEIRENVIRONMENT

The "frame approach" simply means posing yoursubject in a situation or environment that is mostmeaningful to the subject or assignment.

When your subject is a chaplain, place him beforea chapel or at a desk with a cross that is visible over hisshoulder. If the person is a Boatswain Mate, get him orher on deck actually working on the job. Put the Navyinstructor near a blackboard or the pilot in an aircraft.The frame approach works with people working in alltypes of environments and ratings, such as Machinist'sMates, Airman, Fireman, Personnelman, Opticalman,and so forth. It works with just about everybody. It iseasy. Your subject is usually more relaxed in his or herown environment, and props to work with are alreadythere.

Before you approach an assignment, have the onekey ingredient to success in mind-a definite idea ofwhat you want. In other words, plan ahead. Find out allyou can beforehand about the subject and theenvironment. What could be worse than arriving at anassignment and finding your "just average" Personnel-man is really six-foot-four, completely bald, andwearing thick bifocals. It might help to know that eventhough you find the person in a “closet” called an office,most of the work is done in the computer room downthe hall-the one with the banks of computers and taperacks that make wonderful “frames.”

There are some things you must remember. Use theframe approach to maximum advantage. The first andforemost is to exaggerate. Be sure to really have a framefor your subject. If your subject is a legal officer, makesure there is no mistaking that this person works in thecourts or with books and papers. If your chemist is at ablackboard, make sure that there is something on it andthat the test tubes are not hidden or too few. Again,exaggerate. You are going from three dimensions totwo. Do not be subtle. Your objective is to make ameaningful picture of a person, not just an identificationshot. Vary your setup-get in tighter-back offsome-change camera angles-and keep the subjectprominent.

The overall result of your efforts should be a uniquepicture. Even if you were unable to capture thepersonality of your subject, the picture should at least bepersonable. This can be done by making the person aprominent part of the picture. Photograph the person ina meaningful environment, one that gives a sense of whothe subject is, and what he does, rather than leaving theviewer with a sense of only what he looks like.

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The objects needed to frame your subject must beassociated with the person. You would not want to framea Seabee with the wings of an airplane (unless of coursea runway is being constructed). The Seabee would bebetter framed by the arch of a new building beingconstructed, or the hood and engine of a dump truck.The frame should add emphasis and lead the viewer tothe subject. Do not make the frame the subject. Theframe does not always have to be in focus or “box” thesubject. Study pictures of people that have been framedSometimes the frame is only on one side of the subject,sometimes in back of the subject, and sometimes onlyin the foreground. Seldom does the frame completelybox the subject.

PEOPLE WORKING

When you read an article about someone, it may beaccompanied by a picture of the person who is often atwork A picture of someone at work says more to aviewer than an ordinary head-and-shouldersidentification ever can, because it immediately placesthe person in a particular setting.

The secret to making good working pictures is tocapture the atmosphere of the place and show thesubject actually working. The use of a wide-angle lenslets you show a large work area from close in. Thisconveys a better idea of the working conditions. Try tobring out the atmosphere of the worker and theworkplace; for example, if your subject does hardmanual labor, try a low camera angle to create animpression of power. Although it is usually better tophotograph a worker as though he were unaware of yourpresence, this is not always possible. Warn people whenyou are going to use the flash, so you do not startle them.When shooting at a slow shutter speed, you can even askthe worker to hold a pose.

Most people who are working are involved withsomething that can provide a prop: books, scale models,equipment, and so forth. Use these props to create astage and put the people into it-really into it.

TWO-SHOTS

So far, the discussion has been based on shootingpictures of only one person. Another assignment facingthe photographer is handling the two-shot, a pictureshowing two people.

People can be pretty awkward when told to "just benatural" or "just talk to each other." It is better to givethem something to talk about. Have them talk aboutwhat they are doing. Tell them you are listening to whatthey say so you can have information with which towrite your captions. Better yet, give them something

they can actually handle, talk about, and concentrate on.This makes the situation more realistic to them, and itresults in better quality pictures.

Try the frame approach for your two-shots. It is veryeffective. Even people can be used to frame other people.

DIRECTING PEOPLE

One of the most difficult tasks in photographingpeople is directing them. But you, the photographer, arethe only one that can actually see what the picture isgoing to look like before it is taken. So, you must takethe responsibility for setting up the “pose.” It is notenough to let your subjects just arrange themselves.They have no idea what they look like.

One way to make directing and posing easier is togive your subject something to do. Do not tell yoursubject to "just stand there," as though in a vacuum, withnothing to do. Instead, give your subject something tohandle. For a man, it might be a pipe, a book, a spyglass,or a tool they use in their work. For a child, it could bea doll, a model plane, or something of a similar nature.Often a woman can use an item of clothing in this way-ahat or a scarf.

Another useful tip is to give your subject a “prop”or a support in a more literal sense-something to leanon or sit on. A chair, stool, post, or tree can be used.When using props, frames, and poses, do not forget oneimportant point: The Navy uses photographers so itspictures are made by professionals. These are peoplewho know what they are photographing and the reasonwhy. A civilian photographer could most probably makean excellent picture of a Navy scene; however, itprobably will show technical errors that make thepicture look like a joke to other sailors. Do a littleresearch. If using props that you do not understand, askabout them. Do not have a sailor hauling on a line thatshould be taken to a capstan or a Gunner's Mate holdinga 3-inch shell in front of a 5-inch gun.

Eyes are very important when photographingpeople. You must direct the subject to ensure that allparts of the scene are in the right place or in properperspective. You must also direct the expression of thesubject. The eyes are a very vital part of this and have asignificant effect on the viewer's response. In a picturewhere the eyes of the subject are looking straight intothe camera, a strong and immediate impact is created.This attracts viewer interest. When the eyes are directedaway from the camera, the effect is less explicit and hasa more ambiguous quality.

Finally, you must be in charge of the situation. It isup to you to tell the subjects where to stand, what to do,how to do it, and when to do it. This applies to everyone.

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PHC Chet King302.272

Figure 6-1A.–LT(jg) Robin T. Russler stands watch on the flag bridge of the USS Tripoli.

Do not fear the brass. They need directing too; after all,you are the professional and that is why they “hired”you-to do your job and to produce the best possiblepictures of them. Many people are nervous andself-conscious in front of a camera. They try to look theirbest, and in so doing often present an expression or posethat is unnatural and displeasing. You are obligated toprovide directions to the subjects regarding their pose.As the photographer, it is your responsibility to ensure

that coat sleeves are pulled down, wrinkles smoothedout, hat set at the proper angle, body erect, head tilted atthe best angle, and a dozen other things which, if notcorrected, detract from the picture. Whether the subjectis a seaman or an admiral, the photographer mustobserve these discrepancies and correct them. Figure6-1A and figure 6-1B present examples of pictures ofpeople in their environment.

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JO1 Joe Lancaster302.273

Figure 6-1B.–A member of the Army’s 7th Infantry Division takes a break during the combined South Korean and U.S. exerciseTeam Spirit 1990.

One of the greatest contributing factors to poorpictures is the timid manner in which a novicephotographer handles the subject. Never take a picturewhen something is wrong because you are afraid tospeak and act in the presence of high-ranking personnel.The results will surely be disappointing andembarrassing; however, you should always be courteousand respectful in dealing with your subjects regardlessof rank or rate.

GROUP PICTURES

Occasionally, assignments are received to take apicture of a group of people. There is added difficultywhen working with a number of people at one time. Eachperson should be treated as an individual, and, at thesame time, each persons relationship to the whole groupmust be considered. Attention must be paid to everymember of the group. Every precaution should be taken

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PH3 Borbely302.274

Figure 6-2.–Boat crews aboard the USS Theodore Roosevelt pose with their motor launches.

to ensure that each person is shown clearly and that or standing in as nearly the same pose as possible. Eachinterest is not drawn to one individual by some awkward member is placed in approximately the same relativepose or expression. position so that attention is not drawn to one person.

There are two general types of group pictures: The informal group picture (fig. 6-2) is intended to

formal and informal. depict an action or tell a story about the individualsThe formal group picture is one in which several concerned. Although the position and pose of each

people, uniformly dressed for the occasion, are seated member of an informal group is carefully planned, the

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results must appear casual and realistic. The membersmay be seated, kneeling, or standing in a variety ofpositions and do not have to be looking in the samedirection.

Arrangement of personnel to obtain the bestcomposition is one of the most important factors ingroup photography. Regardless of the number ofpersons in a group, they should be arranged to fill thepicture in such a way so you get the largest possibleimage size of each person. One exception to this generalrule is when the importance of the background is equalto or greater than the group itself. This often occurs withan informal group when the picture is actually intendedto emphasize an object or piece of equipment, ratherthan the individuals. In this case, locate the camera forthe best composition of the object; then arrange thepeople in the picture to enhance the story being told

A formal group of about five people can becomposed to fill the picture area very nicely. When sixto ten persons are being photographed in a group, it isadvisable to arrange them in two rows. For larger formalgroups, arrange the people in as many rows as necessaryto fill the frame. Avoid stringing out one long, narrowline of people across the frame.

When a large group is formed into three or morerows, you must devise some method to prevent the rearrows from being blocked from view. Furthermore, inorder to compose the picture properly and fill it from topto bottom, you must see that each row is higher than thepreceding one. One method is to arrange the group onthe steps of a building, bleachers, or a terrace, so eachrow is higher than the preceding one. On level groundthe first row can be seated, the second standing, and thethird standing on benches. Another method that can beused in combination with the first is to elevate thecamera so it is pointing down at an angle on the group.This method is useful as an aid in composing and fillingthe picture area. A higher camera angle can be useful ineliminating an undesirable background. When raisingthe camera above eye level, you must avoid excessivedistortion of the figures and vertical lines by too muchelevation.

Particularly in formal group photography, thearrangement should be symmetrical. But avoid havingan equal number of persons in each tow. Keeping thenumber unequal permits each person in the second andsucceeding rows to stand directly behind the spacebetween the heads in the preceding row. This providesa much better view of each person. The number in eachrow should differ by one person.

Figure 6-3.–Arrange long rows in a semicircle.

Customarily, in a formal group, the highest rankingperson is located in the center of the first row and othermembers of the group are arranged alternately to theright and left by grade. When all members of the groupare the same grade, arrange them according to height,with the tall ones either in the center or at the ends, oroccupying the rear row.

When you are arranging a large group in whichabout twelve or more persons are in each row, it isadvisable to form them in a slight semicircle instead ofa straight line (fig. 6-3). This places each personapproximately the same distance from the camera andkeeps the images a uniform size. Instruct each person toturn slightly so he or she is facing directly toward thecamera.

The shorter the focal length of the lens used, themore pronounced is the distortion effect of apparentbending of a straight row. A proportionally greaterdistance exists between the center and the ends of a rowwith a camera having a short-focal-length lens than withone having a long-focal-length lens.

When the formal group is arranged and ready to bephotographed, ensure each member is in the samerelative position, hats are at the same angle, anduniforms are correct and neat. See that the hands and

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302.275Figure 6-4.–Formal group photo.

feet of all members are in the same position. When thefront row is seated, the feet may be crossed but all in thesame direction. Each person should be looking at thecamera, no broad smiles, just pleasant expressions.Nothing should be so different about one person that itdraws an excessive amount of attention. Remember, toget maximum depth of field, you should focus thecamera one third of the way into the group (if there arenine rows, focus the camera on the third row).

As with everything else there is a time and place forformal group shots. What would happen, though, if you“stylized” the shot just a bit? Instead of always shootingthe group setup that clearly identifies each member inthe typical “lineup” by grade or height, why not think ofyour group picture in terms of your other photographs?Put in some foreground or a background. Use aninteresting bit of lighting or a somewhat differentsetting. After all, do your subjects really have to beshoulder-to-shoulder? Do not forget the frameapproach; it can work for group shots too. The group canbe placed in a situation that has some relation to it.Foreground objects can be used to create a frame for agroup of people in a photograph. Even one of the groupmembers-the squadron commanding officer-can beyour foreground; the rest of the officers can be scatteredthroughout the background.

The success of a formal group photograph (fig. 6-4)is dependent on your ability, as a photographer, to directthe members of the group so you can obtain the

composition desired. Never hesitate because of grade torequest members of the group to change their expressionor position or to correct a discrepancy in their uniform.Be diplomatic about it, of course, but do not let thematter go unattended. It is embarrassing and a waste ofvaluable time to call a group together again to retake apicture regardless of the reason for failure.

The most important lesson a novice photographercan learn about photographing groups is how to remainin charge. Unless you are very careful the group will takecontrol, and getting all the members of the group to lookat the camera at the same time becomes almostimpossible. Unless you are the dominating type,maintaining control is not easy. Remember, you cannotmake good group pictures unless you are in control ofthe situation. To be in control, you should keep talkingto members of the group and monitor their behavior.Have your equipment ready so you do not waste time orlose the group's attention while you load film orreposition the camera and lights. When you talk topeople, they will naturally look at you, and therefore atthe camera. Your directions and “patter” also preventthem from getting a word in edgewise amongthemselves. You must be firm when it comes toarranging the group. Do not be afraid of moving peopleabout and telling them where to stand. Remember, youare making the pictures; you can see best what the finalresult will look like.

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PHC Ronald J. Oliver302.276

Figure 6-5.–Damage control trainee struggles to repair a ruptured pipe.

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PEOPLE IN ACTION

When you photograph people in action, such as insports and at work, the name of the game is anticipation,staying alert, and expecting the unexpected. Coveringaction events becomes an exercise in “guesstimating”where the action will take place and firing the shutter atthe right moment.

A good action photographer relies on his knowledgeof the event taking place; for example, if you will bephotographing a General Quarters (GQ) drill and theprincipal players are going to be the Hull MaintenanceTechnicians, you could take a crash course in the jobthey will be performing during GQ. You might evenobserve them going through the drill a day or two beforeit is time to photograph them. Like a sportsphotographer-you must know the rules of the game.Even if you cannot learn the game, a photographer thatunderstands the principles of shooting people in actioncan do a good job by following a few simple rules:

Anticipate the action. Watch for the unexpectedmoment.

Know the mechanical functions of your cameraequipment. Practice aiming, focusing, and shootinguntil they become reflex actions. This leaves your mindfree to concentrate on the event.

Learn something about the action you plan tophotograph.

The best pictures of people usually have action,implied or apparent. The action should be appropriate tothe subject of the picture. The cook, for example, shouldnot be shown in the boiler room (unless for a specialreason or effect). Even a posed picture can have plentyof action and interest and not seem at all posed.Artificial, stiff effects kill the picture. Avoid static, dullpictures of groups staring directly into the camera Planand shoot for action, such as applause shots or a speakermaking gestures, or shots of an audience's facialreactions. Break up the overall scene into small groupsof action, such as shots of important persons talking, theguest of honor shaking hands with others, and so forth.Even an attitude or arrangement of hands, feet, head, andshoulders often creates action. There is action ineveryday living, in working, eating, drinking, smiling,arguing, driving, flying, sailing, and swimming. It is notso easy to capture action in still photographs, but byunderstanding the importance of action in a picture andthe abundance of action available everywhere, you willsoon become proficient at recognizing and picturing it.The blur technique has become popular for advertising

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and illustration use. Panning the camera with the actionof a moving subject keeps the subject fairly sharp whileblurring the background in a horizontal sweep, and thisgives the feeling of action. A slow shutter speed isneeded. Try the technique and see the interesting results.

A photo should have emotional mood and impactthat can be accomplished by actual movement of aphysical nature. The head may be raised in victory orjoy or lowered in despair and sadness. The body saggingor the body squared away indicates different moods.Arms on the hips can indicate swagger, arrogance, orconfidence. Hands in pockets indicate relaxation, or atthe sides, may show formality. Knowing the elements ofaction, how to recognize them, and what moods theyconvey permits you to click the shutter at the rightinstant when you recognize outstanding actionhappening. The shooting angle, lighting, andcomposition all contribute to a feeling of action.

Action should always be photographed at its peak(fig. 6-5). This is a matter between the photographer andthe photographer’s own well-developed sense ofmotion. A highly capable photographer knows withcertainty, at the instant he or she shoots, whether thepicture will be a good one or not. This does not comefrom occasional picture taking but from steady,continual practice.

COMMAND FUNCTIONS

The majority of the job orders your imaging facilityreceives will probably be in support of providingphotographic documentation for command functions.Photographic assignments that fall into this category areas follows: reenlistments, retirements, change ofcommands, awards presentations, and VIP (VeryImportant Person) visits. Some of the larger imagingfacilities provide a photo mailer service wherebyamateur photographers take snapshots of theircommand functions and forward the film to the imagingfacility for processing. For those Photographer's Matesthat are fortunate enough to cover these photographicassignments, high quality and professional service andproducts are imperative for the continued success ofcustomer service and satisfaction.

To provide the best photographs possible, you mustapply all of the principles and techniques discussedpreviously in this TRAMAN. Proper planning,composition, and lighting must be applied regardless ofhow routine you feel the job may be. Some generalguidelines are as follows:

Always use bounce flash whenever possible.

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302 .277Figure 6-6.–Award presented by the former Secretary of Defense Frank C. Carlucci

The reenlistee, retiree, or person being advanced,promoted, or receiving an award is always the subject(fig. 6-6). Regardless of who is presenting the award orconducting the ceremony (whether it be the divisionofficer, commanding officer, or the Secretary ofDefense), the recipient is always the center of interest.

Avoid profile photographs of the subject. Ifnecessary, shoot over the shoulder of the personpresenting the award or conducting the ceremony.

Prevent objects from giving the appearance ofprotruding from a person's head or body, such as pipes,flags, or doorframes. Always view the entire subjectthrough the viewfinder and adjust your camera angle orviewpoint as necessary to prevent this compositionalflaw.

If you miss a shot or you know the photographdoes not meet your standards, such as eyes closed, facehidden, or flash does not fire, always re-shoot thephotograph. When it is not possible to re-shootimmediately, setup and re-shoot after the ceremony.

When in doubt, re-shoot. Film is relatively cheap, butyour reputation and the reputation of the photo lab is not.

Never fake a shot. If you run out of film or havecamera problems, make arrangements to takephotographs at a later time. Better planning andimproved communication will normally prevent thisfrom happening.

CAPTION WRITING

Photographs, despite their unique story-tellingability, are seldom effective enough to stand alone. Nomatter how exciting the picture may be, it fails unlessthe viewer understands the five Ws-Who, What, When,Where and Why of the photograph. The area ofproviding information that the photograph cannot giveis in the caption-the text that accompanies thephotograph. It is your responsibility, as thephotographer, to gather the necessary information andwrite complete, concise, and factual captions.

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The caption supplements the photograph byanswering the five Ws. It provides clarification ofimportant details that are not readily apparent in thephotograph, To make a caption work, you must use threebasic elements:

An explanation of the subject

Identification of persons or things in the picture

Additional details of background information

In caption writing, the first sentence is the mostimportant. It must describe the action withoutoveremphasizing the obvious. Always use the activevoice of the verb and write in the present tense. Anotherimportant consideration in caption writing isbackground information. This consists of additionalfacts or explanations needed to clarify the photo. Theamount of background information included depends onwhere the picture will be located and how it will be used.

Whether the photo will be printed in a military or acivilian publication, used in a report, or used as a displaypicture is of primary importance. The caption explaininga picture of a sailor wearing an oxygen breathingapparatus to a civilian is more difficult than explainingit to another sailor.

The second consideration, how the photograph is tobe used, refers to whether it will be used alone, as asingle picture, or used in conjunction with somethingelse, such as a news story or report. When the picture isto accompany a news story or a report, the captionshould not repeat details used in the text. On the otherhand, when the photograph is to be used as a singlepicture, it must tell the whole story, and the amount ofbackground information must be enough to provide thereader with all the necessary details. In other words, thecaption and picture combination must tell the completestory.

The answers to the five Ws should be given invigorous, forceful language without sacrificingsimplicity and brevity.

WHO–Give as much information as possible aboutthe personnel shown in the photograph, beginning withpaygrade, rate, or rank and full name.

WHAT–Used to identify ships, aircraft, awards, andother things shown in the photograph.

WHERE–Identifies the location of the event.

WHEN–The actual time or date of the event.

WHY–The reason for a particular operation oraction taking place.

The novice caption writer is often confronted withthe problem of how long to make the caption. Althoughthere is no prescribed length for captions, the generalrule is one paragraph, preferably in 50 words or less.Caption content is your last opportunity to tell whatmakes a photograph significant. The shorter you makethe caption and still tell a complete story, the better.

There is no best way to write a caption. There are,however, rules that make caption writing easier. Oneproven method is to make use of the three basicelements: explain the action, identify persons orthings in the photograph, and give necessarybackground information.

EXPLAIN THE ACTION

The first of the three elements, explain the action, isthe most important part of the caption. The very firstsentence must link the caption to the photograph bydescribing the action. One of the peculiarities of the firstsentence in caption writing is its verb form. Since aphotograph has “frozen” a moment in time, the verbshould be written in present tense. This provides a senseof immediacy, as though the reader is actuallywitnessing the event. For example:

"Petty Officer Second Class Paul T. Boatswims through swirling flood waters of the St.Johns River to rescue 6-year-old SammyCameron . . . ."

This has more dramatic impact than a caption whichreads:

"Petty Officer Second Class Jane B. Doe swamthrough . . . ."

There is, however, one problem that arises from the useof present tense in the first sentence. What to do withthe “when” or time element? If the when or timeelement is included in the first sentence, the result readssomething like this:

“Pete Rose hit a line drive to center fieldyesterday . . . .”

A sentence, such as this, would be somewhat jarring tothe reader and should be avoided. To alleviate theproblem, you should leave out the when or time elementof the first sentence when writing captions, thusavoiding an awkward shift in tense.

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IDENTIFICATION

The second element of caption writing,identification, frequently poses the question of who orwhat should be identified in the photograph. There is nomagic formula to cover every situation, but the generalguideline is to identify everyone or everything that isidentifiable. and pertinent to the action. A pertinentindividual or object is one that is involved in the centralaction of the photograph. In other words, anyone oranything in the photograph that attracts attention shouldbe identified. Identification should come as early aspossible in the caption. Many times you can identifypeople or things at the same time you describe the action.

"BM3 Jack R. Frost sounds taps to climaxMemorial Day ceremonies . . . ."

Here the action and the man are identified together. Theonly exception to placing names high in the caption isin the case of group identification. The recommendedway to handle group photographs and still maintainreader interest is to use an impersonal identification inthe first sentence; that is, “A group of sailors . . .,” thenlist the names at the end of the caption. This methodachieves complete identification without cluttering theall-important first sentence.

Identification in caption writing can be handled inany one of several ways. The idea is to handle it in themost natural and concise manner consistent with clarity.To ensure consistency, the caption writer generally usesfour methods of identification:

Action

Obvious contrast

Elimination

From the left

Action is, of course, the best method. When a littleleague baseball player is sliding into second base, itshould be obvious from the action which boy is the baserunner; therefore, it is not necessary to say left or rightas a means of identifying the players.

Obvious contrast is another simple way ofidentifying people in a photograph. If the commandingofficer and an airman recruit are photographed, it is notnecessary to identify the commanding officer as beingleft or right.

Identification by elimination is slightly morecomplex but nevertheless very effective. Suppose thereare four people shown in a photograph. The

commanding officer of the photo school is presenting acitation to a third class petty officer. These two areidentified by the action. A third person, the pettyofficer’s wife, standing alongside, is identified byobvious contrast. The fourth person, the awardrecipient’s division officer, is then identified byelimination.

The fourth and least desirable method ofidentification is from the left. This method ofidentification should be used only as a last resort or whenthere is a chance of confusion from using any of the othermethods, such as in identifying groups of people. Whenyou use this method of identification, it is not necessaryto say, “‘From left to right.” To do so only wastes space.Logic tells us that if we start from the left there is noplace to go except to the right. The task is thereforesimplified by saying, “From the left.”

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Background information is our third element ofcaption writing. It consists of additional facts orexplanations needed to clarify the photograph. It is oftenimpossible for the photograph and the five Ws alone toprovide all the details necessary for a completeunderstanding of the photograph. Therefore, it becomesnecessary to provide the viewer with additionalinformation for the purpose of clarifying thephotograph.

How much background information is needed toclarify a photograph depends on two factors: where thephotograph is to be used and how it is to be used.

CREDIT LINE

The last part of caption writing is the credit line.The usual method is to credit both the photographer andthe service. While there is not a set standard for givingcredits, the following format can be used:

Official U. S. Navy Photo by:PH2 Jack R. Frost, USN

Or the credit line can follow directly after the last wordof the caption, as shown in the following example:

Line handlers cast off the stem line as theamphibious force flagship, USS Eldorado(AGC-11) gets under way for a Western Pacificdeployment. (Official U. S. Navy Photo by:PH2 Jack R. Frost, USN.)

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A typical caption should also identify the unit thatproduced the photography and, if appropriate, contain afile number. As an example, a typical caption may looksomething like the following:

UNIT ID

DIVIN, MEDIACODE, FY, SEQUENCENUMBER; DATE OFPHOTOGRAPHY

CAPTION TEXT

CREDIT LINE

PACIFIC FLEETIMAGING COMMANDSAN DIEGO, CA

N0108-SCN-93-0037421 MAR 1993

Six-year-old Terry Thomas,a victim of. . . . Brenda hasbeen doing . . .

Official U.S. NavyPhotograph by:PH3 Jon T. Boat USN

Your skill as a caption writer, like any endeavor, willimprove with practice. When you write a caption, havethe photograph in front of you. This may help you recalljust what was taking place. Avoid phrases, suchas-“Shown above,” “This is a picture of. . . .” or“Posing for the camera . . . .” These phrases insult thereader's intelligence.

When writing captions, you should always be alertto point out interesting or important things in thephotograph that might escape the casual reader.Remember to spell out the meaning of all unfamiliarabbreviations. PHAA may mean Photographer’s MateAirman Apprentice to you, but it may be meaningless tothe reader.

Finally, you must remember that the caption shouldsupplement the photograph, not duplicate with wordswhat is readily evident in the photograph.

Captions should always be typed, preferably doublespaced, on a separate sheet of paper, such as“crack-and-peel” stickers or plain, white paper, andaffixed to the back of the photograph. When using plain,white paper to prepare and attach a caption to a photo,first type the caption on the bottom of a sheet of paper.Cut off most of the unused portion and fold just abovethe typing. Attach the caption to the back of the photowith tape so the typed caption folds over the bottom andlies against the face of the photo. When unfolded, thecaption is properly positioned at the bottom of the photo.

INVESTIGATION PHOTOGRAPHY

Photography is a valuable tool used by themaster-at-arms, the Naval Investigative Service, and

other investigators to make visual records of crimescenes, accidents, or other incidents. Evidence(investigative or forensic) photography is used to showparticular items of evidence and their relationship to thescene and to produce closeup pictures of significantparts of the scene.

As a Photographer's Mate, you usually will beworking under the direction of an investigator whenproducing forensic pictures. However, you should takethe initiative to learn all you can about the case you areworking on. With sufficient information, you can useyour judgment to assess the photography requirements,angles of view, supplementary lighting, close-ups, andother factors, such as camera, lens, and film choice.Investigators, especially in crime cases, are oftenreluctant to give the photographer any information.They would rather you not ask questions and just followtheir specific directions of what to photograph. This isoften the case because they do not want informationleaks that could ruin their case. You must gain theirconfidence and not discuss the case with anyone outsideof the investigative team. On many occasions,investigative leads have been developed solely bystudying good forensic pictures provided by aprofessional photographer.

When photographing any scene as part of aninvestigation, it is important to make overall pictures ofthe scene that can be related to the close-ups which youmust also take. These overall pictures are important andcannot be sacrificed for any reason. Use wide-anglelenses to obtain these views when you cannot move toa vantage point where a normal lens can be used. Whenmaking overall views of the scene, avoid havingextraneous elements, such as people and automobiles,or other confusing elements included. Extraneouselements only serve to mislead people viewing thephotographs and may obscure important details.Investigators will normally cooperate by clearing thescene for the overall views.

Never take it upon yourself to recreate the scene ifit has changed before your arrival. Repositioningelements within the scene or having someone assumethe position of a body that has been removed will not beof any help. There is no way of assuring accuraterepositioning, and the photographs become suspect asbeing “contrived” and made up. You should alwaysphotograph the scene as you find it. If the investigatorwants to recreate the scene, that is his business. Youshould not offer to help.

Closeup views of scene elements should be made ofany evidence, weapons, aircraft damage, body wounds,and so on, before the evidence is moved. If, for example,a closeup shot is needed of a gun that was thrown under

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a car, it should first be photographed before the car ismoved. This overall or medium shot should show boththe car in comparison to other scene elements and itsrelationship to the gun. Only then should the car bemoved to get the closeup shot of the gun

Today, the trend in Navy investigations is to usecolor film because color photographs represent thesubject more realistically than black-and-white film.People see their surroundings in color, and based on thispremise, color photography has become completelyacceptable for courtroom use. Color pictures convey amore accurate representation of the facts to the court orpersons reviewing reports.

FIRE AND ARSON PHOTOGRAPHY

Fire fighters and damage control personnel realizethe value of good photographic records of a fire and itsdamage in helping determine both the cause of the fireand the effectiveness of the methods used to fight thefire.

One of the most important functions of any groupof fire fighters is training. The most effective trainingmethod is, of course, actually practicing fire fighting.However, aboard ship and because of the cost ashore,this cannot always be done. The next best method oftraining is with visual aids. By studying still pictures andmovies of a fire, firemen and members of the damagecontrol party can receive instructions and observeproper procedures in the performance of their duties.Photography serves as a means of refreshing thememories of fire fighters and witnesses during theinvestigation of a fire.

Fires aboard ship and ashore should bephotographed from the time the fire party arrives to thetime the tire is out. Pictures of the fire should includeoverall views showing the positions of trucks, ladders,hoses, other types of equipment, personnel fighting thefire, and people watching the fire. Pictures of theprogress of the fire must also be made. Fire progresspictures should show the structure, smoke, and flames.

Arson is becoming a big business in the civilianworld. As sailors, we do not see much arson in the Navy,but there have been cases and will continue to be casesof arson in the Navy. We cannot afford to have anarsonist in our midst, particularly aboard ship or in thebarracks.

Without evidence, arrest and prosecution of anarsonist is extremely difficult. Photography is aneffective tool in recording and preserving the evidenceof set fires. Much of the actual evidence may bedestroyed during fire fighting, or if it survives the fire,it may be impossible to preserve.

Every effort should be made to photograph thescene of a fire, whether or not arson is suspected, beforeit is disturbed by other operations. You must work fast,but never do a careless job. Your pictures may be usedto prove the intent to commit arson.

The pictures you make of a fire should do thefollowing:

Show the area or areas in which the fire startedor was set.

Help identify spectators. An arsonist oftenremains to watch the fire.

Provide information about the speed ofcombustion and direction of spreading.

Show the progressive stages of burning and firefighting from various angles. If possible, keep a recordof the time each picture was made.

Help investigators determine the type of materialburning. This is where the use of color film isrecommended. The steam, color, and quantity of smokeand the color and size of flames are indications of whattype of material is burning. The color of the smoke oftenindicates whether an accelerant, such as gas, was usedto speed the burning.

Once the fire is out, pictures (fig. 6-7) are made ofthe rubble. Give particular attention to the most burnedor charred areas. The structure should be photographedfrom all sides to show the damaged areas. Other thingsto look for are incendiary devices and combustiblematerials, such as matchbooks, paper, liquids (such asgas and paint thinner), and fuses. Although they mayhave burned completely, there could be a visible trail,defective wiring, and electrical or gas appliances thatmay have been the cause of the fire.

The exposure required to photograph the interior ofa building after a fire may be considerably more thanindicated by normal exposure calculation methods. Somuch light is absorbed by blackened and charred areasthat it may be necessary for you to open up several stopsover your indicated exposure, even for well-lightedclose-ups. When using flash to light burned areas, holdthe flash away from the camera to permit someimprovement in the rendering of texture. This will bringout the alligator or checked pattern of burned wood,blistered paint, and so forth.

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302.278Figure 6-7.–A close-up damage to the USS Stark after it was struck by Iraqi-launched Exocet missile.

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LT Gary A. Phillips302.279

Figure 6-8.–Crew members aboard the USS Forrestal fight fire on the flight deck.

AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIONPHOTOGRAPHY

Every aircraft accident (fig. 6-8) affects readinessto some degree, and with the cost of equipment risingsteadily, the loss of one of our first-line aircraftrepresents a serious loss to the Navy and to the nationaleconomy.

Aircraft accident investigation is one of thefundamental elements in a program for the improvementof aviation safety. Photography plays a major role in anaircraft accident investigation. The evidence obtainedthrough photographs will help determine steps toprevent similar occurrences.

To make the most useful photographs, you mustclearly understand the purpose of photography in anaircraft accident investigation. It is NOT to assessblame, nor is it solely to establish a single or primarycause factor. Few accidents result from a single cause.In most of the accidents, a sequence of events occurs.The elimination of any one of these events may haveprevented the accident. Therefore, to prevent futureoccurrences, you must consider all possible causefactors and photograph them, if possible. An incomplete

photographic record of the investigation may result inerroneous conclusions and nullify the only possiblebenefit that could have been derived from a costlyaccident. The photography surrounding an aircraftaccident is a methodical accumulation of small bits andpieces of information that eventually form a pattern. Thewreckage itself may contain valuable evidence that, ifcorrectly photographed, may provide these certain causefactors.

Successful aircraft accident photographers havecertain essential characteristics in common. You mustapply the following essentials of good aircraft accidentphotography to your work:

1. Promptness-Get to the scene of the accidentimmediately-before the evidence is disturbed.

2. Thoroughness-Photograph all evidence inminute detail. Operate on the assumption that there is nolimit to the amount of photography justified to preventthe recurrence of one aircraft accident or the loss of onelife.

3. Organization-Conduct a planned photographicsurvey.

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Jim Bryant302.280

Figure 6-9.–News reporters photograph damage incurred when a T-2C Buckeye crashed into the superstructure of the USS Lexington.

4. Accuracy–Pictures that show half-truths areunacceptable in aircraft accident photography. Do notmake pictures that hide detail or distort the scene.Remember, all photographic evidence must be accurate.

It is nearly always necessary to crawl around orunder the aircraft wreckage to get pictures. You shouldarrive at the scene appropriately clothed in a complete,comfortable working uniform, which you do not mindsoiling.

Procedures at the Scene of the Accident

Current OPNAV instructions specify that thesurviving crew members (if physically able to do so) orthe first military personnel arriving at the scene of anaircraft accident must take charge until relieved byproper authority. At the scene of the accident, you willbe working for the officer in charge (OIC). You reportto and receive your orders from the OIC. In many cases,it may be possible for you to accompany the crash rescueparty to the accident. The sooner an experienced andqualified photographer can get to the scene of anaccident, the better the possibilities of acquiring morevaluable photographic evidence. You should commencetaking pictures immediately upon arrival. Pictures madebefore extensive fire damage can reveal information thatmight otherwise be lost.

Safety of personnel involved is of primary concernin every aircraft accident. Rescue operations andremoval of occupants from the aircraft should be amongyour first photographs. When medical treatment is beinggiven to survivors of the accident, photograph it not onlyfor documenting the treatment but for the purpose ofisolating factual information on human failure.Casualties should also be photographed in the positionsthey occupy when you arrive on the scene. Photographsof the dead should be made to show the location of thewreckage and the position of each body in relation to it.

You should be advised of any classified materialinvolved, and it should be either covered or removedbefore photographs are made unless it is important tothe accident investigation. This is a situation where closeliaison with the OIC is absolutely necessary.

News reporters may gather at the scene and becauseyou, as a photographer, have something in common withthem, they will naturally seek you out. Do not attemptto tell a reporter what to write. Do not make a statement,express an opinion, or provide information about theaccident (fig. 6-9).

Photographic Record

In almost every accident, a certain minimumnumber of photographs is usually required. These applyto automobile, motorcycle, personal injury, or any typeof accident.

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PH2 John Gay302.281

Figure 6-10.–USS White Plains is blown hard aground at Polaris Point, Apra Harbor, Guam.

A complete photographic record should includephotographs of the general terrain or site of the accident,overall views of undisturbed wreckage, reconstructedcomponents or systems, and closeup views of importantor significant structural or other material failures. Theterrain pictures should show any surface irregularities,presence of damage to buildings, trees, or other objects,point of first contact, impact marks, and so forth. Thephotographs should be made as soon after you arrive atthe scene as possible, since subsequent investigationwork or other conditions may alter or destroy theevidence. After the terrain pictures have been obtained,you should concentrate on photographing theundisturbed wreckage. The emphasis here should be onshowing the attitude of the aircraft or vehicle at the pointof impact, the general extent of damage, and thepresence or absence of all major components, such asthe wings, stabilizers, elevators, rudder, and ailerons.

When fire indications are found in various areas of thewreckage, show these indications together with anycorresponding indications of tire in the surroundingarea. These later photographs can often be used tosubstantiate findings of ground fire versus in-flight fire.Other points that appear to be significant from apreliminary examination should be recorded before thedetailed wreckage examination is begun. Very often theinvestigator decides to reconstruct or rearrangeparticular parts of the wreckage to determine failurepatterns. A photographic record should be made of suchreconstruction work to assist in the subsequentevaluation. Finally, closeup views of importantstructural failures should be included in thephotographic record.

In general, the photographic record should becomplete enough to permit a person who is reviewingand evaluating the accident report to appreciate the

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significance of the investigator's finding. While theinvestigator's report must contain a detailed write-up ofthe damage, it is still true that one picture can often takethe place of many words (fig. 6-10). The investigatorshould use photographs as another tool in complete andaccurate reporting. Each photograph included in thereport should purport to show a separate point or detailrelative to the accident.

When evidence is to be presented, get a good pictureof it. You are not a mind reader and cannot be expectedto get the pictures that are contained only in theinvestigator’s mind. Normally, you must ask theinvestigator exactly what is to be photographed.

Pertinent photographs of the following details arealways required:

General view of the scene along the wreckagepattern to the point of first contact.

Aerial view of the accident scene (aircraft).

Damage to objects struck

BUNO or license plate.

All major parts of the wreckage.

Detailed view of the cockpit, instrument panels,switch settings, and control handles (aircraft).

Engines and propellers.

Wheels and landing gear assemblies (aircraft).

All parts involved in, or suspected of structuralfailure, or of having contributed directly to the accident.These photographs should have sufficient detail to showthe grain of the metal at the failure point or other detailedinformation, such as the direction of shear of the rivets.

Any failed part that has been established as thecause of the accident or is believed to be significant tothe cause of the accident should be photographed indetail.

When photographing small, important pieces ofevidence, the parts should not only be photographed inthe field but they should be removed from the scene andphotographed in the studio under controlled conditions.This ensures that the photographs of the items inquestion are clear and well defined. It is a good practiceto photograph the failed part and an undamaged likeitem in the same exposure so the failure is readilyapparent.

To avoid confusion, you should assign all aircraftaccident photographs exhibit numbers and carrydescriptive captions to point out the details of evidence

to which they contribute. A picture without anexplanation is confusing and worthless.

Each aircraft accident photograph should be readilyidentifiable, and to ensure this necessary requirement,you must identify all photographs with the followinginformation:

Date of accident

Location of accident

Type of accident

Type of aircraft

BUNO of aircraft

Part and part number (where applicable)

Squadron

Aircraft accident report number

Special handling note according to OPNAVINST5290.1

At a minimum, the following items should beincluded in your camera bag for an accident or arsonscene:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Camera and normal lens

Wide angle and telephoto lenses

Flash unit and extra batteries

Large amount of color andfilm

Extra sync cord for the flash

Flashlight

Note pad and pen

Macro lens or closeup filters

Surgical gloves

Ruler

Tape measure

black-and-white

PRODUCT PHOTOGRAPHY

Product, or illustrative, photography is used to showand explain an object more completely and conciselythan is possible with words alone. By using thephotographic medium, it is possible to illustrate a varietyof items to show size, shape, location, and condition. Inthe Navy, product, or illustrative, photography is usedto show new equipment-from ships to pencil sharpenersand from buildings under construction to damaged

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aircraft. It is used extensively to show damaged,defective, and unsatisfactory equipment-from aircraftengines to zippers.

The discussion on illustrative photography in thischapter is limited to those aspects that apply to studiowork. In this sense, illustrative photography should beconsidered as product photography. The techniquesgiven here are not necessarily “locked up” in the studio.They can be taken outside the confines of the studio andput to good use in the field.

Product photography, then, is the making ofphotographs for the purpose of illustrating or explainingsomething about a product, either in whole or in part.

EQUIPMENT

The three types of format cameras and the lightingunits used to accomplish product photography arediscussed in this section.

Camera

The variety of subjects encountered in productphotography requires a camera with a long bellowsextension, vertical and horizontal swing adjustments,tilt, rising front, and lateral shift and both long- andshort-focal-length lenses. All of these features exist ona view camera.

The view camera is the primary tool of professionalproduct photographers. An 8x10 view camera is usuallythe largest size in use today. Photographers that want toproduce the highest quality photography use it. Its largefilm format and adjustments help to produce clear,sharp, nearly distortion-free photographs that are incomplete focus.

Large film-format cameras provide high-qualityimages because the negatives or transparencies do nothave to be enlarged as much as smaller negatives. A largefilm format in and of itself does not necessarily ensurehigh-quality product photography. Long tonal range,from highlights to shadow detail, is required. Lightingratios must be calculated and adjusted with care, andexposure calculations must be precise. Lenses of thehighest quality, which are spotlessly clean, enhance thephotographic quality of any size format.

VIEW CAMERAS.–Most Navy photo labs do nothave an 8x10 view camera; but most of them do have a4x5 view camera, and you should use it for most productphotography. Whatever view camera you use, it mustbe supported on a steady tripod.

MEDIUM-FORMAT CAMERAS.–If for somereason, such as a need for speed or limited workingspace (such as inside the cockpit of an aircraft), a viewcamera cannot be used for product photography, then amedium-format camera should be your next choice.

Some photographers choose other than alarge format camera simply because they arewilling to sacrifice quality for convenience,rather than use a view camera. Theyprobably have the attitude of “it's goodenough for government work.” Do not fallinto this trap. Instead, always strive toproduce photography of the highestprofessional quality. As we have said before,you will be known by the quality of yourphotography more than anything else.Maintain the attitude that “nothing is toogood for the Navy.”

Medium-format cameras can be hand-held, focusedrapidly, and many images can be produced in a relativelyshort time. The film size, however, is not as conduciveto high-quality photography as the 8x10 or 4x5 formats.The main disadvantage of a medium-format camera forproduct photography is its lack of adjustments to correctdistortion.

35MM CAMERAS.–Finally, we have the smallformat, 35mm camera. Because of its small film size,many photographers do not even consider it for use inproduct photography, particularly in the studio. It does,however, have its place in product photography,particularly when a large number of exposures must bemade in rapid succession or when working space is verylimited; for example, inside the intake ducts of a jetaircraft.

Which of the three format cameras-large, medium,or small format-should you use for productphotography? There is no best camera to use; there is,however, only one best camera to use for eachassignment, and you must be able to choose the one thatbest meets the needs of the photographic assignment athand.

Lights

The lighting equipment most commonly used forproduct photography is incandescent lamps andelectronic flash or strobes. All lighting units have one orseveral of the following means of controlling light:reflectors, lenses, barn doors, diffusers, snoots,umbrellas, or reflector boards.

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SPOTLIGHTS. –Spotlights are one of the mostimportant lights in small product photography. Theyproduce light with a relatively high intensity and awell-defined, sharp quality. The rays of light producedby the Fresnel lens of the spotlight sharply separates thehighlights from the shadow areas. A spotlight can createa visual sense of subject shape and bulk. When used ina skimming or crosslighting fashion, it renders sharp,crisp texture. Because the light rays are collimated, orparallel, with little flare or spillover, a spotlight produceshigh contrast. One great asset of spotlights in productphotography is the controllability of the lights. The lightcan be controlled to highlight or isolate an area of thesubject. Unwanted spillover into other areas can easilybe avoided. Through proper use of accessories, such assnoots and barn doors, the control can be greatlyextended. A disadvantage of spotlights is the harshquality of highlights produced on some subjects. Brightspots on the subject may be pinpointed and hard toavoid. Nonetheless, a spotlight is a most effective mainlight for product photography.

FLOODLIGHTS.–In product photography,floodlights are used to cover a large area with relativelyeven illumination. The quality of light from a floodlightis very much dependent on the reflector surface.Polished, metallic reflectors produce a specular,sparkling quality, while matte-surface reflectorsproduce a softer quality of illumination. The quality ofillumination from a floodlight is also dependent on itsdistance from the subject. At a given distance, the spreadpattern for a given light unit is almost even. Some unitsmay produce hot spots when used too close or too farfrom the subject. The larger the reflector and the closerit is to the subject, the more diffused the light becomes.

BOUNCE LIGHT AND UMBRELLAS.–The useof bounce light for product photography produces apleasant quality. The light, because it is coming fromone general direction, not an obvious source, surroundsthe subject with soft illumination, gently enhancingcurves and shapes while producing soft but distinctshadows. Bounce light can be used for either overallillumination or as fill illumination.

Umbrellas, being large and somewhat parabolic inshape, are more efficient than plane or board reflectors.

FUNDAMENTAL PRODUCT LIGHTING

Given a product assignment, you must determineways to photograph or present the subject best. Asidefrom product arrangement and picture composition,

which must lead to an understanding of the purpose ofthe picture, you must first deal with the lighting. By thecorrect use of light, you can create a natural lighting,which is attractive, and simulates outdoor light. Inproduct photography, you should always strive toproduce lighting that appears natural, as though theproduct was illuminated by natural sunlight. After all, itis natural daylight by which all light is judged.Illumination from the main light should come fromabove and somewhat behind the subject, usually fromabout a 40- to 60-degree angle. In many commercialtexts the main light is also referred to as the key light;these terms are used interchangeably by professionalphotographers. There should be one definite light sourceand only one set of dominant shadows, and the shadowsmust be illuminated sufficiently so the shadow detail ismaintained in the film image. In a naturally lightedoutdoor scene, this shadow detail is preserved bygeneral skylight illumination. In the studio, this shadowdetail is preserved or created by the correct use of soft,diffused, fill lights or reflectors.

In the studio, you can create the lighting effect of anovercast sky with a light tent or by using indirectlighting. This type of lighting is especially useful whenyou are photographing shiny products, such as baremetal and glass.

Backlighting is one of the essential tools in productlighting. Establishing the main light behind the subjectoften helps present three-dimensional form better thanfrontlighting. Aside from the subject being rimmed withlight, which separates it from the background, theforeground shadow duplicates the shape of the object,making it easier to identify.

LIGHTING BASIC SHAPES

Most small product items fall under two basic orgeneral shapes: rectangular and spherical. Theillustrations in the following paragraphs show ways thatbasic lighting can be used to present shape. Although aperfect rectangle and a perfect circle are used in theillustrations, they are not intended to limit your lightingsetups. You must, of course, make lighting adjustments,depending on how rectangular or spherical the subjectis and the way you want to present it.

Lighting Rectangular Shapes

Rectangular- or box-shaped products can be lightedwith just three lights-a spotlight from the rear and twofloodlights, one on each side of the camera.

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Two floodlights, one on each side of the camera., atcamera level “flatten” the subject.

Diffused light from above does not help. There is nocontrast between the two front planes.

Instead, start the lighting slowly, one light at a time. Herethe left-front floodlight starts the lighting.

The spotlight from the rear is established.

Now add the third and final light. This is the right-frontfloodlight that should provide only about half theintensity produced by the other floodlight. Notice thebackground shadow and the way it helps to separate thesubject from the background; also, notice each plane ofthe subject has its own tonal quality, giving it shape andform. The foreground shadow, besides helping tovisualize shape, tends to hold the block to the ground.

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Lighting Spherical Shapes

Spherical- or round-shaped products can be just assimply lighted, but this time the basic setup requires fivelights.

With only the background lighted and no light falling onthe ball, the ball appears as a hole cut in the backgroundpaper.

To light a round object, start the lighting setup by firstestablishing the main spotlight high, behind, and to theleft of the subject.

Add a smaller spotlight at subject level in a position atthe left rear of the set.

Adding a low, third spotlight from the right rear formsa bright highlight in the top of the area lighted by themain light. This adds a sense of roundness to the ball.

The final light in the setup is a weak fill-in light thatchanges the effect and produces a fully lighted ball thatshows maximum shape, form, and texture.

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Through experience, you will learn what effects toexpect from lighting. Good lighting is created throughan orderly, thought-out process involving several stepsthat should be taken in chronological order:

1. Previsualize. You should form a mental pictureof how the subject should look What should be shown?What part of the subject should be featured or be thecenter of interest?

2. Determine what type of lighting to use. Fromwhat direction should the main light come? Whereshould the fill lights be located? From what distanceshould the light come?

3. Select the equipment that can best do the job.What camera 4x5 inch, 8x10 inch, 2 1/4 inch, or35mm? What kind of lights-strobe, incandescent,flood, or spot? What accessories are needed-reflectors,barn doors, umbrellas, and so forth.

4. Establish the lighting. Is the key light doingwhat you want? Would another light do a better job? Isthere enough shadow detail? Is more or less fill lightneeded? Are there too many highlights and are they inthe right places? Are the highlights too bright? Do eachof the lights add to the overall quality of the lighting, orcan some of them be eliminated? Will the subject recordon the film as previsualized?

5. Determine the exposure. What should be theexposure for the highlights and the shadows? What isthe correct exposure for the overall set? Will the filmrecord the contrast range between important highlightsand shadows?

6. Check the set. Is light spilling onto the cameralens causing flare? Is the composition as it should be?Are important details obstructed?

7. Expose the film.

CREATING THE LIGHTING

For most product photography, the first light to beplaced is the main light, then lights to create highlightsare added, and finally any fill lights. However, the orderin which the lights are placed depend somewhat on thesubject to be photographed. When, for example, theproduct is tented, the procedure should be to establishan overall, high level of illumination first. Other lightsshould then be added to better show shape, form, andbulk of the subject.

You should always start your lighting setup with themain light. The usual position for the main light inproduct photography is high and somewhat behind the

subject. The position of this light is very important. Toestablish this light, you should do the following:

1. Darken the set.

2. Through the camera ground glass, view theeffect of the main light on the subject. Have an assistantmove the main light in the general area previsualized forthe main light. Establish the main light in a positionwhere it produces the most pleasing and desired effect.Remember, the farther the main light is from the subject,the smaller the highlights and the sharper the edges ofthe shadows. As the light is moved, notice the change inhighlight and shadow areas. It is important for you toobserve the effect of the lighting (through the groundglass) exactly as the camera will see it. Thecharacteristics of the main light greatly influence theoverall quality of the picture.

3. Add secondary spotlights as needed to createhighlights and texture. Highlights other than thoseproduced by the main light may be needed to helpseparate and define subject planes as well as to separatethe subject from the background or its surroundings. Byusing secondary spotlights in a crosslighting orskimming manner, you can emphasize the surfacetexture of the subject.

Establishing the secondary lights to produce thedesired highlights and texture is more time-consumingthan positioning either the main or the fill lights. Whenthe subject is a complex shape or has many planes,several small, secondary lights may be needed.

4. And finally, once the main light and highlightshave been established, the fill-in illumination is appliedto provide the appropriate shadow detail. The fill lightillumination is usually supplied by one or more diffusedfloodlights or reflectors. Care must be taken to ensurethat the fill-in lighting does not cast distinguishableshadows. This problem can generally be solved bypositioning the fill lights close to the camera and at alow angle or about tabletop height.

Every light you use in product photographyshould have a definite purpose in creating the finalphotograph. A dominant light source must prevailwithout undue competition from other light sources.If the addition of a new light creates new problems,then start over again. Remember, the simplestapproaches to product lighting are the best.

Lighting Ratio

Whenever you light the set for small productphotography, you must keep lighting ratios in mind. A

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Figure 6-11.–Using painted light.302.187

useful range between highlights and shadows, in whichthe film can record detail, must be established. Thisuseful range depends completely on the reflectancerange of the subject.

With most color films, this range between highlightsand shadows must be kept within five f/stops. Thismeans a ratio of about 32:1. Any area of the subject(except specular highlights) that is outside of this rangeis reproduced either too light or too dark in the finalpicture. A reflected light meter can be used to find therelationship between the useful or desired diffusedhighlight and the darkest desired shadow. A differenceof two f/stops is a scene contrast of 4: 1; four stops is a16:1 contrast. Most black-and-white film can recordboth highlight and shadow detail when this range is notgreater than about six f/stops.

Painted Light

Painted light (fig. 6-11) is one of the best ways toobtain even illumination and soft shadows. With thistype of lighting, only one light is used. The light ismoved constantly up and down and around the subjectand its background. Painted light is effective forilluminating subjects made up of many smaller parts thatcast shadows onto adjacent parts, such as printed circuitsor the inside of a radio.

When you are using the painted light technique, theexposure must be increased by a factor of 3. Todetermine the painted light exposure, hold the lightstationary at the same distance it will be used from thesubject. Read the exposure with your light meter.Multiply the exposure time indicated by the meter by 3,the painted light factor.

Example: With the light meter, you have determinedthe exposure to be 6 seconds. Multiply the exposuretime, 6 seconds, by the painted light factor,3 (6 x 3 = 18 seconds).

The minimum exposure time required when usingpainted light is 10 seconds. An exposure of less than 10seconds does not give the photographer enough time toilluminate the subject evenly.

PRODUCT PHOTOGRAPHYTECHNIQUES

Product photography requires patience and a keeneye. The slightest change in lighting or subjectplacement can add to or subtract dramatically from yourphotograph. Pay particular attention to small details ofyour photograph because this helps to provide sharp,high-quality images with fine detail.

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Figure 6-12.–Tent lighting setup.

TENTING

Photographing small products can be quite difficultif they include bright reflective surfaces. You can easilysee other nearby objects reflected in them andsometimes even the whole studio. Also, light from thelighting units may reflect off the surface very stronglyat a particular point. This can create an unwanted brighthighlight. There are two ways to get around theseproblems. You could use many lights and add reflectorsto make sure the lighting is even. This may solve theproblem of light from the lighting units reflecting off thesubject surface, but unfortunately there are two greatdisadvantages: it requires more lights than most photolabs have, and you still have reflections. The other wayto solve the problem is to use the tenting technique.

The tent consists of a frame covered by a translucentwhite material that casts a diffused illumination on thesubject (fig. 6-12). The lights are placed outside the tentand directed onto the translucent material. The color ofthe background, which is placed inside the tent with thesubject, depends on the subject and the effect desired.Strips of black or colored paper taped to the inside of

the tent add the necessary dark accents or “bring to life”a colorless object.

DULLING REFLECTIONS

Another way to control reflections is to use a mattespray or dulling compound. Matte spray comes in apressurized can and is useful for the high gloss ofhighlights on shiny, metal objects with curved surfaces.When used, the spray should be applied to the entiresurface of the object. However, do not indiscriminatelyspray all types of surfaces. The spray may damage somefinishes or plastics. When used on metal objects, it caneasily be wiped off after the picture is made. Matte spraycan also be applied to the back of a glass of clear liquidto cause the backlighting to spread more evenly over theback surface.

Cosmetic eyeliner, applied with a soft makeup orcamel-hair brush, can also be used to help controlreflections.

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237.221Figure 6-13.–Using a mirror to show both front and back of

the subject in one photograph.

USING A MIRROR

It is often difficult to set up a camera for interior andcloseup work to obtain the most desirable viewpoint.Space limitations or pieces of equipment may obstructthe view and make it impossible to photograph anassembly directly. Frequently, a mirror can be used toyour advantage in product photography. A mirror placedat the proper angle and distance shows the opposite sideof an object in the reflection, while the camera recordsthe front side directly (fig. 6-13). For example, inphotographing an object for damage assessment wherethe damage is on two or more surfaces, you may find itdifficult or impossible to show all the damage in oneview without the aid of a mirror. In such cases, the valueof a picture may be greatly increased by showing all ofthe damage in one picture. One instance would be inphotographing a cylinder that has been scored orcracked on the inside as well as damaged outside. Bothsurfaces may be shown in one view by using a mirror.

You may often find it desirable to obtain a pictureof an object or part that shows its relation to the completeassembly. When it is impossible to position the cameraand see the part or object directly, the problem may besolved by using a mirror to reflect the image of anassembled part.

Taking a picture of a reflected image presents some Occasionally, exploded views (fig. 6-14) of smallproblems that are unique to mirror photography. It is objects are photographed in a group to show the variousdifficult to prevent the mirror from reflecting other parts of an assembly. Normally, they are arranged in theobjects that are not wanted in the picture. You must be layout in the same order in which they are assembled orcareful and place the mirror at the proper angle to disassembled. Pay particular attention to theeliminate unwanted reflections. When arranging the composition of objects as they appear on the ground

Figure 6-14.–Exploded views.237.222

lights, avoid illuminating an object that producesundesirable reflections. Often a screen can be set up toblock the reflection of unwanted objects.

Correct lighting of an object for mirror photographyis slightly more difficult. Lighting on both the front andback sides of the object must be evenly balanced;otherwise, the mirrored image appears too dark or toolight. Direct the light on the object from the mirror sideas well as the camera side. When it is impossible to placea light on the mirror side of the object, use the mirror toreflect the light onto the back side of the object. Thisrequires careful placement of the camera in relation tothe light source to avoid strong rays of light fromentering the lens. Spotlights are usually more suitablethan floodlights as sources of illumination, because abeam of light is easier to control.

Focus the camera carefully when photographing areflected image. Usually, it is necessary to use a smallf/stop to increase the depth of field sufficiently. Whenfocusing on a reflected image, the lens must be set forthe distance from camera to mirror PLUS the distancefrom subject to mirror. This naturally requires a muchgreater depth of field than is ordinarily required.

EXPLODED VIEWS

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glass, rather than as they appear to the eye from thecamera position. Attempt to arrange them so they fill thepicture area in an interesting manner. Do not arrangethem in a long, narrow line with black space above andbelow them.

Exploded view photographs provide the viewerwith positive identification of the many parts and piecesthat make: up a given machine, instrument, ormanufactured assembly. When photographed on a lightbox, you can illuminate the shadows. The various parts,shown in order of assembly, appear to float in the air incorrect alignment and perspective.

A substitute for the light-box background is a sheetof plate glass firmly supported approximately 20 or 24inches from the floor. Two floodlights, directed fromeither side of the glass, bounce light evenly from thewhite seamless paper on the floor up through the glass.

Preparing the Parts

Disassemble the parts carefully so they can be laidout in order of assembly. Clean each piece thoroughly,removing any lubrication or foreign deposits. Lay theparts out as they are to be photographed, and study eachpiece before you proceed. Large areas of stainless steelor bright metal should be sprayed with a dulling sprayto prevent objectionable “hot spots.” Smaller areas canbe treated with an eyeliner.

Where edges or screw holes do not show readily,they can be edged with a black grease pencil.Conversely, when the part is dark, white pencil or chalkcan be used to define it.

Setting Up the Parts

Place the parts on the glass in order of assembly. Tostand small parts up, mount them on a small strip orsquare of acetate with a little beeswax supporting thepiece from behind. Even the smallest screw should bemounted on a base so it can be slid into exact positionlater. The base should be cut as small as possible so itdoes not interfere with other parts lined up close to it.Heavier pieces can be mounted on small squares ofglass.

To obtain an illusion of height, you can move theparts away from the camera There is a limit to thisprocedure, however, and when a part becomes too smallin relation to others, it should be elevated. Various sizeblocks (painted flat white) and, in some cases, glassshelves or long, narrow strips of glass are sometimesused.

Camera Angle

For the majority of subjects, the most desirablecamera angle is 45 degrees above and to the side of theassembly. From this vantage point, you can see the top,side, and end of most parts.

PHOTOGRAPHING GLASS

In photographing glass, it is the background andreflections from the background that light the glass.Glass objects can be pictured clearly by lighting them insuch a way that they stand out as dark outlined shapesagainst a light background or as a light outlined shapeagainst a medium or dark background. These techniquesof lighting are actually variations of a basic silhouettemethod.

The Set

The setup for photographing glass products consistsof white seamless background paper. The backgroundpaper is curved forward on the floor so it is completelyunderneath the area containing the setup. Place twosupports, such as sawhorses or tables, on the forwardpart of the background paper. The supports should bespaced to hold a sheet of plate glass. The plate of glassgives you a transparent worktable through which lightbounced off the background paper in back of andunderneath the glass product will pass. Strips of coloredor black paper can be attached, out of camera view, tothe background paper for edge effects to the glassproducts.

Because the light reflected from the background isusually the only source of illumination, the filmexposure is relatively long. Proper camera equipmentand a sturdy tripod are necessary to prevent movementduring the rather long exposure.

The height or camera angle varies for differentsubjects and showing the ellipse or oval of the rim addsdepth and roundness to the picture, since most glassitems you photograph are three-dimensional.

Lighting

You should be able to darken the studio completely.An overhead light, an exit sign, or even a light leakaround a door can cause problem reflections. And noteliminating unwanted reflections results in much timeand effort wasted.

Lighting glass products (fig. 6-15) is mostly a matterof personal taste. It can be learned by practice and by

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302.188Figure 6-15.–A typical setup for lighting glassware.

studying photographs of glass items. When you arestudying pictures of glass objects, notice how all thegood pictures were made using variations of basicsilhouette lighting. You will find it is easy to produce aninfinite variety of effects by simply changing orredirecting the bounce light from the background.

In photographing glass there are no hard-and-fastrules for the placement of lights. The lights should,however, be placed with great care. Changing theangle just a little can drastically change the lightingeffect and at the same time cause flare problems.When the lights are positioned to cause a great deal ofreflection from the background and this reflection isuncontrolled, it may cause lens flare and result in flatnegatives. Lens flare can be controlled or eliminatedby erecting a black tent to extend from the lens boardto the subject. This tent must be kept outside the angleof view of the camera. A focusing cloth draped overwood dowels works well. When photographing glassproducts, you should always use a matte box over thecamera lens.

When the lighting produces a true silhouette, somehighlights (fig. 6-16) may be desired to add sparkle tothe glass. This can be done by using front bounce lightfrom a narrow, diffused light source. To create such asource, attach a piece of white mounting board to onebarn door of a floodlight and control the width of thelight beam emitted with the opposite barn door. Thisnarrow beam of light can be placed on either side of thecamera and should be at camera level or higher. The

spacing between highlights on a cylindrical object,created by this method, can be controlled by moving thelight closer to or farther from the lens axis. Do not allowhighlights to obscure etching on the glass.

Exposure

To determine the exposure for photography of glassobjects, you should take a normal reflected exposuremeter reading of the background and increase theindicated exposure by four times.

Black-and-white film should be given a shorter thanaverage developing time because the lighting ratio isusually very great, and excessive contrast will resultwith normal development.

Figure 6-16.–Adding highlights to glass products.

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302.190Figure 6-17–Sandwiching two negatives to eliminate the background.

BLOCKING OUT A BACKGROUND

It is a simple matter to eliminate or block out anunwanted background in product photography. Thetechnique involves two negatives. Two separate picturesare made of the product setup. One exposure oncontinuous-tone film is made of the product lightednormally. A second exposure, on high contrast line-copyfilm, is made of the object silhouetted against a well-litwhite background. The two negatives are thensandwiched together and printed.

The setup for this procedure is much the same as fora straight product picture. The lighting, however, is alittle different. Figure 6-17 shows a typical setup for thistwo negative technique. The procedure is as follows:

1. Support the product so it cannot move betweenthe two exposures. Use a small support because it mustbe opaqued out of your line copy or backgroundnegative. A light table may make a good support, butwhen some other support is used, keep it far enoughfrom the background so the background can be lightedseparately.

2. Light the product to provide maximum detail.Do not worry about objectional shadows on the back-ground or visually separating the product from thebackground. In fact, with this technique, lighting thatseparates the subject from the background may cause aloss of detail at the edges of the subject.

3. Use a white paper background that is largeenough to fill the camera view. The background illum-

ination must be very even because the high-contrast filmused to make the background negative has a shortexposure latitude.

4. Use continuous-tone film to make the subjectnegative. Use Kodalith Ortho film to make the back-ground negative.

5. It does not matter what exposure you make first.However, each exposure must be treated separately.Only the lights for the exposure being made should beturned on.

6. Because lenses can shift focus at various f/stops,the same f/stop must be used for both exposures and thecamera must be rock steady-it cannot move betweenexposures.

7. Load one film holder-one side with con-tinuous-tone film and one side with high-contrast film.

8. Make the exposures. When you are making thebackground exposure, be certain there are no specularreflections bouncing off the background onto thesubject, and use only the background lights. Whenmaking the subject exposure, use only the subject lights.

9. Process continuous-tone film and line-copy filmas recommended in the Photo-Lab Index.

When you include a ruler (fig. 6-18) in the scene inproduct photography, especially for damage reports orforensic purposes, it indicates exact scale and simplifiesprinting the photograph to exact size.

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PH3 Yvonne Albritton302.191

Figure 6-18.–Ruler included in product photograph.

CORRECTIVE PHOTOGRAPHY

Corrective photography is the correct represen-tation of three-dimensional objects on a single plane (thephotograph).

At one time or another, you have probably taken apicture with the camera tilted up or at an angle to thesubject, and you probably learned by experience whatthe resulting distortion did to an otherwise good picture.Most of the cameras you use on location do not havemovements or adjustments for correcting vertical orhorizontal distortion that is created when the camera istilted or used at an angle to the subject. Such inflexiblecameras do not allow you to present the subject correctlyfrom any camera position that shows two or three sidesof the subject. For the correct presentation of suchsubjects, camera movements must be used. Manystudents of photography, as well as manyself-acclaimed pros, are inclined to use cameras lackingthe essential advantages (camera movements andadjustments) of a view camera. Instead they use their“regular” camera for every assignment even when aview camera is the only correct camera for the job. Referto chapter 4 to re-familiarize yourself with the viewcamera. Figure 6-19A and figure 6-19B show the

PHAN M. Lakner302.138A

Figure 6-19A.–Uncorrected vertical distortion.

PHAN M. Lakner302.138B

Figure 6-19B.–Correected vertical distortion.

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difference in uncorrected and corrected verticaldistortion.

ARCHITECTURAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Architectural photography are pictures of man-made structures, especially buildings. These picturesmay be made for planning, construction progress,illustrative purposes, inspection and survey, and othersimilar purposes.

PLANNING PHOTOGRAPHY

Architectural pictures made for planning purposesmay fall into several categories. For example, the civilengineer working with an architect on design plans fora new commissary store at the naval air station may needa picture of the commissary store at the naval shipyardto show the architect the general concept of how the newstore is to look The engineer may also need the samepicture plus pictures of other buildings near theproposed construction site to be included in the contractbids. These planning pictures may have to showobstructions to heavy equipment, or where the new storewill be located in relation to other buildings, proposedand existing. The architectural pictures you make maybe presented to the U.S. Congress for allocation ofnew-construction funds.

CONSTRUCTION PHOTOGRAPHY

Construction progress architectural pictures, (fig.6-20A and fig. 6-20B) or simply construction progresspictures, are used as proof of construction progress fromarchitect-to-builder-to-Navy. Whenever buildings orfacilities are being built, a photographic record of theproject should be made. These pictures may showwhether the contractor did or did not followspecifications as written in the contract. They can alsoserve as a visual record of the material used inconstruction. In addition to their normal preservation aspart of the construction contract record, they form thebasis for periodic reports to higher echelons, includingCongressional Armed Services Committees. Some ofthese pictures may be of great historical value, but theirmost important function is to serve as documentation forconstruction work

For a complete record, pictures must be taken atintervals throughout the construction period.Excavation, foundation work, and the roughing-inprocess progress slowly; pictures made every 7 to 14days, starting at day one, may be adequate to show this

phase of the work. The rest of the work may go morequickly and require pictures every day or so.

For an accurate record of construction, the picturesare usually made from the same camera position fromday to day. However, as construction progresses, it maybe necessary to make additional views, both exterior andinterior.

The person for whom you are doing thephotography should explain any special effect desiredin the pictures; for example, accenting structural texture,highlighting a specific construction detail, pinpointingan architectural feature, or concentrating on anexceptional landscape view. And do not forget to makethe last picture-the one that shows the completedproject. We do not mean the one made the day thecontractor removed his last hammer from the jobsite. Ofcourse, you made that picture. We mean take a pictureseveral months after the project is “finished,” when thegrass is green and the trees are planted.

The same care you give to other types ofphotography should be given to construction progressphotography. Do use good composition and lightingtechniques and other similar applications ofprofessional photographic skill. Take particular carewith shadow areas that may contain important details.

ILLUSTRATIVE PHOTOGRAPHY

The uses of illustrative architectural pictures in theNavy vary greatly. The commanding officer may wantpictures that concentrate on overall design to show at ameeting with the admiral. The civil engineer may wantpictures that show functional aspects of a building to beincluded in a report, and the operations officer may wanta picture of the operations building, crash and rescue firehouse, and the control tower to decorate his office. Theeditor of the station paper may need pictures that showa building before and after a self-help project. And, ofcourse, the publisher of Welcome Aboard wants a pictureof the BEQ and the mess hall. All these pictures areconsidered illustrative architectural photography andshould be made to show the buildings to best advantage.

This type of photography is best done with a viewcamera so horizontal and vertical distortion can beovercome as much as possible. When making this typeof picture, be sure there are no distracting elements inthe picture area. The foreground and background shouldbe clean. When possible, have all the windows and doorsthe same; for example, the windows should all be openor closed and the same for doors. When the windows

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Figure 6-20A.–Construction in progress.

Figure 6-20B.–Construction in progress.

133.499

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have shades or blinds, they should also all be in the sameposition.

INSPECTION AND SURVEYPHOTOGRAPHY

As with the other types of architecturalphotography-buildings or facilities-inspection andsurvey pictures play an important role in the Navy. TheNaval Investigative Service (NIS) may need pictures ofa building to point out weaknesses in physical security.The fire department uses pictures of the station theaterto train the fire fighters in evacuation measures. And thesafety officer certainly needs good pictures to show theextent of damage or existing hazardous conditions tobuildings or personnel.

Exterior Photography

Buildings must be photographed pretty much asthey exist. With portraits, for example, you can ask thesitter to smile and pose, and with still life you can alterthe arrangement. You cannot do either of these with abuilding. The main controls you have over the pictureare the viewpoint and the lighting.

For exterior architectural pictures, the position ofthe sun in relation to the subject is a very importantconsideration. Which sides of the building are lightedand at what time of day? Where are the shadows cast?

Architecture is dead without light. Like the sculptor,the architect shapes forms in relation to lighting. Thelighting at a site is often studied long before the firstplans take shape on the drawing board. The lightingbecomes a deciding factor in determining the characterof a building, the choice of materials, and the locationof the building.

The nature and direction of the light are the twomain components of our concept of lighting. “Normallighting” is often preferable for perfect reproduction ofmaterials; that is, light from a slightly overcast sky. Thisdiffused light reduces contrast in the texture of thematerial just enough to create a good balance betweenthe highlights and shadows. A building as a whole isoften depicted better in direct, angled sunlight from acloudless sky. Filters are used to control the contrastbetween subject and sky. Direct sunlight often producescontrasty pictures with simplified lines that maysometimes be preferable as an illustrative effect. Thelight in cloudy weather is the worst kind of lighting forarchitectural photography. Try to avoid making picturesof a building in cloudy weather. The direction of the lighton sunny or slightly overcast days governs the form of

the building and the ability of the photograph to bringout its characteristic features. Since the position of thesun in relation to the building constantly changes, thereis only one way to determine the best lighting-study thebuilding at different times of the day. Only then is itreally possible to identify the best lighting for thebuilding. Moreover, you should be prepared to study thelighting from different angles. Do not be content withyour first camera angle. You should always check to seewhether there is a better angle.

A building should be depicted so the viewerexperiences its volume and materials. This is oftenimpossible, except with side lighting. The greater theangle of the light, the greater its ability to produce aforceful re-creation of materials and shapes (fig. 6-21).

Also to be considered are the surroundings. Is thereconstruction going on in the background? Is there adistracting landscape or unrelated building that must beconcealed? What is the best camera position for makingthis particular picture ? Can I get far enough away topresent an undistorted image? Should I have a ladder tostand on or can I make this picture from on top of anotherbuilding or must I arrange with public works for a buckettruck? What number of viewpoints are required? Whatfocal-length lens is best for each view?

Viewpoint

The greatest difficulties in photographing buildingsis converging verticals. When you hold the camera so itis pointing horizontally, you often find there is too muchuninteresting foreground included in the picture, andyou may be “chopping” the top of the building off. So,tip the camera back to eliminate most of that foregroundand get the top of the building back into the picture.Now, look what has happened-the vertical lines areconverging; they are no longer parallel; they are slopingin at the top of the picture. The picture is distorted. Agood architectural photographer does not produce sucha picture. Instead, he uses a view camera and does itproperly.

Interior Photography

Photographs of interiors can be grouped under threeheadings:

Public interiors of all kinds, such as assemblyhalls, places of worship, libraries, galleries,auditoriums, and theaters

Residential interiors, both large and small

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PHAN Wright302.141

Figure 6-21.–Exterior architectural photograph shot with 45-degree lighting.

Details of interiors, mainly close-ups ofadornments, technical features, interior decorations, andso forth.

Photographs of public interiors are oftencharacterized by size, dominance, scale, and measure-ments. You must be careful of fluorescent lights whenshooting color film. They can produce color casts. If thefluorescent tubes are all of the same type, the color castcan be corrected with filters. Fluorescent lighting is,however, often excellent for black-and-whitephotography. In interior photography of publicbuildings, an attempt may be made to shoot from asomewhat higher camera angle than eye level to providean overview of the scene. It is important not to have thefirst detail in the subject too far from the lower edge ofthe picture. The interior should glide into the imageframe in a natural way. Maximum depth of field is theonly acceptable technique here.

Another important problem in public and residentialinteriors is the balance between natural outdoor light andindoor artificial light. When lighting is mixed this way,it is better to delay shooting until the daylight is too weakto overwhelm the interior lighting. Using the light of the

midday sun is definitely wrong. It is also wrong tophotograph interiors so late in the day that the sky seenthrough windows is completely black So a time nearsunset or, if you wish to avoid visitors, the early morninghours is recommended, especially for colorphotography. Measurement of the ambient interiorillumination and the outdoor light gives you a good ideaof the best time to take pictures. Lenses with built-in leafshutters are major assets in interior photography whensome daylight is present, because they synchronize withelectronic flash at all speeds. The choice of a suitableshutter speed allows you to obtain balance betweendaylight and flash illumination.

INDUSTRIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Photography is regarded as indispensable to Navyindustry. You say you did not know the Navy was or hadindustry? Well, stop and think for a minute. How aboutthe naval aviation depots, the public works centers, andthe shipyards? The demands for good photography forresearch, development, documentation, andcommunication placed on us by these industrial types of

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activities has made photography an integral part of theNavy’s industrial framework.

You should be able to tackle just about any photojob that comes up. When shooting industrialphotography, you must work closely with research anddevelopment engineers, machinists, and techniciansfar outside the realm of photography. You must be themaster of photographic techniques, and have an eyefor good pictures-plus imagination for creativephotography.

Know Your Subject

Before a satisfactory photographic record of anindustrial situation can be produced, you must havean adequate understanding of the subject. Forinstance, when you are called on to photograph amalfunctioning machine that is capable of performingseveral operations in the manufacture of an aircraftwing component, you should be told-betteryet-shown, how the machine, or one like it, works.With this information, you are better able to shoot themalfunctioning machine and show what the problemis or what is causing the problem. Granted, you couldprobably make the picture if someone just pointed youin the right direction. It is not always possible todiscuss each intimate detail of a problem, but it iscertainly possible to make clear just what aphotograph should illustrate. This kind of preparationis possible only when there is cooperation between thephotographer and the requester. Coordination ofphotographic activities within an industrialorganization promotes a better understandingbetween everyone concerned, and it leads to a moreeffective application of photography.

Safety Precautions

Photographers, like other people in and aroundindustrial operations, must observe existing safetyprecautions. If your imaging facility does muchindustrial photography, it should have, as a minimum,a safety helmet and protective clothing available foryou to wear.

An industrial photographer, like otherphotographers, must be able to move around todetermine the best camera angle. You must also keepin touch with the people responsible for safety toavoid risks to yourself and others. The people in the

photographs must also be shown wearing their safetyhelmets, hearing protectors, and so forth.

The camera also must be protected. It is aprecision instrument and should be given adequatecare and protection. When in use, the camera usuallydoes not need any more protection than thephotographer. But it should be given extra protectionwhen used in places exposed to flying sparks,spattering molten metal, and so forth. A skylight filteron the lens should always be used to help protect thelens. This filter does not affect exposure or colorbalance but does protect the lens element. Buying anew filter is a lot cheaper than buying a new lens.

A lens shade should be the constant companion ofevery lens. It keeps a lot of extraneous light fromentering the lens and can also protect the lens fromcertain types of damage.

Photographing Large Machines andEquipment

The photography of large machines or equipment,such as hydraulic presses and aircraft during rework orships during construction or overhaul, presents specialproblems. The bigger the equipment or unit, the moredifficult it is to photograph.

In many instances, the equipment may be part of theindustrial production setup and the picture making mustbe planned so it does not interfere with production.

Pictures may be needed at various stages of work toshow wiring, piping, and components that are concealedduring later steps of production. Pictures are able toshow the location and methods of production andassembly. These pictures are often used to highlightcertain aspects of work equipment failures, repairs, andmodifications.

The Right Viewpoint

When you photograph large equipment or machines(fig. 6-22). a series of pictures is one of the best ways tocover the assignment. The larger and more complex thesubject, the greater the need for a series of pictures. Theseries of pictures should be planned to record importantdetails of the subject. The views to be considered are asfollows:

Plane views-show detail in various componentsand parts of the equipment

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Figure 6-22.

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Figure 6-23.–Catapult retraction system.

JOCS R.P. Benjamin302.282

Relationship views-show the relationship orassociation of various parts and components, one toanother (fig. 6-23)

Complete views-show the equipment fromdifferent angles

The plane view is made of an entire unit or, if theunit is very large, segments of the unit. Plane views are

also made of sections of large units to show greaterdetail. Along with the plane views, three-quarter viewsmay be needed to show the relationship of unit parts thatdo not appear in the plane views. Complete overallviews of the subject are often made from a highviewpoint. An oblique view from a high vantage pointoften shows the three-dimensional relationship betweenequipment parts.

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302.283Figure 6-24.–A starboard-bow view of the Soviet-guided missile cruiser Slava.

INTELLIGENCE PHOTOGRAPHY

The purpose of intelligence or reconnaissancephotography is to gain information about an enemy orpotential enemy. Now that the Soviet Union has beendisestablished, the Russian threat to our nationalsecurity has been greatly reduced. This does not suggestthat intelligence photography is no longer required, butthat our focus on other threats has intensified. Whetherit be interdiction of drug smuggling operations fromSouth or Central America or the potential nuclear threatof a third world nation, the need for intelligencephotography will always exist.

Many people think intelligence photographs arealways taken with highly sophisticated equipment froman aerial or satellite platform. While it is true that a greatportion of intelligence is gathered through these means,much information can be gathered at ground or sea level.In this training manual, aerial collection of informationis not addressed. However, intelligence photography

from ships or shore, specifically the photography ofships, aircraft, and ports is discussed (fig. 6-24).

When you are shooting photographs for intelligencepurposes, high-quality and sharp image definition is ofutmost importance. Black-and-white film is primarilyused for intelligence photography due to its finer grainand higher resolution than color film. Wheneverpossible, black-and-white and color film, as well asmotion video, should be used to document subjects ofinterest for intelligence purposes. The bestblack-and-white film for this purpose is KodakTechnical Pan (Tech Pan 2415), because of its ultra-finegrain and extremely high resolving power. For colorintelligence photographs, you should use Kodak Ektarfilms, because of their fine grain, higher sharpness, andthe variety of speeds available (IS0 25, 125, 1000); theyalso have the ability to produce high-qualityenlargements. Although the resolution of video isinferior to that of film, the ability to view video instantlyis advantageous for subjects of special interest.

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SHIPS

When assigned to provide photographic coverageof a ship for intelligence collection purposes, you shouldattempt to provide as much information about thesubject as possible. The standard nine-point coverageassists in providing this information in a photograph.The standard-nine points are as follows:

1. Bow

2. Starboard bow

3. Starboard beam

4. Starboard quarter

5. Stem

6. Port quarter

7. Port beam

8. Port bow

9. Vertical

The two most important shots are the starboard beamand the port beam. These two angles are most helpful toanalysts for determining the overall dimensions of theship.

High-angle photographs, such as from a crane,tower, or superstructure, are desired whenever possible.Closeup photographs taken with telephoto lenses arealso important to support the basic nine-point coverage.You should photograph the following items (in priorityorder):

1. Over-the-side equipment and buoys

2. Missiles and launchers

3. Radars

4. Antennas

5. Sonar domes

6. Sensor protrudents

7. Helicopters (on deck and in flight)

8. Unusual optical or electro-optical devices

9. Unusual activity

10. Guns

11. Superstructure

12. Cranes, masts, and booms

13. Ports, hatches, and openings

14. Appendages and fittings

15. Identification numbers, flags, and markings

16. Oceanographic deck equipment

It is good practice to overlap your coverage whenshooting with a telephoto lens. This will aid indetermining the working relationships betweencomponents as well as providing the largest imagepossible on the negative or videotape. Photographsthat provide information pertaining to cargo,personnel count, and bridge or electronic detail maybe invaluable. It is better to overshoot than not tocover an area that may provide critical informationabout the subject.

More times than not, the lighting conditions are verypoor when shooting photographs for intelligencepurposes. Remember, the exposure latitude for Tech Panfilm is very short, so your camera exposure is critical.You will be shooting into shadow areas and openhatches, so bracket all your frames to ensure you recorddetail.

When a submarine is the target of special interest,closeup views of the following equipment is useful forintelligence gathering:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Armament installations

Electronic installations

Sail area

Telescoping equipment

Unusual sensor probes and devices, such astrailing wires

6. Unusual, unidentified, or modified equipment

If you are photographing equipment, cargo, orwritten material that is recovered from floatingwreckage of a ship, you should include a ruler in thephotograph to show a scale as to the size of the object.The use of a macro lens will be needed to photographnameplate data, writing, or markings on the recoveredmaterial.

AIRCRAFT

Photographs can provide valuable informationabout the capabilities, mission, and useful range of anaircraft. Whether the aircraft is in the air or on theground, the way you photograph it aids the analysts in

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PH2 K. Brewer302.284

Figure 6-25.–The Soviet cargo ship Nbah Pycakob in the port of Conakry, Guinea.

determining these factors. The basic requirements forphotographic coverage are as follows:

1. Overlapping views of the port side, thestarboard side, and the underside, includingwings and wing tips

2. Radome and appendages

3. Antennas

4. Fuselage area under the horizontal stabilizers

5. Upper section fuselage

6. Odd-colored covering on the skin of the aircraft

7. Bomb bay areas, especially if open

8. Other open hatches

9. Landing gear

10. Engines and cockpit

11. Identification markings

12. Weapons

When shooting aircraft, the underside of the aircraftis almost always in shadow. Remember to compensatefor your light meter reading, particularly when theaircraft is airborne. Use the substitution method ofexposure to record an acceptable exposure.

PORT

There are times when the ship may pull into a portthat has not been visited by Americans for quite sometime (fig. 6-25). Photographs can provide a wealth ofinformation such as trading, harbor depth, and variousother activities and capabilities of a port. You may betasked to provide photographic coverage. The followingareas should be documented:

1. Panorama of port

2. Ships in port

3. Channel markers

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4. Piers

5. Cranes

6. Warehouses

7. Railheads

8. Fuel farms

9. Port headquarters building

10. Dry docks

11. Ship repair or ship building yards

Most photographs of a port can be taken when yourship is entering or leaving the harbor. Never sneak aroundmilitary installations or restricted areas in any port.

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CHAPTER 7

PORTRAITURE

A portrait is a likeness of a person, especially theface. This definition isolates one essential point inportraiture. A portrait should emphasize the person,rather than the person's environment or somethingassociated with the person. However, a pictorialrepresentation that portrays only a recognizable likenessof a person is not enough. A portrait must be more thanjust a photograph, It must have mood, personality, andpossess characteristics from which a viewer can drawconclusions about the subject. By manipulatingexpressions, posing, lighting, and environments, aportrait photographer can portray any mood fromhappiness to gloom, as well as the personality of asubject. Posing the subject with familiar objects andenvironments can produce a more natural expressionand pose because the subject will be more at ease.Articles or props included in the scene can help tell moreabout the subject.

Success in portraiture requires a thoroughunderstanding of the techniques involved, an artisticability, and a talent for directing the subject through adesired expression or pose. The portrait photographershould have a sensitivity for, and an understanding of,people. Portrait photographers vary considerably intheir styles and techniques. The subjects of portraits varyin their likes and dislikes. There is no one blueprint orformula that will assure success.

The portrait is an interesting and challengingassignment to many Navy photographers. In portraiturethe subject is always changing and challenging thePhotographer’s Mates. To meet the challenge of portraitphotography, you must have vision, good judgment, andthe ability and willingness to show them to greatestadvantage.

Most people have their portrait made because theywant someone else to see how they look A beautifulwoman knows she is beautiful, and in a picture, shewants to appear beautiful-so make her beautiful. Someflattery may be necessary, but you should not overdo it.Men know their features; they know whether theyappear dignified; they know whether they appear to havegreat strength of character; and they are correct inexpecting the photographer to emphasize these goodpoints. The subject expects a true portrait-a goodexpression and a natural pose, a portrait that shows

whatever beauty or strength the person has, and one thatreflects his or her character and features.

Character is formed by life. A frown or a smile todayleaves no trace, but continued use of facial muscles toform a smile, a laugh, or a frown leaves lines on theforehead, around the eyes, nose, and mouth. These linesand expressions form facial character. They are subduedor exaggerated by the way you light the subject. Youshould not eliminate character lines altogether, but, youshould only soften them with lighting. A face hasfeatures: two eyes, a nose, a mouth, and two ears, butphotographically these features are not equallyimportant. To the portrait photographer, the mostimportant and most expressive are the eyes; the mouthis second only to the eyes.

Facial expressions constantly change and last onlymomentarily. No happy expression or frown lasts longenough to take full notice of it-until it is photographed.When you photograph an expression at the wronginstant, all the bad points appear exaggerated.

To be a good portrait photographer, you must learnto study each face as it appears before the camera, andlight it to represent the natural features and characteraccurately. Do not try to capture that fleeting expression.It is not the expression that shows that person's truecharacter. What you want is a person's naturalexpression. A softness of expression is best-neither toosharp nor too faint; not too lively or too gloomy.

PORTRAIT STUDIO

The portrait studio should be a place isolated fromdistraction where the photographer and subject canwork without interruption. It should be a comfortableplace where the subject feels at ease, where the testedequipment works, where the color quality of the lightcan be controlled, and where the photographer andsubject can move from pose to pose withoutinterruption. Avoid using the portrait studio as a crew'slounge or lunchroom. The portrait studio should alwaysbe clean and neat. The portrait studio is one of the fewareas that customers ever see, and it represents theoverall condition of your photo lab.

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The studio should be arranged so the lights, camera,and electrical cords are safely out of the way and yoursubject does not have to avoid tripping over them. Everyeffort must be made to make the portrait session apleasant experience for the customer. Any props to beused should be stored out of the way where they can beretrieved quickly and easily.

The studio should be spacious enough to movearound freely, with enough room surrounding the posingbench so the subject does not feel crowded. The distancefrom the posing bench to the background should be greatenough so shadows from the subject are not cast ontothe background. This distance should also be greatenough so the background is out of focus when the lensis stopped down to the working aperture. The studioshould have enough room so a longer than normal lenscan be used and provide enough room behind the cameraso the photographer can move about freely. It should bewide enough so the lights can be moved in an arc aroundthe subject without changing the light-to-subjectdistance. The ceiling should be high enough to provideenough space for a standing full-length portrait.

Whatever the size or location of the studio, it must,above all, be a productive, professional workplace,having everything required to produce technicallyperfect portraits.

In many Navy photo labs, especially the old onesand aboard ship, these conditions do not exist. Justbecause you do not have a large “professional” studioand equipment does not mean you cannot produceprofessional quality portraits. Many professionalquality portraits are made by Navy Photographer'sMates using only two small lights in a compartmentbeing used as an office, finishing room, and darkroomaboard ship.

STUDIO EQUIPMENT

There are endless types and manufacturers of studioequipment available for controlling light and makingportraits. The size and the budget of your imagingfacility determines what is available for makingportraits. This chapter discusses only the basic studioequipment that is common to most Navy imagingfacilities.

Camera

Regardless of what camera you use in the portraitstudio, it should be clean and in good working order. The

camera should have interchangeable lenses and be atleast medium format. The larger the negative size ofyour portraits, the higher the quality of the finishedproduct.

Lenses

A lens used for portraits should have a longer thannormal focal length. A long-focal-length lens producesa large image on the film while keeping the camera at afar enough distance from the subject to prevent imagedistortion. Normal-focal-length lenses are too short foranything but full-length portrait photography. Theyrequire the camera to be too close to the subject, imagedistortion becomes apparent, and working too close tothe subject may intimidate him or her. Working too farfrom the subject with a normal lens to prevent distortionmakes the image size too small. The ideal lens forportraiture should have a focal length equal to 1 1/2 or2 times the diagonal of the film. When you are using4x5 film, the lens focal length should be about 8 to 12inches.

Background

Simplicity is the key word in portrait backgrounds.Simple backgrounds give more artistic results bymaintaining viewer interest on the subject. The mostwidely accepted background is a large, flat, unmarkedsurface, such as a painted screen, an actual wall of thestudio, or seamless background paper suspended fromthe ceiling. Whatever the background, it should have amatte finish, rather than a glossy finish. A glossy finishcauses distracting reflections.

A background can be plain or patterned. When thebackground has a pattern, it must not detract the viewerfrom the main subject. When props are used, such as aglobe or an American or Navy flag, they must not drawattention away from the subject.

The background should normally be light andneutral in color; however, black or dark backgrounds areused for certain effects. A black background is used toadd richness to the finished print. When a blackbackground is used, keep your subject a good distancefrom it to prevent the lights (except the backgroundlight) from striking it.

The color of a background becomes important whencolor portraits are made. Bright-colored backgroundsshould be avoided because they distract from thesubject. When using a cold-colored (blue, green, etc.)

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background, you must prevent the background fromreflecting colored light onto the sides of the subject'sface. This produces a sickly appearance. Thebackground tone can be changed by adjusting theamount of light falling upon it. Dark backgrounds withearthen colors, such as brown and dark orange, can beused for low-key portraits. Intensely illuminatedbackgrounds with light pastel colors can be used forhigh-key portraits.

Your studio should have enough backgrounds tomeet the demands of customers. As a minimum, youshould have a gray or light blue background for rosterphotographs and white for full-length photographs.Always stock extra white seamless paper. Whiteseamless paper is used mostly for full-length photo-graphs. This paper becomes dirty and is torn rapidlysince it is being continually walked on. You can extendthe life of the background paper for full-length portraitsby laying sheets of acetate (such as clean-up film) ontop of the area to be walked on. The acetate does notshow up on the film or print.

Lights and Accessories

Almost any type of light can be used for portraitphotography. This includes natural light, such as the sun,as well as artificial light, such as electronic flash.

The sun, with its different forms of illumination-daylight, skylight, and window light-is the major sourceof natural illumination for portraits. The sun is usedprimarily for location portraiture.

Most types of artificial light can be used for portraitphotography as long as the intensity is sufficient topermit short exposures. Short exposures are desiredbecause it is difficult to keep a subject motionless duringa long exposure. For color portraits, the color quality ofthe light source should be the same as that for which thefilm is balanced. Of all the artificial light sourcesavailable, electronic flash is the best light source forportrait photography because of the following:

It provides a large output of light without theannoying heat produced by incandescent lights.

The extremely short duration of the flash stopssubject movement.

The color temperature of the light is compatiblewith daylight.

They are as versatile as other light sources.

Electronic flash units specifically designed forportraiture usually have tungsten modeling lampslocated near the electronic flashtube. These modelinglamps provide constant, low-intensity illumination onthe subject or background. This allows you to see thelighting effect that will be produced when the electronicflash units are fired.

BASIC LIGHTING UNITS.–Studio electronicflash units are divided into two broad classifications:those that project a relatively narrow cone ofconcentrated, crisp light and those that project a broadarea of softer, more diffuse light.

Spotlight.–A spotlight projects a narrow, highlyconcentrated, crisp beam of light, produced by anundiffused clear flashtube. A Fresnel lens or a smallreflector with a mirror finish is used to direct and focusthe light. The light produced by a spotlight is very muchlike direct sunlight on a clear day. The light rays arenearly parallel and are not diffused. The shadows castby a spotlight are hard with sharply defined edges thatadd crispness. A spotlight is usually used to highlight orstress a feature of the subject or as a hair light orbackground light.

Floodlight. –A floodlight produces a broad area ofpartially diffused, soft light, very much like sunlight onan overcast day. A frosted globe is used over theflashtube, so the light produced is initially diffused. Thelight is further diffused by the reflector that causes thelight rays to cross and interfere with each other. The rays,projected from the front of the flashtube, however, arenot as diffused and have a crisper quality. The light,produced by an electronic flash floodlight, has a crispquality at the center and a softer quality toward the edge.When you want to use just the softer part of the light,allow only the outer part of the light beam to fall on thesubject. This technique is called feathering the light.When you want the entire beam of light to be diffusedand very soft, use a diffusing screen over the lightsource. There is also a type of light unit known as acapped light. This type of unit has an opaque metal capplaced in front of the flashtube to block specular lightfrom reaching the subject. All light projected by acapped unit is diffused.

A floodlight is usually used as the main (modeling,or key) light in portraits, especially where a soft effectis desired. It is also used as a fill light because a fill lightis always diffused.

ACCESSORIES.–Many accessories are availablefor use with studio lighting units. Accessories are

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important tools that make your portrait lighting unitseither more dependable or more versatile. They aid increating the exact lighting affect you want. Commonaccessories are as follows: diffusers, barn doors, snoots,and umbrellas. If accessories are not available,compromises in the lighting can alter the effect andquality you desire.

Diffusers.–You use diffusers when you want tochange specular light to a softer, more diffused light.Diffusers are made of translucent or mesh materialsthat, when placed in the light beam, break up ordiffuse and soften the light. The finer the mesh, themore diffused the light. When only a small amount ofdiffusion is needed, a wide mesh material, such asgray window screen, works well. For more diffusion,two pieces of screen can be placed together slightlyout of alignment, or a finer mesh material, such aswhite cheesecloth, can be used. Floodlights initiallyproduce a fairly diffused light, but diffusers may alsobe used with them. Diffusers can be mounted on thelight unit or placed somewhere between the light unitand your subject.

There are many reasons for using a diffuser insteadof a light that already produces diffused light. A diffusermay be needed when you do not have a soft lightavailable. A softness that is between two different lightsources may be needed, or you may want to produce asmall area of diffused light that can only come from aspotlight with an installed diffuser.

Barn Doors.–Barn doors are made from opaquematerial. They are usually made of metal, painted black,and attached and hinged to the front of a light unit. Theycan be positioned to block or feather a portion of thelight produced by the unit. Barn doors are made for bothspotlights and floodlights. They are good accessories forcontrolling spill light.

Snoots.–Snoots are cylinders, open at both ends,usually made of metal and painted black. They are usedat the front of a spotlight to limit the size of the circulararea projected by the unit. Short, wide snoots give a largecircle of light. Long, narrow snoots give a narrow circleof light. A cardboard tube or black-rolled paper can beused for a snoot when you need to improvise.

Umbrellas.–Umbrellas work much like thereflectors used on floodlights and provide an excellentmeans of converting specular light into soft, diffusedlight. They are used with any light source. The light unitis pointed away from the subject; the umbrella is

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attached in front of the light and reflects or bounces thelight back and onto the subject. The reflected lightfalling on the subject is softer and more diffused thanthe light originally emitted by the source.

The reflecting surface of the umbrella determinesthe quality of the light. Umbrellas are usually made witha matte, white surface that provides a very soft,completely diffused light. Some umbrellas areconstructed with a shiny, metalized surface. Metalizedumbrellas throw a somewhat specular light, but the lightis softer and spread over a larger area than the lightemitted by the original light source.

FILM FOR PORTRAITS

For black-and-white portraits, black-and-whitepanchromatic film is generally used. With a pan film,the appearance of any red spots, veins, or redness in thesubject's skin is apparently reduced in the final print,because of the sensitivity of the film to red. Conversely,an orthochromatic film can be used when the texture ofa man's skin, especially an older man, is to beemphasized.

When you select a color film for portraitphotography, there are two important considerations:What type of product is to be produced and what is thecolor of the light source?

Another factor to consider in selecting a film forportraiture is the ISO film speed in relation to theintensity of the light source. A slow film can be usedsuccessfully with a light source that has relativelyhigh intensity, such as an electronic flash unit. Whenthe same slow film is used with a light source that hasrelatively low intensity, an extremely wide aperturemust be used. When a fast film is used with ahigh-intensity light source, a smaller aperture isrequired, increasing the depth of field which may notbe desirable for portraiture.

When you are shooting portraits, do not be stingywith film. With a medium-format camera, you have 9 to15 frames to work with. When you have thecommanding officer or the admiral in the studio for aportrait, shoot at least the entire roll. Never shoot justthree or four frames. Film is cheap and you want toprovide the customer with a variety of poses andexpressions to choose from.

MAKING THE APPOINTMENT

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good start towards making a successful portrait. Byusing an appointment system, it tells your subject thathe or she is important and will not be wasting timewaiting to get into the studio. This brings the person tothe studio with a positive attitude, and that is half thebattle. An appointment also helps you. When anappointment system is used, you know how much timeyou have to work with each subject, and you do not haveto rush through a sitting because someone else is waitingprematurely. Between appointments you have time tostraighten up the studio, load film, complete job orders,screen processed portrait film, and so on.

Appointments should be made at least 15 minutesapart. This way you have time to take care of otherbusiness that may come up. If one customer is a fewminutes late, you can also use this time to catch up.

When appointments are made, suggest to the personthat they come in early in the day. Most people look theirbest and their clothes are fresher early in the day. Men,particularly those who develop a heavy beard(five-o’clock shadow), need to have their portraits madeat the beginning of the day. However, they should notshave then come right in to be photographed. Thisprovides time for facial blemishes, caused by shaving,to disappear.

Men should have a haircut and look sharp, but thehaircut should be a day or two old. Uniforms should bepressed and well fitted with all awards, grade, and ratinginsignia properly placed. A chart of military awards anddecorations is helpful in settling differences regardingthe proper placement of ribbons and metals.

THE SUBJECT

When someone comes to the photo lab for a portrait,that person usually feels uncomfortable (like going tothe dentist). Your attitude can help make the person feelrelaxed. The secret to your success in putting the subjectat ease is to convey a genuine and sincere attitude. Letthe person know by your words and actions that you planto do your best to produce a portrait that anyone wouldbe proud to display.

Your attitude will leave a lasting impression on thesubject and set the tone for the portrait setting. Greet thecustomer warmly, with a smile on your face as well asin your voice.

You, as the portrait photographer, should make ityour business to know something about the subject.What is his job? Where does she work? How long has

he been on board? What was her last duty station, andso on? The more you know about your subjects, theeasier it is to work with them. Train yourself to gather aquick impression of the subject’s intellect, taste, andaspirations. Talk to each of them and gather informationregarding their special interests.

Conversation sooner or later strikes a responsivechord and the subject's face comes to life and gives youthat natural expression so necessary to the finishedportrait. Since the success of the portrait depends greatlyon a natural expression, your task is to create a friendlysituation whereby the subject feels he has an equal part.The making of a good portrait depends on cooperation.Do not rush a sitting and avoid getting flustered. Youmust always control the situation.

Invite your subject into the studio in a casual way.Have a bright light on, usually the main or modelinglight. This way the shock of turning on a bright light ina dark studio is avoided. Ask the subject to be seated; amotion with your hand may be enough. A person who istreated in a friendly yet respectful manner, and kept incasual conversation, usually strikes a natural pose betterthan one who is not. If this fails, you must skillfullydirect the subject. At times you may have to touch thesubject to adjust a hat, sleeve, necktie, coat, and so on.Before touching the subject, explain to the person whataction you are about to take.

Talk to your subject and direct movements, from infront of the camera, within the circle of light. It isdisturbing for the subject to hear a voice from a darkvoid trying to direct his or her movements.

Posing is the most unpredictable part of a portraitsession. The subject is at a mental disadvantage becausehe has to follow your directions. This requires subtlehandling on your part and an understanding of humanbehavior.

CAMERA HEIGHT

The best average camera height for ahead-and-shoulders type of portrait is slightly above thesubject's eye level. This places the subject's eyes wellabove the center of the picture space. Slightly above eyelevel then is a good place to start. Most portraits aremade from this camera viewpoint, but individualfeatures and characters of the subject often dictate ahigher or lower camera position.

For three-quarter portraits, either sitting or standing,the camera height may need to be changed. For example,

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302.157Figure 7-1.–Subject looking directly into the camera.

you may want to start with the camera level at the upperchest or even at the eye level of the subject. Other factorsthat should be considered when selecting the cameraheight (especially with a head-and-shoulder portrait)include the shape of the subject’s face and facialfeatures, such as a long nose and the length of thesubject's neck By changing the height of the camera inrelation to the subject, you can make corrections toemphasize or de-emphasize features of the subject.

For full-length portraits, you should start with thecamera height about waist level and the lens parallel tothe subject. When the camera height is too high or toolow and the camera lens is tilted, distortion of the subjectoccurs. When the camera is too low, the subject's feetappear large and the head small. When the camera is toohigh, the subject's head and upper body appear large andtop heavy.

A camera position below the eye level of a subjectcan produce a side effect that may be distracting; that is,showing the nostrils more prominently and causingthem to appear as two black holes. To help remedy thissituation, you should place the modeling light higher tocast a shadow beneath the nose, so the nostrils appear toblend in with the shadow area.

302.158Figure 7-2.–Subject looking too far away from the camera.

POSING

The posing bench should be set at an angle to thecamera. When the bench is square to the camera, peopletend to sit on it with their shoulders square to the cameraThis puts their shoulders straight across the picture andsuch a pose exaggerates the width of the shoulders. Thispose is obviously inappropriate for a woman. Whenyour subject is a male dignitary (VIP), a pose like thisenhances those qualities. Very few people havepositions that demand such a pose. Having the posingbench at an angle to the camera before the sitter arrivesshould automatically suggest to the subjects that they sitwith their shoulders turned slightly from the camera.With the shoulders turned slightly from the camera andthe head turned back toward the camera, a sense ofmotion is created. Even more motion and alertness canbe suggested by having the subject lean slightly forward.

Eye Direction

To create an intimate portrait, the subject appears toreturn a glance to the viewer. The subject's eyes shouldlook near the camera lens (just above or to the side ofit). When the subject looks directly into the lens, a stare

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Figure 7-3.–Rule of thirds.

will result (fig. 7-1). When the eyes are looking too faraway from the camera, a vague, faraway look results(fig. 7-2). The eyes also lose their brilliance and sparkle,and too much white shows when the subject’s eyes arelooking away from the camera.

Portrait Composition and Subject Placement

As in every type of photography, in portraiture theremust be one, and only one, principal point of interest.Naturally, in a portrait, this is the subject’s face. You canemphasize the point of interest in a portrait by doing thefollowing:

Having it contrast with the background

Giving it the strongest lighting

Posing the subject and arranging the props so allelements point to it

Locating it at a strong point within the picturearea

Where are the strong points within a portrait picturespace? The principle of thirds, as discussed in chapter5, applies to portraiture as well. These are the areaswithin a portrait that attract eye attention and are thepreferred locations for the center of interest (fig. 7-3).In a portrait, when the main point of interest is locatedat Point A, the secondary point of interest should be atPoint D. If B is the point of interest, C becomes the

302.159Figure 7-4.–Subject placed too high in the photograph.

secondary interest point. Such an arrangementobviously balances the composition.

As stated earlier, the subject's face is the point ofinterest in a portrait and, of course, covers a considerablearea in the picture space. Usually in portraitcomposition, the eyes fall close to Points A or B. Butthese positions are approximations only. The finaladjustment of the head depends upon several factors:the eye direction, the shape of the body, and the leadinglines. No rule can be given for best portrait composition.Rules only give guidance to a rough approximation ofgood placement. You can only arrive at the bestcomposition for each portrait through the feeling forbalance and subject position.

When the head and shoulders are placed high in thepicture frame, a sense of dignity and stability is gained.Such placement is particularly appropriate when thesubject is a person of importance, such as the CO.However, when the head is too high (fig. 7-4), viewingthe picture is uncomfortable because there is a feelingthat if the subject stood up he would bump his head.Also, when the head is too high, the proportion betweenhead and body areas becomes awkward.

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302.159.1Figure 7-5.–Subject placed too low in the photograph.

Most inexperienced photographers place the headtoo low, rather than too high. This is usually the resultof the photographer's desire to show as large a head aspossible. When the head is too low, there is not enoughbody to support it (fig. 7-5).

When the head is turned toward the side, avoidhaving the tip of the nose from coinciding with theoutline of the cheek or projecting only slightly beyondthe cheek line. In either case, the far eye will be dividedby the nose. When the tip of the nose sticks out only alittle beyond the cheek line, it appears as a lump on thecheek

Before you seat a subject, suggest that the subjectmay like to check his or her appearance in a mirror.Combing the hair, straightening a tie, setting a hat at theproper angle, and smoothing out the lay of the clothesshould ensure a neat, well-groomed appearance. Whenthe subject is in military uniform, be sure that medals,ribbons, insignia of grade or rate, and other accessoriesare worn properly. These minor details are easilyoverlooked and failure to correct a discrepancy maymake it necessary to retake the portrait.

When a military subject is seated, one particularlyimportant point to consider is the lay of the coat collar.The collar has a tendency to separate from the back of

the subject's neck and project outward resulting in theimpression of a hump. The coat should be pulled downto make the collar fit properly and make the line of thesubject’s back appear free from slouch or slump. Whenthe portrait includes only the head and shoulders, thedrape of the coat can be improved by unbuttoning thelower button and pulling the bottom of the coat down.

The sleeves of a coat are another problem,particularly when you photograph a seated subject.There is a tendency for the sleeves to work up andwrinkle at the elbows, allowing either too much wrist ortoo much shirt cuff to show. To help remedy this, havethe subject pull the sleeves of the coat down andstraighten out the wrinkles as much as possible.Wrinkles, folds, and unwanted creases in a uniformdetract from a neat appearance. When the subject iswearing a long-sleeved shirt under a coat and the handswill appear in the portrait, both shirt cuffs should bevisible or both should be out of sight. Do not have onecuff visible and the other not.

Stay near the camera and tell the subject what to do.You are obligated to give directions regarding the pose.A subject is not able to see all posing aspects for theportrait. Whether the subject is an admiral or seaman,you are expected to detect and correct any discrepancyin pose, uniform, gestures, or actions, and so on. One ofthe greatest obstacles to successful portraiture is thetimidness of some photographers and the way theyhandle the subject. Never take a portrait whensomething about the portrait is wrong because of fear ortimidity to speak and act in the presence of high grade.The results will be disappointing and embarrassing.

When the military subject is to be photographeduncovered, be sure that the hat is removed far enough inadvance so any impression on the forehead caused bythe hatband has time to disappear.

When the subject shows a tendency to squint orblink, suggest that he rest his eyes by closing them fora moment. The facial expression is an important elementto a good portrait. Unless some method is used to inducea pleasant expression, the subject will generally appearbored and uninteresting. Telling a subject to look thisway or smile is not enough to cause the subject to smile.A forced smile sometimes looks more like a frown. Agood method to get a pleasant expression is throughconversation. Talk about a recent incident, a funny story,the weather, or any other topic that will cause the subjectto concentrate on something other than the business ofmaking a portrait. With most people, a smile iscontagious. When you smile at a person, the personusually responds with a smile. Beware of a broad smile

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because it rarely looks attractive, and it is usually notappropriate for a person in a military uniform. While youare trying to induce the expression that will show off thesubject to the best advantage, be particularly observantof the details necessary to maintain a neat appearanceand good composition.

FUNDAMENTAL PORTRAIT LIGHTING

The success of a portrait is equally dependent onlighting as on the pose of the subject. The manner in howthe subject is lighted can actually set the mood of aportrait. The best portrait lighting will simulate naturalsunlight. This is because we are accustomed to seeingfaces illuminated from above and to one side withshadows cast downward and on one side or the other.Light coming from below eye level casts shadowsupward and produces an unnatural, ghastly effect. Goodportrait lighting shows off the subject to the bestadvantage, emphasizing the form and expressiveness ofthe facial features. When lighting appears pleasing andnatural in a portrait, it produces prominent highlights onthe forehead, nose, cheeks, and chin with enoughshadows to round out the facial features.

Lighting for a studio portrait normally requires atleast two lights. One of these is the main, modeling, orkey light; the other is the fill or fill-in light.

Portrait lighting is divided into various types calledlightings. Some of these lightings are as follows: broad,short, butterfly, Rembrandt, split, and rim. These nameshave been assigned because of the visual effects thelighting creates when it falls on the subject from a givendirection. This visual effect is derived from themodeling light. Other light sources that may be addedto the modeling light to enhance the subject are asfollows:

Broad lighting–The main light completelyilluminates the side of the face turned toward thecamera.

Short lighting–The main light completelyilluminates the side of the face turned away from thecamera

Butterfly lighting–The main light is placeddirectly in front of the face and casts a shadow directlyunder the nose.

Rembrandt lighting–This is a combination ofshort and butterfly lighting. The main light is placedhigh and to the side of the face turned away from the

camera and produces a triangle of light on the side ofthe face in shadow.

Split lighting-The modeling light is placed tolight completely one side of the face while placing theother side of the face in shadow.

Rim lighting-The modeling light is placedbehind the subject and places the entire face in shadow.

MAIN LIGHT

The main light is often called the modeling lightbecause it is used to model the face (or subject). Themain light creates a three-dimensional effect by eitheremphasizing or de-emphasizing the curvature andcharacteristic features of the face with highlights andshadows. The modeling light should always be the onedominant light source in a portrait because it controlsthe direction of the shadows.

The direction of the main light establishes four basicportrait lightings. These basic lightings are as follows:three-quarter lighting, side lighting, frontlighting, andbacklighting. When reading other books on portraitlighting, you will often encounter other namesdepending on what the author wanted to call thelightings. You, as a Navy Photographer’s Mate, willmostly be concerned with three-quarter (broad andshort) and front (butterfly) lighting.

We also designate each of our lightings as high,medium, and low for vertical position. To go further, wedesignate the lighting as right or left of the subject.

These lighting positions change with each subject.When setting portrait lights, you should always studythe effect and view the subject from the camera position,preferably through the viewfinder.

THREE-QUARTER LIGHTING

Broad and short lighting are two types ofthree-quarter lighting, and they are the types that youmost often use for official portraits. The only differencebetween the two is the position of the main light and theway it illuminates the subject.

Short lighting is used for people with a normalshaped face or people who have a wide face. When shortlighting is used, the side of the subject’s face that is awayfrom the camera is illuminated. This puts the side of theface towards the camera in shadow. By putting the sideof the face towards the camera in shadow, you canprovide a slimming effect.

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Figure 7-6.–Broad and short lighting.

Broad lighting is useful for subjects with a narrowface. When broad lighting is used, the side of the facetowards the camera is illuminated, and the side of theface away from the camera is in shadow. This providesa widening or broadening effect of the face. Refer tofigure 7-6 to compare the differences of short and broadlighting.

Main Light Distance

The power or intensity of the main light is not thedetermining factor for the distance the main light isplaced from the subject. It is the visual effect the lighthas on the subject that determines this distance. Whenthe main light is too high and close to the subject, there

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may be too much light falling on the forehead and notenough light falling on the lower part of the face. Thiseffect can be improved by moving the main light fartheraway from the subject and placing it correctly.

Highlights on the forehead, the upper cheeks, thechin, and along the bridge of the nose are created by themain light. These highlights give life, brilliance, andform to a portrait, and the quality of these highlights arecontrolled by the main light distance.

To determine the main light distance, start with thelight about 4 feet from the subject and about 2 feet abovethe subject's eye level. The light should be about a45-degree angle to the lens axis. Observe the foreheadhighlight and move the light closer to the subject; as thelight gets closer to the forehead, highlights spread out toa large, flat area and begin to wash out.

Now, start moving the main light away from thesubject. As you slowly move it back, you will find thereis a point where the forehead highlight becomesrelatively small and bright. When the light is movedback much further from this point, the highlight spreadsand disappears. Between the point where the highlightis brightest and where it starts to disappear lies the rangewhere the highlight still has character. This point iswhere you get the most pleasing effect. Once you havefound the distance where the main light gives yourdesired effect, the distance should remain the sameregardless of the direction you need to move the light.This main light distance should always be considered asthe starting point of portrait lighting.

Main Light Height

To determine the correct height for the main light,move the light directly in front of the subject whilemaintaining the distance determined for the foreheadhighlight. Raise or lower the light until the shadow castby the nose is just long enough to touch the top edge ofthe upper lip. This is the height the main light shouldnormally be no matter at what position you place it inan arc around the subject.

When your subject is wearing a hat with a visor, thevisor shadow should fall naturally across the face. Manyphotographers think the shadow cast by the visor shouldnot shade the eyes. The shadow from the visor shouldshade the eyes, however, in a portrait, this shadowshould not be so dark that shadow detail is lost and theeyes are hard to see. To prevent this shadow from beingtoo dark, raise the main light to the desired height, andinstead of aiming it down at an angle, aim it straight.

This way the light is cast under the visor and preventsthe shadow from becoming too dark

Main Light Direction

By the time you have determined the main lightdistance and the height for a given subject, you shouldhave a pretty fair idea of the direction you want the mainlight to come from. To establish the direction fromwhich this light should come, move the main light in anarc, to the right or left, around the subject. Remember,while moving the main light, its established distance andheight should be maintained.

The shadow cast by the subject's nose is your keyto main light direction. The light should be movedaround until the shadow cast by the nose merges withthe cheek shadow and leaves a small, triangularhighlight on the cheek. When this is done, the main lightis in position. Remember, the main light must always bethe dominant, directional, shadow pattern forming light.

Fill-in Light

Once the main light has been established, the fill orfill-in light is added. This fill light is a secondary lightand must not overpower the main light. Its purpose is tofill in and soften the shadow areas, making them lighter,and to provide shadow detail.

The fill light is normally placed slightly above thesubject's eye level, on the opposite side of the camerafrom the main light and near the camera lens axis. Thefill-in light should be less intense than the main light andof softer quality. This light is often diffused even whenthe main light is not.

By placing the fill light slightly above the subject'seye level, you can cast a shadow under the chin. Thisshadow separates the head from the neck. The chinshadow should be soft and unpronounced.

The intensity of the fill-in light can be controlled byeither adjusting the power setting of an electronic studiolight set or adjusting the light-to-subject distance. Thefill light can be moved in an arc to the side of the subjectand away from the camera. The fill light must notproduce conflicting shadows (shadows that pointtoward the main light).

Catch Light

There should be a small, bright reflection of themain light in the eyes of the subject. This is a catch light.The catch light adds life and brilliance to a portrait and

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Figure 7-7.–Effect of background light.

gives the eyes sparkle. There should be only one catchlight in each eye, and it should be high in the iris of theeye. For broad lighting, the catch light should beapproximately in the 11 o'clock position. The main lightfor short lighting should create a catch light atapproximately the 1 o'clock position.

Lighting Ratio

The lighting ratio for portraits should usually beabout 3:1 or 4:1-3:1 is about maximum for good colorportraits. To refresh your memory on how to establishlighting ratios, refer to chapter 5.

Background Light

The third light in studio portrait lighting is thebackground light. A background light is usually placedon a low stand midway between the background and thesubject. When adjusted correctly, the background lightprovides good tonal separation between subject andbackground. The intensity of the light falling on thebackground should not normally be greater than theintensity of the light from the main light falling on the

subject's face. By increasing or decreasing the intensityof the light on the background, you can control the toneor color reproduction of the background in the finishedprint.

To reproduce the background color to its “true”color in a color print, it must receive the same amountof light as the subject's face. When taking portraits foruse on a roster board, you want the tone and color of thebackground to be consistent. When the backgroundsvary in color, the roster board does not appear uniform,and the attention of the viewer is distracted.

When a background light is used, it is wise toposition it before setting up any other light. It is easierto determine its effect without the interference of themain and fill light. The background light should bepositioned so the brightest area of the light illuminatesthe background directly behind the head and graduallyfalls off into the corners of the frame (fig. 7-7). Whenthe background light is set in this manner, it separatesthe head from the body and draws the viewer’s attentionto the subject's face.

Hair Light

Once the main, fill. and background lighting isestablished, additional lights may be added to the setup.One such light is a hair light. A hair light is usually asmall lighting unit placed on a boom so it shines downfrom above and behind the subject. It is used to lightenthe hair (or hat) and shoulders, add detail to the hair, andseparate the subject from the background, presenting theillusion of a third dimension (fig. 7-8).

The intensity of the hair light varies with the subjectsince it is dictated not only by the color of the person'shair (or hat) but also by the amount of sheen the hair has.

The hair light is usually placed on the side of thesubject opposite the main light and behind the subject.It should be used from an angle about 6 to 8 feet highand from a position close to the center of the subject areawithout the light stand or boom showing in the picture.Light from this unit should not be allowed to spill overonto the forehead or tip of the nose. The hair lightnormally has a snoot attached so light from it does notstrike the camera lens.

Be sure the hair light is turned off when making anyexposure readings. This light does not affect your basicfilm exposure, but it could influence your meter.

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Figure 7-8.–Effects of hair light.

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Flexibility of Three-Quarter Lighting

Three-quarter lighting can be used with almost anytype of face. It is flexible because once it is set, thesubject can move his head from full face to profile andthe lighting remains good at any point you choose topose the sitter. The degree of flexibility is determined bythe type of light used (spot or flood) and the size andtype of reflector used.

SIDE LIGHTING

With side lighting, the face is lit more intensely onone side than the other (fig. 7-9). This type of lightingis well suited for young women that have smooth skinand regular facial features, or for men whose ruggedcharacter lines should be emphasized. As a NavyPhotographer's Mate, you will not normally use sidelighting for official portraits. To learn more about sidelighting, refer to the reference list in the back of thistraining manual.

BUTTERFLY LIGHTING

Butterfly lighting is often used when makingportraits of women. To start, you can place the main light

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Figure 7-9.–Side lighting.

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Figure 7-10.–Butterfly lighting.

very close to the camera lens axis and about the subject'seye level. This creates a flat lighting, and facial featurecharacteristics can be lost. By moving the main lighthigher, you can create a certain amount of modeling. Thelight now creates a little modeling and is still veryflattering and almost foolproof. This lighting isconsidered flattering because it does not emphasize linesor crowfeet around the eyes, wrinkles on the forehead,or shadows around the mouth. It does, however,emphasize eyes and eyelashes, especially in females.

The main light should be just high enough to cast ashadow of the nose about a third of the distance fromthe nose to the top edge of the upper lip (fig. 7-10). Eachsubject's face and nose is different, so the correct heightfor the main light varies slightly. When the subject hasa long nose, the light should be low to shorten theshadow. When the subject has a short nose, raise themain light to lengthen the shadow. This has a secondaryeffect as well. It adds form below the eyebrow andaccentuates any slight hollowness in the cheeks, givinga more provocative look.

When making a portrait of a person smiling, youmust shorten the nose shadow because the upper lipdraws up and the shadow goes over the lip. The nose

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shadow should not extend over or touch the edge of thelip. When it does, the lip form is destroyed and it appearsunnaturally small.

The main light-to-subject distance is againdetermined using the forehead highlight test.

The fill-in light is positioned directly below themain light-close to the camera lens axis and slightlyabove the subject’s eye level. The intensity of this lightshould be about one f/stop less than the main light. Thelighting ratio is established by moving the fill lightcloser to or farther away from the subject to increase ordecrease its effect. Balance also can be controlled byusing diffusion screens over the fill-in light.

Although not as flexible as three-quarter lighting,frontlighting does have some flexibility. The subject'shead can be posed from full face to profile. However,the nose shadow must always remain under the nose.Therefore, the main light must be moved with the head;and as the head moves to the three-quarter or profileposition, the hair light also must be moved. The fill lightis not moved.

RIM LIGHTING

Rim lighting is often used when making profileportraits. Rim lighting is the same as backlighting,where the subject is lighted from behind causing thefacial features of the profile to be highlighted (fig. 7-11).Some suggestions to use when taking profile portraitsare as follows:

In a profile portrait, when a person looks straightahead, only the whites of the eyes are seen by thecamera. This causes an undesirable effect.Instead have the eyes cheat-turn the eyes slightlytoward the camera, without turning the head, toshow enough of the iris so the eye can be seen asan eye, not a white ball.

Have the subject's head tipped back slightly. Thisseparates the chin from the far shoulder, gives abetter neckline, and reduces the appearance of adouble chin.

Allow more space on the side of the picturetoward which the eyes are looking. This allowsthe subject to “look” beyond the frame.

If you are interested in learning more about rimlighting, refer to the reference list in appendix III.

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Figure 7-11.–Rim lighting.

FULL-LENGTH PHOTOGRAPHS

Officers of the Navy and Naval Reserve, in gradesCWO3 through CWO-5, or O-3 through O-8, mustsubmit a full-length photograph of themselves beforebeing selected for promotion to the next higher rank.Other special selection boards require a full-lengthphotograph to be included in the applicant’s package,such as the limited duty officer program, Sailor of theYear, and other programs in which a selection boardprocess is used. Candidates for officer promotion andLDO or CWO selection boards should refer toNAVPERS Manual, 15560C, and NAVMILPERS-COMINST, 1131.1A, respectively, for the most currentinformation.

BACKGROUND

Since the studio setup is unique for full-lengthphotographs, they should be scheduled at a time otherthan that of normal head-and-shoulders portraits. Thebackground for full-length photographs must be acontrasting color from the uniform of the subject.Normally, white seamless paper is used because itprovides the best results.

When white seamless paper is used for full-lengthportraits, it must drape down and provide enoughcoverage for the subject's head and extend to the deckso the subject is standing on it. You should protect thebackground from footprints and tears by laying down aprotective material, such as paper or acetate.

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302.316

Figure 7-12.–Full-length photograph.

LIGHTING POSE AND COMPOSITION

When lighting a full-length portrait, you must lightthe entire body of the subject evenly and not allowobjectionable shadows to show on the final product.This is best achieved when the subject is lightedwith light diffused from two umbrellas. Thebackground can be evenly lighted with two

The full-length officer portrait must be athree-quarter view with the left shoulder forward. Forofficer promotion photographs, the prescribeduniform is summer khakis (summer whites wheresummer khakis are not authorized) and dress blues forLDO or CWO applications. All subjects will beuncovered unless otherwise stated in the applicants

background lights. You should always conduct appropriate instruction. A menu board or hand- letteredtests to determine the best lighting setup for your title board must be placed at the subjects feet and bestudio equipment and facilities. legible in the final photograph. The subject should be

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centered both horizontally and vertically in thephotograph (fig. 7-12).

The best camera and film to use for a full-lengthphotograph is a 4x5 camera and a Polaroid 4x5 filmback When this combination is used, the customer canleave the studio with the final product. Any camera orimaging system can be used, depending on your imagingfacilities capabilities, providing that two 4x5-inch printsare furnished to the customer.

best advantage. Because the photogenic qualities ofeach person's face vary, certain corrective techniques inposing, lighting, and camera heights can be used to helpdepict the subject favorably and improve the quality ofthe portrait. Changing the camera viewpoint, combinedwith proper lighting and pose, can create amazingalterations in the pictured appearance of any face. Table7-1 shows corrective techniques and ways they can beused to correct common problem areas.

CORRECTIVE TECHNIQUESEXPOSURE CALCULATION FOR

STUDIO PORTRAITS

The primary goal in portrait photography is to Normally, the exposure for portraits should be basedpresent the subject in a favorable and flattering manner. on the fill light alone as measured at the subject position.Your most difficult problem is combining the pose, The fill light is the single source of illumination to thelighting, and camera viewpoint to show your subject to shadow areas and image detail in the shadow areas.

Table 7-1.–Corrective Treatments

Problem

Fat, round face

Thin face

Wide forehead

Narrow forehead

Baldness

Eyes close together

Eyes far apart

Small eyes

Large or protruding eyes

Deep set eyes

Uneven eyes

Bags under eyes

Cross eyed ordefective eye

Treatment

Shoot three-quarter view, light side of face away from cameraUse three-quarter or side lighting

Shoot front, full faceUse low three-quarter or side lighting

Use low-camera viewpointTilt chin upward

Use high-camera viewpoint

Use low-camera viewpointLittle or no hair lightBlend head with background

Shoot three-quarter pose

Shoot three-quarter pose

Shoot three-quarter poseUse three-quarter lighting so the eyes are in shadow

Use high three-quarter lightingLower eyes slightly

Low-camera viewpointUse frontlighting to keep eyes out of shadow

Turn head toward one side so natural perspective eliminates unevenappearance

Use makeup. Use frontlighting

Turn head so bad eye is away from camera. Light side of face towardcamera to place other eye in shadow

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Problem

Glasses

High cheeks

Wide cheeks

Small ears

Large ears

Protruding ears

Long nose

Short nose

Hooked nose

Crooked nose

Broad nose

Narrow mouth

Wide mouth

Protruding lips

Thin lips

Uneven mouth

Bad teeth

Buck teeth

Long chin

Table 7-1.–Corrective Treatments–Continued

Treatment

Use high front, three-quarter, or side lighting to eliminatereflections

Raise the temple piece up slightly to angle lenses downlilt head downwardShoot full-face pose to prevent lenses from splitting cheek lineUse indirect diffused lighting

Use low front or side lighting

Shoot three-quarter pose

Turn head so camera sees only one earPlace exposed ear in shadow

Turn head so camera sees only one earPlace exposed ear in shadow

Turn head so camera sees only one earPlace exposed ear in shadowShield light from exposed earBlend ear into background

Use low-camera viewpointUse three-quarter or side lightingApply dark makeup to tip of nose

Use high-camera viewpointUse frontlighting

Shoot from a low-camera viewpointShoot front, full face

Shoot from the side to which it curvesTurn head until highlight along ridge of nose appears straight

Pose head away from a front view

Use lip color to extend lip lineTurn head to one side so makeup is not apparentPosition modeling light high to cast shadows at ends of lips

Pose head in three-quarter view

Use low-modeling light to eliminate shadow under lips

Fill out with lip color

Pose head in three-quarter view

Do not have subject smile

Subject may smile slightlyUse full, front pose

Use high-camera viewpoint

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Table 7-1.–Corrective Treatments–Continued

Treatment

Keep chin in shadowHave subject lean forward and look at camera

Use full, front poseUse low-camera viewpoint

Use high-camera viewpoint

Use low-camera viewpoint

Use low-camera viewpoint

Use high-camera viewpointKeep neck in shadow

Keep in shadowTurn bad side of face from cameraApply makeup to a pimple or sore spot

Problem

Double chin

Small chin

Square face

Oval face with a weak chin

Short neck

Long neck

Facial blemishes

When the exposure is based on the illumination intensityof the main light, the indicated f/stop producesunderexposed shadow areas of the negative. Withblack-and-white negative film, the underexposure to theshadow areas may not be enough to cause loss of shadowdetail. This is because of the greater exposure latitudeand film processing latitude of black-and-white filmcompared to color negative film. With color negativefilm, however, underexposure to the shadow areas maycause loss of shadow detail and a color shift in theshadow areas that is uncontrollable in printing.Remember, basing your portrait exposure on the filllight alone applies only when the lighting ratios arewithin about a 2:1 to 4:1 range. Beyond a 4:1 lightingratio, you may have to calculate your exposure based onboth the main and fill lights.

likeness of, and satisfactorily identify the applicant.Passport photographs must meet the followingrequirements:

Photographs must be 2x2 inches in overall size.The image size, measured from the bottom of thechin to the top of the head (including hair), shallbe not less than 1 inch or more than 1 3/8 inches.A quick method to determine the correct imagesize is the head should fit inside the frame of a35mm slide mount.

PASSPORT PHOTOGRAPHS

Passport photographs should only be provided toUnited States military personnel, their dependents, andemployees of the federal government when required forexecuting official orders. Providing such photographyfor purposes and to individuals other than this is aninfringement of the rights and commercial enterpriseand may violate U.S. Navy Regulations.

Passport photographs may be in color or blackand white. Black-and-white photographs thathave been tinted or otherwise colored are notacceptable. Prints which have been retouched tothe extent that the applicant's appearance hasbeen changed are also not acceptable. However,prints that have been retouched merely toeliminate shadows and lines are acceptable.

Photographs that depict the applicant as relaxedand smiling are encouraged. Photographs shouldbe portrait-type prints, meeting the size andimage specifications listed above. Photographsmust be clear, front view, full face, with a light,plain background.

Passport photographs are normally taken on A passport photograph serves to identify thePolaroid film with a camera designed for passport passport applicant. When glasses, a hearing aid,photographs. The photographs must portray a good a wig, or similar articles are normally worn, these

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articles should be worn when the photograph ismade. Dark glasses with tinted lenses are notacceptable, unless required for medical reasons.

Photographs should be made in normal streetattire without a hat or other headgear thatobscures the hair or hairline. Only applicants inthe active service of the armed forces and whoare proceeding abroad in the discharge of theirofficial duties may submit photographs in theuniform of the U.S. Armed Forces. Otheruniforms should not be worn in passportphotographs.

Photographs should be able to withstandtemperatures up to 225°F (107°C) for 30seconds.

Photographs must be printed on thin paper so theseal and legend can be applied to the photograph.

Automatic and self-developing prints areacceptable for passport photographs, providingthey meet all other photographic specification.SX-70 and black-and-white Polaroid prints arenot acceptable.

Matte- or dull-finished photographs are pre-ferred, but shiny or glossy prints may beaccepted, provided the signature ink will stick tothe surface of the photograph. Matte or othersprays designed to produce a dull or nonglossyfinish should not be used.

PERSONNEL IDENTIFICATIONPHOTOGRAPHY

The requirement for speed in identificationphotography makes it impractical to produce the samequality expected in portrait work However, with a littleattention to the details of lighting, posing, and exposure,high-quality photographs can be provided.

Occasionally, a profile or three-quarter view may berequired for naturalization photographs. However, mostidentification photos are made with the subject facingthe camera and looking straight into the lens. Sinceidentification photographs must reveal as much facialdetail as possible, very few are flattering pictures.

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CHAPTER 8

COPYING

The term copying, as used in photography, meansproducing a photograph from a photograph, map,painting, or similar flat document. A document that iscopied is called the “copy original” or “original,” andthe products of the copying process are called“reproductions*’ or “copies.” Originals are broadlyclassed as reflection originals and transparent originals.The photographic reproduction can be any size inrelation to the original document.

Copying is a large and important part of navalphotography. It provides an important service to mostevery aspect of the Navy-from the IntelligenceSpecialist giving a training lecture, to the admiral whoneeds 100 copies of a map for planning an invasion.

Photographic copying is an accurate, inexpensive,and quick way of reproducing originals. Copying isskilled work and you must give it the same carefulattention that you give to other types of photography.Making good photographic copies is anaccomplishment any photographer can be proud of. Aknowledge of copying techniques extends your skill asa Navy photographer and makes you more useful toyourself and the Navy.

The process of copying is complicated by theextensive variation in the type of originals to be copiedand the varying conditions under which the work isdone. The materials to be copied range from simple linedrawings to transparencies that are used daily aboardship and at shore stations. Films used for copyphotography are processed much the same as films forother photography. They can be processed by hand, intrays and tanks, or processed by machine.

COPY TERMINOLOGY

Copying–Photographing flat documents, such asphotographs, drawings, blueprints, charts, and soforth.

Original–Material from which copies are made, such ashandwritten copy, typed copy, printed matter,tracings, drawings, and photographs.

Halftone–Reproduction by printing processes, such aslithography of a photograph in which the gradationof tone is reproduced by a pattern of dots andintermittent white spaces, caused by interposing ahalftone screen between the lens and the film. (Seefig. 8-1.)

Figure 8-1.–Comparison of continuous tone, line, and halftone.

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Line Original–A document or drawing consistingessentially of two tones (such as black and white,black and tinted, or brown and buff) withoutintermediate tones.

Continuous-Tone Original–Materials in which the detailand tone values of the subject are reproduced by aninfinite gradation of gray densities between whiteand black

Copy Negative–A photographic film negative made asan intermediate from which prints are made.

Reproduction–The duplication of original copy by anyphotographic process.

Copyboard–The board, easel, frame, or other device forholding originals to be copied.

Reflex Copying–A method of contact printing in whichlight passes through the sensitized paper andemulsion, strikes the material being copied, andreflects back to the emulsion, producing a reversedreproduction of the original.

Restoration-Copying old, faded, or damaged materialto produce a more presentable or legible copy.

Duplicating-Producing copies of negatives or slides foruse instead of the originals.

Intermediate Positive-A positive transparency of anegative used for making more negatives.

Intermediate Negative (Interneg)–A negative madefrom a positive transparency that is then used tomake reflection prints.

COPYRIGHT

On January 1, 1978, a new copyright statute cameinto effect in the United States. Some highlights fromthe law are given here. For specific details about the lawor to gain copies of the statute and regulations, send aspecific written request to the following: CopyrightOffice, Library of Congress, Washington, DC 20559.

Copyright Protection

Copyright is a form of protection provided by thelaws of the United States to the authors of “originalworks of authorship” including photographs. Thisprotection is available to both published andunpublished works. The Copyright Act generally givesthe owner of the copyright the exclusive right to do andto authorize others to do the following:

To reproduce the copyrighted work

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To prepare derivative works based upon thecopyrighted work

To distribute copies of the copyrighted work tothe public by sale or other transfer of ownershipor by rental, lease, or lending

To display the copyrighted work publicly in thecase of literary, musical, dramatic, andchoreographic, or sculptural works, including theindividual images of a motion picture or otherphotographic work

It is illegal for anyone to violate the rights providedto an owner of a copyright. These rights, however, arenot unlimited in scope. The Copyright Act establisheslimitations on these rights. In some cases, theselimitations are specified exemptions from copyrightliability. Generally however, it is unlawful to reproduce,without written consent of the copyright owner, anymaterial bearing a notice of copyright. The guiding rulein copying is to secure written permission from thecopyright owner before starting work

What Is Protected

Copyright protection exists for original works ofauthorship when they become fixed in a tangible formof expression. The fixation does not need to be directlyperceptible, so long as it may be communicated with theaid of a machine or device. Copyrightable works includethe following categories:

Literary works

Musical works, including any accompanyingwords

Dramatic works, including any accompanyingmusic

Pantomimes and choreographic works

Pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works

Motion pictures and other imaging works andsound recordings

This list is illustrative and is not inclusive of the cate-gories of copyrightable works. These categories shouldbe viewed quite broadly.

What Is Not Protected

Several categories of material are generally noteligible for statutory copyright protection. Amongothers include the following:

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Works that have not been fixed in a tangible formof expression

Titles, names, short phrases, and slogans;familiar symbols or designs; mere variations oftypographic ornamentation, lettering, orcoloring; mere listings of ingredients or contents

Ideas, procedures, methods, systems, processes,concepts, principles, discoveries, or devices, asdistinguished from a description, explanation, orillustration

Works consisting entirely of information that iscommon property and containing no originalauthorship; for example: standard calendars,height and weight charts, tape measures andrules, and lists or tables taken from publicdocuments or other common sources

Copyright Secured Automaticallyupon Creation

The way that copyright protection is secured isfrequently misunderstood. No publication orregistration or other action in the Copyright Office isrequired to secure a copyright under the law. Copyrightis secured automatically when the work is created, anda work is “created” when it is fixed in a copy or imagingrecording for the first time. In general, “copies” arematerial objects from which a work can be read orvisually perceived either directly or with the aid of amachine or device, such as books, manuscripts, sheetmusic, film, videotape, or microfilm. Phonographrecords are material objects embodying fixations ofsounds (excluding, by statutory definition, motionpicture sound tracks), such as audio tapes andphonograph disks. Thus, for example, a song (the“work”) can be fixed in sheet music (copies) or in audiorecordings, or both.

Notice of Copyright

When a work is published under the authority of thecopyright owner, a notice of copyright should be placedon all publicly distributed copies. This notice is requiredeven on works published outside of the United States.Omission or errors will not necessarily result inforfeiture of the copyright. Therefore, just because acopyrightable material does not have a copyright noticedoes not mean it is not copyrighted. However, infringersmisled by the omission or error of copyright notice willbe shielded from liability.

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How Long Copyright Protection Lasts

The copyright law changed in 1978. The time thatthe copyright on original material expires is determinedby when it was created.

WORKS ORIGINALLY COPYRIGHTED ONOR AFTER JANUARY 1, 1978.–A work that iscreated (fixed in tangible form for the first time) on orafter January 1, 1978, is automatically protected fromthe moment of its creation. It is ordinarily given a termenduring for the author’s life, plus an additional 50 yearsafter the author’s death. In the case of a joint workprepared by two or more authors that did not work forhire, the term lasts for 50 years after the last survivingauthor’s death. For works made for hire and foranonymous and pseudonymous (fictitious name) works(unless the author's identity is revealed in CopyrightOffice records), the duration of copyright is 75 yearsfrom publication or 100 years from creation, whicheveris shorter.

Works that were created before the 1978 law cameinto effect, but were neither published nor registered forcopyright before January 1, 1978, have beenautomatically brought under the statute and are nowprovided federal copyright protection. The duration ofcopyright for these works is generally computed in thesame way as for new works: the life plus 50 and the 75or 100 year terms apply to them as well. However, allworks in this category are guaranteed at least 25 yearsof statutory protection.

WORKS COPYRIGHTED BEFORE JANU-ARY 1, 1978.–Under the law in effect before 1978,copyright was secured either on the date a work waspublished or on the date of registration if the work wasregistered in unpublished form. In either case, thecopyright endured for a first term of 28 years from thedate it was secured. During the last (28th) year of thefirst term, the copyright was eligible for renewal. Thenew copyright law has extended the renewal term from28 to 47 years for copyrights that were still in existenceon January 1, 1978.

International Copyright Protection

There is no such thing as an “internationalcopyright” that will automatically protect an author'swritings throughout the entire world. Protection againstunauthorized use in a particular country depends,basically, on the national laws of that country. However,most countries do offer protection to foreign worksunder certain conditions, and these conditions have beengreatly simplified by international copyright treaties andconventions.

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The United States is a member of the UniversalCopyright Convention (UCC). Generally, a work by anational or resident of a country that is a member of theUCC, or a work first published in a UCC country, mayclaim protection under the UCC.

Works of the United States Government

Works produced for the U. S. Government by itsofficers and employees as part of their official duties arenot subject to U.S. copyright protection. The law makesit clear that this prohibition applies to unpublishedworks as well as published ones.

Fair Use

U.S. copyright laws specifically recognizes theprinciple of “fair use” as a limitation on the exclusiverights of copyright owners. The law considers factors indetermining whether particular uses fall within thiscategory. Listed below are the minimum standards ofeducational fair use of copyrighted works under the law.The guidelines are not intended to limit the types ofcopying permitted under the standards of fair use.

I. SINGLE COPYING FOR TEACHERS:

A single copy may be made of any of the followingby or for a teacher at his or her individual request for hisor her scholarly research or use in teaching orpreparation to teach a class:

A. A chapter from a book

B. An article from a periodical or newspaper

C. A short story, short essay, or short poem whetheror not it is from a collective work

D. A chart, graph, diagram, drawing, cartoon, orpicture from a book, periodical, or newspaper.

II. MULTIPLE COPIES FOR CLASSROOM USE:

Multiple copies (not to exceed in any event morethan one copy per pupil in a course) may be made by orfor the teacher giving the course for classroom use ordiscussion provided that:

A. The copying meets the test of brevity andspontaneity as defined below; and,

B. Meets the cumulative effect test as definedbelow; and,

C. Each copy includes a notice of copyright.

III. PROHIBITIONS AS TO I AND II ABOVE:

Notwithstanding any of the above, the followingshall be prohibited:

A. Copying shall not be used to create or to replaceor substitute for anthologies, compilations, or collectiveworks. Such replacement or substitution may occurwhether copies of various works or excerpts therefromare accumulated or are reproduced and used separately.

B. There shall be no copying of or from worksintended to be “consumable” in the course of study orof teaching. These include workbooks, exercises,standardized tests, and test booklets and answer sheetsand like consumable material.

C. Copying shall not:

1. substitute for the purchase of books,publisher’s reprints, or periodicals;

2. be directed by higher authority; and

3. be repeated with respect to the same itemby the same teacher from term to term.

D. No charge shall be made to the student beyondthe actual cost of the photocopying.

Each Navy photo lab should have a copy ofSECNAVINST 5870.5, Permission to use CopyrightedMaterials in the Department of the Navy. AllPhotographer’s Mates should be familiar with itsgeneral content. It should be the basic instruction youshould use when the question of copyright comes up.Here are a few excerpts from the instruction:

“As a general proposition, copyrighted worksmay not be used without permission of thecopyright owner. Unauthorized use is a copy-right infringement, . . the U.S. Government hasno general exemption from copyright infringe-ment liability. Government employees are not,however, personally liable for copyrightinfringement occurring in the performance oftheir official duties.”

“. . . it is a criminal offense to remove or alterany notice of copyright appearing on a . . .copyrighted work, . . .”

COPY RESTRICTIONS

Federal laws regulating photography are intendedto prevent counterfeiting and fraud and are locatedgenerally in Title 18 of the United States Code.

Designated government officials are charged withsafeguarding the nation’s currency. It is the belief of theUnited States Secret Service that granting permission tophotograph and reproduce pictures of money, in color,

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DEFINITIONS:

Brevity :

1. Poetry:(a) A complete poem if less than 250 words and if printed on not morethan two pages, or (b) from a longer poem, and an excerpt of not more than 250words.

2. Prose: (a) Either a complete article, story, essay of less than 2,500 words, or (b)an excerpt from any prose work of not more than 1,000 words or 10% of the work,whichever is less, but in any event a minimum of 500 words.

Each of the numerical limits stated in 1 and 2 above may be expanded topermit the completion of an unfinished line of a poem or of an unfinishedprose paragraph.

3. Illustration: One chart, graph, diagram, drawing, cartoon or picture per book orper periodical issue.

4. “Special” works: Certain works in poetry, prose, or in “poetic prose” that oftencombine language with illustrations and which are intended sometimes for childrenand at other times for a more general audience that fall short of 2,500 words in theirentirety. Paragraph 2 above notwithstanding such special works may not bereproduced in their entirety; however, an excerpt comprising not more than two ofthe published pages of such special work and containing not more than 10% of thewords found in the text thereof, may be reproduced.

Spontaneity:

1. The copying of the material is for only one course in the school in which thecopies are made.

2. Not more than one short poem, article, story, essay or two excerpts may be copiedfrom the same author, nor more than three from the same collective work orperiodical volume during one class term.

3. There shall not be more than nine instances of such multiple copying for onecourse during one class term.

The limitations stated in 2 and 3 above shall not apply to current newsperiodicals and newspapers and current news sections of other periodicals.

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seriously weakens the safeguards designed to protectour currency.

As a Navy Photographer’s Mate, you may be askedto copy United States and foreign financial certificates,such as obligations and securities. These may be neededfor anything from the station newspaper to criminalinvestigations.

Provided below is information and conditions underwhich you are permitted to make copies of United Statesand foreign obligations and securities.

Paper Money, Checks, and Bonds

Printed illustrations of paper money, checks, bonds,and other obligations and securities of the United Statesand foreign governments are allowed for educational,historical, and newsworthy purposes. Illustrations mustbe in black and white and must be less than 3/4 or morethan 1 1/2 times the size of the genuine original. Noindividual facsimiles of such obligations are permitted,and no illustrations of paper money, checks, or bondsmay be in color.

To be permissible, an illustration must beaccompanied by educational, historical, or newsworthyinformation relating directly to the item that isillustrated. Illustrations used primarily for decorative oreye-catching purposes are not allowed.

Motion-picture film and slides of paper money,checks, bonds and other obligations and securities of theUnited States and foreign governments are permitted inblack and white or in color for projection upon a screenor for use in telecasting. Treasury regulations permit theillustration of United States bonds in connection with acampaign for the sale of such bonds.

United States and Foreign Postage Stamps

Printed illustrations of canceled and uncanceledUnited States postage stamps are permissible forarticles, books, journals, newspapers, educational,historical, and newsworthy purposes.

Black-and-white illustrations may be of any size.Colored illustrations of canceled United States postagestamps may be of any size. However, illustrations incolor of uncanceled United States postage stamps mustbe less than 3/4 or more than 1 1/2 times the size of thegenuine stamp.

Printed illustrations of canceled foreign stamps inblack and white or color are permissible in any size andfor any purpose.

Black-and-white and color illustrations ofuncanceled foreign postage stamps are permitted foreducational, historical and newsworthy purposes,

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Black-and-white illustrations may be of any size, butcolor illustrations must be less than 3/4 or more than 11/2 times the size of the genuine stamp.

Motion picture films and slides of the United Statesand foreign postage stamps are permissible in black andwhite or in color for projection upon a screen or for usein telecasting.

Revenue Stamps

Regulations for printed illustrations of United Statesand foreign revenue stamps are the same as for postagestamps, except colored illustrations of United Statesrevenue stamps are not permitted.

Coins

Photographs or printed illustrations, motion-picturefilm or slides of the United States and foreign coins maybe used for any purpose.

With few exceptions, existing law generallyprohibits the manufacture, sale or use of any token, disk,or device in the likeness or similitude of any coins of theUnited States or of any foreign country that are issuedas money.

Title 18, U.S. Code, Section 481

Whoever, except by lawful authority as described inthe foregoing, prints photographs, or makes, executes,or sells any engraving, photograph, print, or impressionin the likeness of any genuine note, bond, obligation, orother security, or any part thereof, of any foreigngovernment, bank, or corporation, shall be fined not morethan $5,000 or imprisoned not more than 5 years, or both.

Destruction of Prints and Negatives

The negatives and prints of any United Statesobligation or foreign obligations produced for any of thepurposes mentioned previously in this chapter must bedestroyed after their final use.

COPY EQUIPMENT

The amount and type of copy work performed in animaging facility should be the basis for the types of copyequipment on hand. When expensive equipment is notjustified or available, a 35mm camera and the sun canbe used for copying; however, the best results areobtained when cameras and equipment designed forcopying are used.

Copying with a 35mm Camera

When making slides or only when an occasionalcopy job is requested, a 35mm camera should be used.Copy stands are available for use with 35mm cameras. (fig. 8-2)A set of lights may be mounted on the stand. When lights

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302.180X

Figure 8-2.–Copy Stand.

are not provided with the copy stand, regular studiolights can be used in their place.

When a copy stand is not available for use with a35mm camera, the camera can be used on a tripod,mounted for either horizontal or vertical copying. Forvertical copying, the tripod elevator post is removed andinserted into the tripod upside down. The camera is thenmounted under the tripod, and the tripod is then centeredover the original to be copied.

Cameras for Copying Large Originals

When the copy work done in your lab isconsiderable and includes many large originals, the typeof copy setup used by the graphic arts shops may beneeded.

The type of camera used in graphic arts photographyis called a process camera. Although larger than othertypes of cameras, it is similar in principle. Since the

process camera is built for copying, it has a copyboardand other features not associated with the averagecamera. There are two types of process cameras:horizontal and vertical.

Most horizontal process cameras are known asdarkroom cameras because the camera back is built intothe darkroom wall. Because the back of the cameraextends into the darkroom and the front is housed in aseparate room, you can load the film, focus the camera,make the exposure, and develop the film without leavingthe darkroom. Of course, it is necessary for you or ahelper to go outside to place copy in the copyboardbefore the exposure is made.

In recent years, vertical process cameras havebecome more popular because they take up much lessfloor space. This makes them especially useful aboardship.

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CAMERA ADJUSTMENTS.–Each copy camerahas slightly different adjustments. You should consultthe operating manual of your copy system to learn theproper operation and controls of your particular system.Only the minimum basic components of a copy systemare discussed in this chapter.

GROUND GLASS FOCUSING.–Ground glassfocusing is essential for exacting copy work The imageof a document viewed on the ground glass of a copycamera provides a means of monitoring all aspects ofthe image as it will appear in the reproduction. Thisincludes image placement, image size, and any apparentunwanted reflections.

BELLOWS EXTENSION.–A copy camerashould be capable of a bellows extension of at least two,and preferably three times or more the focal length ofthe lens being used. With a 3-inch lens and a bellowsextension of two focal lengths (6 inches) and the originalis positioned four focal lengths (12 inches) from the filmplane, a 1:1 ratio of the original size to reproduction sizeis obtained. A reproduction with a 1:1 ratio can bereferred to as “life size.” A bellows extension that is lessthan two focal lengths cannot produce an image as largeor larger than the original. A bellows that can beextended more than two focal lengths can produce animage larger than the original.

LENSES FOR COPYING

A primary requirement for a lens used for copyingis that it must focus sharply across a flat plan; that is, itmust produce a sharp image over its entire field ofview-all the way out to the edges of the image. Incopying, the original has only two dimensions, and theloss of definition at the edges of the image is much moreserious than it would be when photographing athree-dimensional subject.

Regular camera lenses of good quality can producefair to good copy negatives. But most lenses for generalphotography are designed to focus at a flat field fordistances greater than eight times the focal length. Sincemost copy work is done at close distances, the imagefield is not sharp because of the curvature of the generallens. This effect can be compensated for by stoppingdown the lens. However, because of the high degree ofdiffraction at small apertures, stopping down reducesthe overall sharpness of the image. For critical copywork, such as when copying large, detailed originals, alens designed for copying should be used. Such lenses,called process lenses, produce the best image at alens-to-subject distance of about 10 feet or less.

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Another very important aspect of a process lens isits evenness of illumination across the focal plane.Evenness of illumination across the entire negative isparticularly important when copying line originals. Thehigh-contrast films used to copy line originals have ashort exposure latitude and any falloff in illuminationresults in obvious variations in exposure between theedges and the center of the negative.

For each lens there is an optimum aperture at whichthe lens produces the best image definition. For copywork, this optimum aperture should be used wheneverpossible. Since originals to be copied are flat or almostflat, an increase in depth of field by stopping down fromthe optimum aperture is not required or desired. Withsome lenses, especially process lenses, the optimumaperture and maximum aperture are the same.Generally, however, the optimum aperture is two fullf/stops smaller than the maximum f/stop.

Most process lenses available today are apochro-matic. They are designed to be free of chromaticaberrations; that is, they focus sharply all three primarycolors in the same plane. Apochromatic lenses must beused for critical work in color copying and duplication.

Since exposure times in copy work are relativelylong (i.e., seconds as compared to hundredths of asecond), a lens equipped with a means of holding theshutter open is required. Your copy system must becompletely free of vibration to obtain sharp images. Forthese long exposures, you must use the T and B settingsand a cable release.

The focal length of a lens used for copying shouldbe governed primarily by the size of the negative to beproduced. For example, the focal length should be aboutequal to the diagonal measurement of the negative to bemade. Therefore, when you are making 35mmnegatives, use about a 1 3/4-inch or 45mm lens; a4.5 x 6cm negatives, use a 3-inch or 75mm lens; and for4 x 5 negatives, use a 6 1/4-inch or 160mm lens; and soon. In any case, you should use a lens that is longer thanthe film diagonal rather than a lens that is shorter. Thisway, you are taking advantage of the flatter field that isproduced in the center area of the circle of illumination.A macro lens should be used when available because itis designed to produce sharp images at close planes.

COPYBOARD

Copyboards are an integral part of a copy system.The function of a copyboard is to hold the original flatand perfectly parallel to the lens and camera back Whenthe copyboard is not parallel, distortion results, and it

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becomes difficult to get the entire subject in sharp focus.In some cases, the copyboard of the camera is a bed witha hinged glass cover. ‘The original to be copied is placedon the bed and the glass cover is closed When the coveris closed, the bed squeezes the original against the glasscover to flatten and hold it in place.

Reference lines are generally marked on the felt orrubber surface of the copyboard to aid in centering andaligning the cow. When the copyboard does not havethese lines, draw your own on the copyboard or on apiece of paper and fasten it to the copyboard.

Some copyboards have a vacuum pump thatprovides suction to hold the copy flat to the copyboard.This eliminates the need for a glass cover. After the copyis placed on the copyboard, the pump is turned on andthe vacuum holds the original in place.

When the copyboard does not have a vacuum pumpor glass cover, originals can be held in place withpushpins. When it is not permissible to put holes in theedges of the original, then double-sided tape may be analternative. When the copyboard is made of steel, theoriginal can be held in place with bar magnets.

When a camera is not equipped with a copyboardand for occasional work, a copyboard can be made froma sheet of softwood or cork. The surface should bepainted flat black, never white. A white, or evenlight-colored copyboard, reflects too much light into thecamera lens, causing flare and troublesome reflections.Flare causes a loss in contrast and extra compression ofthe shadows. A black copyboard minimizes flare.

Always keep the glass of a copyboard clean. Dust itwith a clean camel-hair brush and clean it with a softcloth and glass cleaner. Never use dirty rags or razorblades to clean the glass. They may scratch it. When youhave to scrape the glass, use your fingernail or an orangestick.

LIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Almost any type of light can be used for copy work,provided the intensity of the light is enough to preventexcessively long exposures. Another principlerequirement of the light source is to produce a light witha color temperature suitable for the type of film beingused.

Tungsten Lamps

Tungsten lamps 3200 K and 3400 K are suitable fornormal black-and-white copy work When a reflectortype of bulb is used, the need for external reflectors is

eliminated. A lens shade should be used with a reflectortype of bulb because the built-in reflector does notextend the full length of the bulb, and stray light mayreach the lens and cause flare.

Lamps such as 3400 K are not as economical to useas 3200 K lamps because of their short life (4 to 6 hours).

Fluorescent Lights

When fluorescent tubes are used to light an original,they should be arranged to form a square-the sides ofwhich are parallel to the edges of the copyboard. Thesize of the tubes and their distance from the copyboardare governed by the size of the original to be copied.Because this type of lighting setup is not easy to adjust,it is best used when the size of the originals to be copieddoes not vary much from one to another. Because of itsdiffused nature, fluorescent lighting is suitable forcopying originals with a textured surface that must beeliminated in the finished print. Regular fluorescentlights should not be used when shooting color filmbecause it is difficult to color correct them accurately.Special fluorescent lamps with a high color-renderingindex (CRI) should be used whenever possible. Whenordinary fluorescent lamps are used, consult thePhoto-Lab-Index to determine what filter should beused as a starting point for the type of film you are using.

Electronic Flash

When used properly, electronic flash units are anexcellent light source for copy photography. Anelectronic flash unit allows for extremely shortexposures that can be helpful for shipboard photolabswhen the ship is underway. The flash unit is balancedfor daylight color film and does not produce the heatassociated with tungsten or quartz bulbs.

Unless specifically designed for copy work andattached to the copyboard, electronic flash lamps maybe difficult to position for proper illumination of theoriginal. The task can be made easier if you use studioelectronic flash units with built-in tungsten modelinglights. With this type of lighting unit, the modeling lightcan be used to position the lights accurately for evenillumination of the original. Even with this, the light mayhave to be heavily diffused to prevent “hot spots.” A hotspot is a surface area that receives too much light,causing an unwanted reflection that is noticeable in thefinal copy product.

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Quartz-Iodine Lamps

The quartz-iodine lamps (tungsten-halogen) are ofthe incandescent variety but bear little resemblance toconventional light bulbs. A quartz lamp is a short tubeof quartz glass, housing a coiled filament that runs thelength of the tube. In ordinary tungsten lamps, thetungsten evaporates from the filament and settles on theglass and gradually darkens the bulb. In thequartz-iodine lamp, however, iodine vapor combineschemically with the tungsten and causes it to redepositon the filament. This prevents the tube from becomingtarnished with age. The intensity and color temperatureof the tube remain almost constant throughout its life.Although the quartz-iodine lamp is very small, itproduces intense light that is particularly suited for copywork. There is a disadvantage-quartz-iodine lampsgenerate extreme heat that could cause your original tocurl. You should never touch a quartz-iodine lamp withyour fingers. The oil from your hands can create aconcentrated hot spot on the lamp, causing it to bubbleand burn out.

LAMP REPLACEMENT.–As lamps get older,their color characteristics and light intensity maychange. Therefore, when one lamp in a set bums out, thenew replacement lamp is usually brighter and has adifferent color temperature than the remaining lamps.You should replace all the lamps, not just one to avoidthe need for adjusting the new lamp to get evenillumination. Replacement of all lamps in a set isparticularly important when you are copying with colorfilm because the color temperature of the new lamps ishigher than the old lamps. The variation in colortemperature would be seen as an uneven color qualityover the resulting reproduction.

VOLTAGE VARIATIONS.–Fluctuations in thevoltage or electric current affect the color temperatureof copy lights. When the voltage to your copy lightsvaries, consult an electrician. The electrician can tracethe source of fluctuation and recommend the best actionto overcome the problem.

Parabolic Reflectors

An important element of the lighting equipment forcopy work is the reflectors. Parabolic reflectors shouldcause the light to be evenly distributed over the surfacearea of the original and not cause hot spots. Certain typesof lights, such as reflector photoflood lamps, havebuilt-in reflectors. By use of the correct reflectors withartificial light sources, exposure times can be shortened.

Daylight

Daylight can be another excellent source ofillumination for copying. When the sun is used, youshould try to use the sun during the midday hours wherea combination of daylight and skylight is present,because of the shifting of color temperature throughoutthe day. The early morning and evening hours should beavoided when color film is used, because the lack of bluelight present. Heavy overcast skys or copying in shadowproduces a bluish cast and should be avoided orcorrected with a filter.

Filters

The use of filters was fully discussed in chapter 3.Both correction and contrast filters, as well as specialfilters, are used extensively in copy work

FILMS FOR COPYING

For copying, you can achieve the best results byselecting the correct film for the type of copy work tobe done. Copy-type films are designed specifically tocompensate for the compression that occurs in tonereproduction and it provides an improved highlight tonalseparation. Copy films are available only in 70mm andsheet film formats. Although 35mm film can provideacceptable results, you should use sheet film since itprovides higher-quality enlargements and is easier toretouch.

Film characteristics, such as color sensitivity andcontrast, are important when you select the film to copya specific type of original. Film characteristics werediscussed in chapter 2.

SELECTING THE PROPER FILM

The following factors should be considered whenchoosing the proper film:

The color of the original to be copied

The contrast of the original

The contrast of the film

The type of product to be produced, that is,black-and-white or color print, duplicatenegative, color or black-and-white transparency,and so on

Color quality of the light source

Types of film available

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Color sensitivity of the film

Filters available

Black-and-White Line Originals

A black-and-white line original has no middle orintermediate tones between the lines and background.Therefore, the best film for copying black-and-whiteline originals is one with extreme contrast, such asKodak Kodalith film. These films produce high contrastand extremely high density with an absence of fog,which ensures clear lines on a dense background.

Kodalith type of films have a very limited exposurelatitude, and therefore, must be given very accurateexposure. Underexposure produces low-contrastnegatives that result in prints having a muddy graybackground instead of a clear, crisp, white background.Overexposure causes weak or very fine lines to fill inand results in a less than perfect transparency of the lineson the negative.

Typewritten material should be included in this typeof original. When an original is typed or printed on thinwhite paper and on one side only, you should placeanother sheet of white paper behind the original to copyit. This increases the reflective ability of the original andincreases contrast. When the original is printed or typedon both sides of thin white paper, place black paperbehind the original to help prevent the printing or typeon the reverse side of the original from showing through.

Colored Line Originals

In copying colored line originals to ablack-and-white reproduction, you must maintain thehigh contrast between the lines and the background. Thisis best achieved by using a high-contrast panchromaticfilm, such as Kodak Contrast Process Pan film and afilter. When the lines or subject is to be rendered lightagainst a dark background, the filter should transmit thecolor of the subject and absorb the color of thebackground. When the subject is to be rendered darkagainst a light background, the filter should absorb thecolor of the subject and pass the color of the background.

For example, a blueprint has white lines on a bluebackground. Copying the blueprint with Kodalith Panfilm without a filter cannot produce maximum contrastbecause the film is highly sensitive to blue light and thusrecords the image of the blue background as a midtoneof gray while recording the white line image as a densehighlight. When a red filter is used, the white lines stillrecord as a dense highlight on the negative, but now the

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blue background records as a shadow area because thered filter absorbs the blue light reflected from the bluebackground. Thus the background reproduces darkerwhen a red filter is used.

Black-and-White Continuous-Tone Originals

To reproduce the tone gradation of acontinuous-tone original, you must use a long-scalefilm. As discussed previously, a commercial type offilm, such as Kodak Commercial film, is recommended.

The common fault in continuous-tone originalcopying is underexposure and overdevelopment. Fullexposure with restrained development is the best rulefor this type of work

Although appearing as line originals, handwrittenmaterial, pencil drawings, and so forth, are actuallycontinuous-tone originals because of the midtones theycontain. These should be copied as continuous-toneoriginals. Films, such as Kodak Professional Copy filmor Kodak Commercial film, are recommended.

Colored Originals

When a black-and-white reproduction ofmulticolored reflection originals, such as colorphotographs, oil paintings, and so forth, is to be made,it should be copied with a moderate contrast,panchromatic film capable of recording numerousshades of gray. Panchromatic, long-scale film isrecommended for copying this type of color original.

Colored originals are almost limitless in their degreeof difference because of all the possible colors and hues.Each different colored original should be copied on thebasis of what is desired in the black-and-whitereproduction.

Color Reproduction of Color Originals

Selecting a film for copying colored reflectionoriginals to make color reproductions is a matter of whattype of reproduction is needed-reflection ortransparency. Films, such as Kodak Vericolor IIIProfessional Film Type L and Type S and VericolorInternegative Film, can be used to produce colorreflection copies. Color transparency film must be usedto produce color transparencies from reflectionoriginals. Some films have a different recommendedISO rating when used with tungsten or daylight lightsources. Be sure to consult the data sheet supplied withthe film or the Photo-Lab Index to determine the properISO setting.

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When you are copying a color print to a colornegative, the best film to use is Kodak Internegativefilm. Because of the inherent high contrast ofphotographic papers, if not controlled, contrast is gainedin each generation of a reproduction. KodakInternegative film is designed to give greater contrastseparation in the highlights without raising the overallsubject contrast in the negative. To achieve proper colorbalance in the shadows, midtones, and highlights, youmust perform tests to assure that proper exposure andcolor filtration is obtained. The Photo-Lab Indexcontains the procedures necessary to accomplish thistesting.

Combined Black-and-White Line andContinuous-Tone Originals

When a black-and-white original contains both lineand continuous-tone matter, the ideal copy method is tocopy each type of matter with an appropriate filmseparately and then sandwich the two negativestogether, or print the two negatives separately on thesame piece of paper. The colored lines should be copiedwith an extremely high contrast film, such as KodalithPan, and the pastel-colored portions of the originalshould be copied with a moderate contrast film.

When copying the original with only one type offilm, you loose quality in either the lines or thecontinuous tones. For best results, you should copy thecombined line and continuous-tone original with amoderate contrast film, such as Kodak ProfessionalCopy film or Kodak Commercial film.

Black-and-White Halftone Originals

A black-and-white halftone original consists of apattern of black dots of various sizes that represent tonesof gray. Examples of halftone originals are printedpictures in newspapers or magazines. Small dots withample white space between them produce an illusion ofa light tone or highlight. Large dots that are closetogether produce the illusion of dark tones or shadowareas. Because the dots are all the same tone (black),halftone originals can be copied as line originals. Thistype of original can also be copied as a continuous-toneoriginal, depending on the use of the final product.

Reflection Originals SpecificallyProduced for Copying

When an original is to be used specifically forcopying, you can take certain measures to ensure betterreproduction results.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTS.–Black-and-whiteand color prints produced for copying should havenormal density, color saturation, and a glossy surface.When a non-glossy surface is used, the texture of thesurface may be apparent in the copy negative andreproductions.

TYPEWRITTEN MATERIAL.–Typewrittenmaterial that is to be copied should be typed with a newtypewriter ribbon. A carbon “one time” ribbon is best.To further increase contrast between the type and thepaper background, you can place a sheet of carbon paperbehind the typing paper. This causes the carbon to betransferred onto the back of the paper during typing.

When using a typewriter to produce copy that willbe photographed for making 35mm slides, limit yourtyping to no more than 8 double-spaced lines with43 elite or 36 pica characters to a line. Whenphotographing typed copy, use a template as a guide forsetting up your camera Allow about 1/8 inch of spaceoutside the template lines in the camera viewfinder.

Originals with Defects

Occasionally, the only record of an event is theoriginal document that through age or use is no longerin its original condition. By use of appropriate correctivemeasures, certain defects in originals can be eliminatedor minimized in the reproduction.

WRINKLED OR CREASED ORIGINALS.–Reflection originals that are wrinkled or creased can beflattened by placing the original on a mounting boardand then in a heated dry-mounting press. Mounting inthis manner is permanent and should be consideredcarefully before being used.

Another method you can use to flatten an oldphotograph is to wet the photograph with water andsqueegee it onto a sheet of glass with the emulsiontoward the glass. The photograph must be removed fromthe glass before it dries; otherwise, it may stick to theglass.

STAINED BLACK-AND-WHITE ORIGINALS.–Usually, transparent stains on black-and-white originalscan be eliminated in the reproduction by usingpanchromatic film and a filter that is the same color asthe stain. Details on eliminating images of stains withfilters is discussed in chapter 3.

FADED BLACK-AND-WHITE PHOTO-GRAPHS AND MANUSCRIPTS.– Normally, black-and-white photographs and other types of originaldocuments that have faded and are yellowed should be

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copied with a film, such as Kodak Commercial film. Anoriginal with a weak, faded image should be copied witha film, such as Kodak Contrast Process Ortho.

SPECIAL APPLICATIONS IN COPYING

Special applications are used in copying to detectinformation that cannot be seen with our eyes undernormal lighting conditions. Because these are specialapplications, they are not performed in most Navyimaging facilities, but are still worth mentioning. Thesemethods involve the use of infrared and ultravioletradiation and special types of films.

Black-and-White Infrared

Copying with black-and-white infrared films andinfrared radiation can help in deciphering old, charred,or altered documents. This is possible because similarappearing materials can reflect and transmit invisibleinfrared radiation in different amounts. For example,two ink signatures may appear identical to the eye.However, when photographed with an infrared film, thetwo signatures may appear totally different.

A suitable infrared filter must be used whenblack-and-white infrared films are exposed. This isbecause infrared film is sensitive to visible light as wellas infrared radiation. The infrared filter absorbs thevisible light so the film image is produced entirely withinfrared radiation. For specific filter recommendations,consult the data supplied with the film or the Photo-LabIndex.

Infrared wavelengths are longer than visible lightwavelengths and do not focus on the same plane asvisible light. Therefore, a slight increase in lens-to-filmdistance is necessary. A separate focusing scale forinfrared is indicated on the focusing scale of most lenses.

Ultraviolet Radiation

Copying with ultraviolet (UV) radiation can aid indetecting chemically erased or badly faded writing andrestoration or alteration of artwork because differentmaterials reflect or fluoresce different amounts ofultraviolet radiation.

Photographing with reflected ultraviolet radiationin total darkness is possible because some of theultraviolet absorbed by a material may be overlooked asvisible light or fluorescence. Such photography indarkness is possible only when a material is illuminatedwith an ultraviolet source, such as the General ElectricUviarc. The fluorescence from a material illuminated

with ultraviolet radiation should be photographed witha No. 2A (pale yellow) filter to absorb the stronger UVreflections. A recommended film to use for ultravioletphotography is Kodak Contrast Process Ortho film.Exposure tests should be conducted to determine thebest exposure for an ultraviolet copy setup.

Do not use commercial ultraviolet lamps in whichthe lamp itself is an ultraviolet filter. These lampstransmit visible light that does not permit photographinga fluorescing original.

COPYING REFLECTION ORIGINALS

Reflection originals are documents or other flatobjects like pictures or drawings that are viewed andphotographed (copied) by reflected light.

Copying reflection originals can be done with eitherhorizontal or vertical copy cameras or setups. The sizeof the copy setup can range from the space necessary toattach the original to a wall and make the copy photowith a tripod-mounted camera, to a copy setup whichfills two rooms- one containing the camera back anddarkroom and the other the copyboard. Regardless ofthe different copy setups possible for reflectionoriginals, the copying techniques are the same with fewexceptions. In general, the procedures used for copywork are placing the original on the copyboard, aligningthe optical axis of the lens with the original, lighting theoriginal, focusing the lens, calculating the exposure, andexposing the film.

PLACING THE ORIGINAL ONTHE COPYBOARD

A copyboard should have a positive means ofattaching and holding the original. The means ofattaching the original could be spring clips, small barmagnets, thumbtacks or pushpins, a hinged glass frame,a sheet of glass, vacuum, and so forth. When thumbtacksor pushpins are used, be sure not to punch holes in theoriginal. For high volume copy, a vacuum copyboardallows a more rapid change and positioning of originalson the copyboard.

When you are using a vertical copy camera or setup,a darkroom printing easel may be used to hold theoriginal in place.

ALIGNING THE OPTICAL AXIS OF THELENS WITH THE ORIGINAL

Arising, falling, and sliding front feature of a copycamera provides for the alignment of the lens and the

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Figure 8-3.–Lights positioned at a 45-degree angle.

original without moving the camera or the original.When the camera is not designed with a rising, falling,and sliding front, the camera or original must be movedto align the original with the optical axis of the lens.

LIGHTING THE ORIGINAL

One of the most important elements in copying isproper, even illumination of the original. Originals thatare not properly and evenly lighted yield negatives withuneven density, which are hard to print. This is truewhether the original is illuminated by daylight orartificial light. Uneven illumination can be caused byimproper placement of artificial lights in relation to thecopyboard or by improper placement of the original indaylight.

Artificial lights are normally placed on two sides ofthe copyboard. A 45-degree angle is recommended forgeneral use (fig. 8-3). At this angle, a minimum ofunwanted reflections from the surface of the originaloccurs. However, depending on the type of surface ofthe original, the best angle for the lights may change.

For example, an original artwork may have brushstrokes that produce reflections. These reflections maybe reduced somewhat by placing the lights at an anglegreater or lesser than 45-degrees.

Do not position artificial lights too close to thecopyboard. The circles of illumination will not cover theoriginal completely. Movable lights should not bepositioned so far from the copyboard that the intensityof the illumination falling on the original is greatlyreduced.

The evenness of illumination on an original can bechecked with an exposure meter. Do this by placing agray card on the original and taking a reflected lightmeter reading from the card. Do not allow the shadowof the meter or your hand to influence the reading. Whena gray card is not available, a white card (the back of asheet of photo paper) can be used, but you mustcompensate your exposure by two f/stops. Reflectedlight from the four corners and center area of the originalshould read the same light values.

Daylight provides two choices of illumination:direct sunlight and diffused daylight, such as a cloudy,bright day or open shade. Evenness of daylightillumination is controlled by ensuring that the originalis completely in direct sunlight or in diffused daylight,and no shadows are cast on the original.

Although an original is uniformly illuminated overits entire surface, apparent unevenness in illuminationmay still appear in the copy if a wide-angle lens is used.This is caused when the light transmitted through thecenter of the lens is more intense than the lighttransmitted near the edges of the lens. When the entireangle of view of the wide-angle lens must be used, moreillumination to the edges of the original is needed tocompensate for the falloff of light at the edges of thelens. This can be achieved by turning the lights slightlytoward the edges or by moving the lights close to theedges. The amount of light increase necessary for theedges of the original is best determined by conductingexposure tests with the type of film being used.

Lighting control is more critical when using anextremely high contrast film, compared to a high,moderate, normal, or low contrast film. Uneven lightingis more visible in a copy produced with an extremelyhigh contrast film because of the limited exposurelatitude of the emulsion.

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Figure 8-4.–Lighting large originals.

Kelvin Temperature of Illumination

When you are producing color copies, the Kelvintemperature (color) of the light source should match thecolor balance of the color film being used. When a lightsource produces an illumination color other than that forwhich a color film is balanced, filters must be used toalter the Kelvin temperature of the illumination tocorrespond with the color balance of the film.

Rises and drops in voltage also affect the colortemperature and intensity of illumination. Fluctuation involtage can be controlled by using a voltage regulator.

Lighting Large Originals

For most copy work, you should position the lightsat a 45-degree angle, about 36 inches from thecopyboard, and aimed at the center of the original.However, there are occasions when you may have tocopy a large chart, and the normal lighting setup causesuneven illumination. Light from an artificial sourcemust travel farther to reach the center of the original, andthe light reflected from the edges must travel farther toreach the lens. This causes the light to be less intensealong the edges and may result in underexposure ofthese areas. You can correct this condition by adjustingthe lights. Keep the lights at a 45-degree angle, but movethem closer to the lens optical axis until the light beamsfrom the lamps intersect in front of the original (fig. 8-4).Balance is generally achieved when the beams crosseach other at a point approximately one third of thedistance from the copyboard to the lens. Check the

lighting on the ground glass or through the viewfinderto see whether it is even from the center to the outeredges.

When lighting large copy, the use of portrait lightswith umbrellas is a good source of illumination. Thewide coverage and diffused light, produced from thislight source, allows you to light the original easily andevenly. To check the evenness of the lighting, use a flashmeter and take readings from the center, corners, andintermediate points on the original.

Reflection Control

Unwanted reflections often affect copying. Properplacement of the lights is generally sufficient toeliminate most normal reflections. The three types ofunwanted reflections in copy work are as follows:

Reflections from the light source

Reflections over the entire surface of the originalor copyboard

Optical flare

Reflections from the light source are caused by lightreflecting from the camera stand, lens board, cablerelease, or other shiny objects around the copy setup.The reflections usually occur when you are copyingglass-covered originals, glossy photographs, or othersmooth-surfaced originals. The best way to eliminatethis type of reflection (when changing the position of thelights does not help) is to use a black cloth or a sheet ofcardboard (painted dull black) as a shield between thelens and copyboard. You can do this by cutting a holethe size of the lens in the center of the cloth or boardthen placing the cloth or board over or around the lens.A lens hood also helps in reducing or eliminating thistype of reflection.

Reflections over the entire surface of an original canoccur with rough, scratched, crumpled prints orpaintings with brush marks, canvas texture, cracks, andso forth. These reflections are caused by high spots onthe surface of the original and cause small lightreflections of the light source. Such small reflectionscover the surface of the original with a haze of light thatresults in a low-contrast copy image. Reflections of thistype are more difficult to avoid than reflections of thelight source. As long as the lights shine directly on therough surface, such reflections occur no matter in whatposition the lights are placed. There are two lightingmethods by which this type of reflection can beminimized or eliminated. These methods are bouncelighting and polarized lighting.

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Figure 8-5.–Using bounce light to control reflections.

BOUNCE LIGHTING.–When a white surface islow enough, you should direct the light sources upwardso diffused light bounces off the surface onto the original(fig. 8-5). When the surface is too high or other thanwhite, it may be possible to use a white reflectorpositioned horizontally over the upturned lights. Thisreflector could be a large sheet of white cardboard.

POLARIZED LIGHTING.–The most efficientmethod of eliminating unwanted reflections in copywork is by using polarized light. In regular photography,a polarizing filter is placed over the camera lens tosubdue reflections. This works because the light fromthe sun is polarized as it passes through the atmosphereand is reflected by the object being photographed. Usinga polarizing filter over the lens only does not greatlyreduce unwanted reflections in copy work. In copying,polarizing screens must be used over the lights as wellas a polarizing filter over the lens.

When polarized light is used in copying, a con-siderable increase in exposure is required. This exposureincrease is from about 10 to 16 times the normalexposure required with the same lights withoutpolarizing screens. The exact increase is best deter-mined through a series of exposure tests.

Reflections caused by flare are common with dirtyor poor quality lenses. When available, lenses designedfor copy work should be used, and like all lenses, theyshould always be kept clean.

DETERMINING EXPOSURE

Like all other types of photography, in copying thereare various factors that must be considered whencalculating exposure. You must consider the nature ofthe original-its color and brightness, the intensity of the

light source, the film speed, the filter factor, and theobject-to-image ratio or bellows extension

Color and Brightness

Light-shaded or light-toned originals reflect morelight than dark originals. Thus, with the same lightingsetup, dark originals require more exposure than lightoriginals. The amount of exposure compensationdepends on the darkness or lightness of the original.When TTL (through the lens) metering is read directlyfrom the original, a dark original may require twice theexposure of a standard exposure, and a light originalmay require less than 50 percent of a standard exposure.You should always use a gray or white card to determinethe exposure more accurately.

Intensity of Illumination

Intensity of illumination at the copyboard can becontrolled by placing the lamps closer or farther fromthe copyboard, by using lamps of different light intensityoutput, or by reducing the intensity of illumination bydiffusing the light.

The best method for measuring illuminationintensity at the copyboard is with an exposure meter. Anexposure meter is particularly useful when the copylights are moved or changed from the positions used tocalculate a standard exposure.

The recommended ISO film speeds or exposureindices of copy films apply directly when an incidentmeter is used or when a reflected meter reading is takenof an 18 percent gray card at the copyboard. When a graycard is not available, a reflected meter reading of a mattewhite surface with about 90 percent reflectance can betaken. The back of white photo paper provides thisreflectance. When a white surface is used to calculate anexposure, the ISO or exposure index of the film shouldbe divided by 5 and rounded off to the nearest setting onthe meter. For example: when the ISO is 32, divide by5 and use 6 or the nearest setting on the meter. You alsomay take the meter reading directly without changingthe ISO and increase the exposure by two f/stops.Remember, exposure meters are calibrated to producemiddle gray regardless of the light reflectance ability ofthe subject. Thus the light reflectance ability of anoriginal should be considered in determining anexposure.

The exposure indices, given for high contrastmaterials used in line copy work, are intended for trialexposures, even when an exposure meter is used.

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Exposure Compensation for Bellows Extension

As discussed in chapter 4, an exposure calculatedwith an exposure meter is precise only for a lens set ata distance equal to one focal length When the distancebetween the optical center of the lens and the focal planeis greater than one focal length, an increase to theindicated exposure is usually required. Before anaccurate increase in exposure can be applied by openingthe lens diaphragm, the effectiveness of the f/stop of theindicated exposure should be determined Remember,the marked f/stops of a lens that is set beyond one focallength are not valid because the f/stops are a ratio of thediameter of the lens aperture to one focal length. Referto chapter 4 to determine how to compensate exposurefor bellows extension.

PROCESSING COPY FILMS

Films used for copying are processed the same asany other film. They can be processed by machine or byhand, using tanks or trays. Recommendations forspecific developers, developing times, and developingtemperatures are given with each type of film. Somefilms not designed specifically for copying may yieldnegatives with excessive contrast. This can usually beavoided by reducing the developing time. Consult thePhoto-Lab Index to find suitable developing times tolower or raise contrast.

CATHODE-RAY TUBES

Although taking photographic images fromcathode-ray tubes (CRT) is not actually a type of copywork, it has become more commonplace to photographtheir images for briefs and presentations. Televisions,computer monitors, and radarscopes all can be classifiedas CRT photography.

When you are shooting CRTs, like all copyphotography, it is important for the optical axis of thelens to be centered and perpendicular to the monitor. Thecamera must be mounted on a sturdy tripod. A cablerelease and a macro lens are recommended.

When you are photographing radarscopes, time orshutter speed is not a factor of exposure. The number ofsweeps on the scope is the factor that determines theexposure at a given f/stop. The number of rotations isnot proportional to film exposure. As a general rule, theexposure doubles between one and three sweeps. To getthe correct exposure, you must bracket the exposure. Agood starting point for less than three sweeps with ISO125 film is at f/5.6.

To get the sharpest and clearest image possible, youmust adjust the brightness of the radarscope correctly.Do this by turning up the intensity until halos appear.Then turn it down until the halos just disappear. Whenthe intensity of the scope is too great, the image appearsout of focus. If the intensity of the scope is not greatenough, there is little contrast between the video and thebackground.

Computer-generated graphics are a common meansof producing material for use in slide briefings. Whenavailable, use a computer monitor with a flat screenrather than a curved screen Use the same procedures forshooting computer screens that you use for radarscopes.The difference is there is no sweeping motion whenshooting a computer monitor or a television. Whenmotion is apparent, you must use a shutter speed of1/30th of a second. When you use this shutter speed, thefilm records the image without obvious scan lines andstops the motion of the image.

When photographing images from a CRT, alwaysdarken the room before you make the exposures. Thisprevents glare on the screen and only the illuminationfrom the screen affects the film.

SLIDE DUPLICATING

In photography, you must often make duplicateslides from an original. Duplicating is actually a form ofcopying. A duplicate or “dupe” can be made to almostany desired size. Contrast and density along with coloradjustments can be made when duplicating color slides.

Color slides are duped to provide extra copies of theslide, correct color balance and contrast errors, or evento change or enhance colors for special applications.

CAMERAS AND ACCESSORIES FORDUPLICATING

Except for the copyboard or easel, the features ofthe equipment used for duplicating transparent originalsare essentially the same as that used in copyingreflection originals. The exception being that thecopyboard for copying transparent originals must allowlight to be transmitted through the original to the camera.

Except for being lit by transmitted light, largeformat transparent originals (larger than 35mm) arecopied the same as reflection originals. 35mmtransparencies are copied with special slide copyingattachments for cameras, or copied in speciallydesigned, semiautomatic or automatic slide copiers.

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302.185Figure 8-6.–Slide duplicating system.

Regardless of the equipment being used, your goalsfor duplicating transparent originals should be toduplicate, improve, or alter, as desired, the reproductionof the original.

DUPLICATING 35mm COLOR SLIDES

To get additional copies of a color slide, you musteither make several exposures of the original scene ormake duplicates from the original slide. When the scenecannot be re-photographed, the only alternative is tomake duplicates of the original slide.

Other than making a number of duplicate slidesfrom an original, you can use the duplicating process toimprove a photograph. The image can be made larger orsmaller, the composition can be changed throughcropping, the density of the duplicates can be changedfrom the original, and with the use of filters, the colorof the reproductions can be changed.

In most Navy imaging facilities a camera designedespecially for copying slides is used (fig. 8-6). This

camera setup usually consists of a unit having a camerabody and lens, bellows extension, light source, acopyboard, filter holders, and the necessary controls andswitches. When slides are copied with a slideduplicating camera, the slide is transilluminated. This isthe most common method of copying slides.

Exposure

Whatever method you use to copy slides, you mustmake exposure tests. The original slide you choose tomake the tests should have average density andbrightness and normal contrast. This slide should beretained as a reference slide. A full-frame slide of a colorrendition chart (color checker) serves ideally as areference slide. A color rendition chart allows you tovisually or objectively compare a series of colors anddensities of the original reference slide against the slideduplicate. To visually compare slides, you should usetransmitted light and color viewing filters to judge theslides. The objective method is more accurate. Adensitometer is used in this method. A densitometer isan electronic meter that measures the actual density ofblack-and-white and color materials.

Kodak Ektachrome slide duplicating film isrecommended for slide duplication. This film ismanufactured to provide lower contrast, less filtrationwith tungsten lighting, and it has good colorreproduction characteristics.

The data supplied with the slide duplicating film orthe Photo-Lab-Index provides information that you canuse as a starting point for exposure tests. However, youshould bracket the exposure at least one f/stop inone-half f/stop intervals on each side of the basicexposure.

Slide Handling

The original slide must be clean to producehigh-quality duplicate slides. The smallest piece of dustor lint is magnified greatly when the slides are projected.Never touch a slide with your fingers. Handle the slidesonly by their mounts. Hold unmounted transparenciesonly by the edges. Dust or lint should be removed withlow-pressure air or a camel-hair brush. If there arefingerprints or oily smudges on the slide, you canremove them with a soft, lint free pad or a piece of cottondampened with film cleaner.

Slides should be placed in the slide duplicatorbase-side up. When you are duplicating the full frame

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of the slide, you must place the slide on the copy stagehorizontally, regardless of the composition of the slide.When a full frame view is not desired, you can crop orenlarge a portion of the original slide. When you changethe camera or lens distance to alter the image size, besure to refocus the image.

Examining Results

The duplicate slide should be laid on a light tableand compared to the original. If you bracketed yourexposure, determine which exposure provides thecorrect density. When none of the exposures arecorrect, the original must be recopied and given moreor less exposure by changing the f/stop. The exposuretime should not be changed. Again, bracket yourexposure.

Color Balance

Color compensating (CC) filters are used in a slideduplicating camera. The CC filters are placed betweenthe original and light source. By changing the filtration,you can correct the color balance of the duplicate slides.

After producing a duplicate slide with properdensity, the color balance of the duplicate slide mustbe evaluated. When the color balance is off, you mustchange it through the use of CC filters and re-shootthe original. When the duplicate is extremely yellow,first check the slide duplicating light source. Mostslide copy systems using tungsten light, have a "viewsetting" and a "filter setting." If the system was setin the view position, the CC filters were not in place.The unfiltered tungsten light produces a slide that isvery yellow.

To judge the color balance of the duplicate slide,lay it on a light table, compare it to the original, anddetermine what color or colors are in excess. To dothis, you should view the duplicate slides throughvarious CC filters. A color print viewing kit isconvenient for this purpose. When viewing slidesthrough the various filters, look at the midtones, notthe shadows or highlights. Color viewing filters arehelpful in making color balance determinations. If acolor rendition chart was used as the original slide, adensitometer can be used to directly compare the colorbalance of the original to the duplicate.

To adjust the filter pack for the color in excess in theduplicate slide, you should either subtract filtration of

Table 8-1.–Color Compensating Filter Factors

FILTER FACTOR FILTER FACTOR

05Y 1.1 05R 1.21OY 1.1 10R 1.320Y 1.1 20R 1.530Y 1.1 30R 1.740Y 1.1 40R 1.950Y 1.1 50R 2.2

05M 1.2 05G 1.110M 1.3 10G 1.220M 1.5 20G 1.330M 1.7 30G 1.440M 1.9 40G 1.550M 2.1 50G 1.7

05C 1.1 05B 1.110C 1.2 10B 1.320C 1.3 20B 1.630C 1.4 30B 2.040C 1.5 40B 2.450C 1.6 50B 2.9

the color in excess or add filtration of the complimentarycolor to the color in excess. The amount of changerequired is about the same as the viewing filter requiredto make the midtones appear correct.

For example, when a slide is over in blue andrequires a CC20 yellow viewing filter to make themidtones appear correct, a CC20 blue filter should besubtracted from the filter pack. When a CC20 blue filtercannot be removed, a CC20 yellow filter should beadded to the filter pack Your first choice should alwaysbe to subtract rather than add.

Adding or subtracting filters has an effect onexposure. To determine the exposure change required,you should refer to the operating instructions for theslide copier or consult a CC/CP filter factor table (table8-1).

The number of filters used in a filter pack should bekept to a minimum. Do not combine all three filters. Thisonly creates neutral density.

After processing, select the best exposure and use itas the basic exposure for future duplicates. When youcopy other slides that are darker or lighter than thereference slide, adjust the basic exposure. Use one-half

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or one f/stop more exposures for slides that are darkerthan the reference slide, and one-half or one f/stop lessexposure for slides that are lighter than the referenceslide.

You should maintain a log of the different types ofcopy jobs completed in your area of responsibility. Withthe continual changes in photographic film, processes,

and equipment, you must always perform tests (whetherit be standard copy or slide duplication) to achieve thehighest quality product possible. Camera distance, lightsource (K), light distances, film type, filters, camerasettings, and processes should all be included in the log.By maintaining a log, you eliminate the necessity forphotographic testing every time a routine copy jobcomes into your work center.

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CHAPTER 9

CHEMICAL MIXING

When light-sensitive emulsions are used, photog-raphy is essentially a chemical process. You dependupon the chemical process to produce visible andpermanent images. An important requirement foroptimum photographic processing is the careful andcorrect preparation of photographic solutions. Impropermixing of chemicals or contamination during mixingcan have far-reaching effects on operations, quality,production, and mission accomplishment in the imagingfacilities of the Navy. It is often difficult to determinethe cause of poor quality when improper chemicalmixing is at fault, and the need for discarding incorrectlyprepared or contaminated solutions cuts down onproduction and wastes money.

The main function of the darkroom portion of thephotographic process is to develop film and produceprints, and this requires photographic chemistry. It maybe your job to ensure that all chemicals needed aremixed and checked for quality. “This is a responsibilitythat you cannot take lightly.” A solution that is mixedimproperly may cause an entire mission to be lost. Youmust use the utmost precautions when mixing, checking,or analyzing the photographic solutions used in your lab.

PHOTOGRAPHIC CHEMICAL ANDSOLUTION STORAGE

When you receive chemicals in your imagingfacility, the cartons, packages, or containers should bedated to show either the date received or the dateshipped. This helps provide proper stock rotation andsystematic control of chemical usage. Chemicals shouldbe issued from the storeroom on a first-in-first-out(FIFO) basis.

Unmixed chemicals should be stored in theiroriginal, unopened containers in a cool, dry,well-ventilated storage area where the temperature ismaintained at or about 75°F with a relative humidity ofabout 40 percent.

Prepared solutions, like dry chemicals, also must beprotected from adverse conditions, especially oxidationand contaminat ion . When the fo l lowingrecommendations are adhered to, most “unused”

solutions stay in good condition for a reasonable periodof time:

Small amounts of replenisher and stock solutionsare best kept in stoppered or screw-cap bottles. Glassbottles are best for developer and developer replenisher.Screw caps must be free of corrosion, foreign particles,cardboard inserts, and be airtight. Never interchangebottle tops from one bottle to another. A cap-to-bottlecolor or number code is suggested.

When large bottles are used to store solutions, theair space in the bottle is increased each time the solutionis removed. Since this increases the chance foroxidation, store solutions in small bottles instead. Theentire contents of a small bottle can then be used at onetime. However, a small air space should be left even insmall bottles. This allows for varying solution volumedue to temperature changes and keeps the cap fromloosening or the bottle from bursting.

When tanks are used for the storage of largevolumes of solutions, they should have floating lids toprotect the solutions from aerial oxidation Dust coversalso should be used to cover the top of the tank. The tank,the lid, and the cap should be coded in such a way thatthey are reassembled with the correct parts.

Always follow the storage and capacityrecommendations of the manufacturer. They arepackaged with the chemicals. Do not use chemicals thathave been in storage too long.

Before you use any solution, no matter how longit has been mixed or in storage, check it fordiscoloration. Each solution has its own “signature” orcharacteristic appearance; and any change from normalmay be a sign that it will produce unsatisfactory results.Check both sides and the bottom of the tank forprecipitates. If there are any, carefully stir the solutionto redissolve them. When you are unsure of the qualityof the solution, discard it.

Most photo-processing chemical formulations arebased on both their photographic qualities and theirchemical stability or keeping qualities, both on the shelfbefore mixing and as prepared solutions. Afterlong-term storage, chemicals may lose some of theirchemical activity.

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MIXING, TESTING, AND STORINGEQUIPMENT

The type of material, used for photographicchemical mixing, solution testing, storing, as well asfilm-handling equipment, must be considered beforemixing chemicals. Materials commonly used in theconstruction of this equipment are Type 316 stainlesssteel, polyethylene, and glass. Related equipment,such as solution transfer lines, mixer shafts, impellers,and machine parts, are also made of these samematerials.

Some metals are not suitable for use with photosolutions. Serious chemical fog and developer changescan be caused by tin, copper, brass, and bronze.Aluminum, lead, nickel, zinc, galvanized iron, andMonel, when used with developers and fixers, can beharmful to films and papers. When these metals areused, silver thiosulfate from the used fixer may stick tothem. Even when the utensils are washed after being inthe fixer, enough silver thiosulfate can be transferred tothe developer in the next processing or mixing run tocause stain, fog, or changes to image tone.

Wooden paddles and other absorbent materialsmust not be used with photographic solutions. Oncethey have been used, it is almost impossible to washthem clean of absorbed chemicals.

MIXING CONTAINERS

Chemicals should always be mixed in cylindricalcontainers made of suitable materials, The size of themixing container should be suitable for the amount ofsolution to be prepared. A small batch of solutionshould not be mixed in a large vessel that usesmechanical agitation because large amounts of airmay be introduced, and splashing may occur. So, themixing container, and for that matter, scales andgraduates, should be sized to the quantities andvolumes of solutions required.

GRADUATES

Graduates are used to measure liquids. Graduatesare made in various sizes, calibrations, and of variousmaterials. The units of measure of graduates arecalibrated in the U.S. liquid measurement system ofounces, quarts, and gallons, and in the metric liquid

measurement system of cubic centimeters, milliliters,and liters.

Glass is most commonly used for making graduatesbecause it is NOT affected by most chemicals. Glassis also transparent and reasonably durable. Graduatesare also made from plastic and stainless steel. Whenusing graduates made of plastic, do not try to measurestrong acids, such as sulfuric acid, which could causesevere damage. You must also be sure that the materialthe graduate is made of does not react with any of yourphotographic chemicals.

For accuracy in measuring liquids, graduatesshould be proportional in size to the quantity ofsolution being measured; for example, an 8-ouncegraduate should be used instead of a 32-ouncegraduate to measure 2 or 3 ounces.

When measuring a liquid in a glass graduate, holdit at eye level and pour the solution into it until thesurface of the liquid reaches the correct mark. You willnotice a curved surface on the top of the solution. Thiscurved surface is called the “meniscus.” The correctamount is indicated by the lower of two visible linesof the meniscus (fig. 9-1). These two lines can be seeneasily through the side of a glass graduate when it isheld correctly. With an opaque graduate, such asstainless steel, the two lines can be seen by lookingdown into the graduate from an angle. Stop pouringthe solution when the “lower line” of the liquidreaches the calibration mark. Major divisions areindicated by numbers on the graduate. Subdivisionsare shown by calibration lines only. You mustdetermine the value of the individual subdivisions; forexample, the marked or numbered lines may indicateounces and read in series of 10. When there is onlyone calibration line between each graduation of 10,then the value of the calibration line is 5.

THERMOMETERS

All chemical action takes place faster at hightemperatures than at low temperatures. In thephotographic process, when you mix or use a solution,you must know its temperature.

Thermometers are used to measure the temperatureof the solution and may be made of glass or metal. Theaverage glass thermometer consists of a bulb, containingeither mercury or colored alcohol, attached to a capillarytube. This tube may be calibrated or it may be securedto a graduated scale. When you are reading a

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HYDROMETERS

237.223Figure 9-1.–Read tbe lower line of the meniscus when measuring

liquids

thermometer, your eyes should be level with the top ofthe liquid column in the capillary tube; otherwise, thereading may be off as much as 2 or 3 degrees. This erroris due to the refraction of the cylindrical magnifier thatis built into the capillary tube.

Most Navy photographic labs have metal, dial typeof thermometers made of corrosion-resistant steel. Theyhave a long, thin metal stem, or rod, with a circular dialindicator at the top. The action of this thermometer isremarkably fast, and the dial is easy to read.

The accuracy of all lab thermometers should bechecked regularly against one of known accuracy, suchas a Kodak process thermometer.

Another measuring device used in photography isthe hydrometer. A “hydrometer” is used to determine thespecific gravity of a solution. A specific gravity checkis one of the first tests to verify the dilution of a solution.When the same chemicals are used and when the samequantity of chemicals and an equal volume of water areused each time, the resulting liquid is approximately thesame specific gravity each time. This is a characteristicof that particular solution when all specific gravitymeasurements are made at the same temperature.

The specific gravity should stay within an upper anda lower limit as determined by the manufacturer for eachsolution. Variations beyond the upper limit-indicating adenser or heavier liquid-suggest that more than theprescribed amount of one or more of the ingredients hasbeen used, an ingredient foreign to the solution has beenadded, or not enough water was added to the solution.Measurements that fall below standard limits mightindicate that something has been left out, that a foreignchemical has been substituted, or that more than thecorrect amount of water was added.

The silver content of a fixing bath increases as thebath becomes exhausted. This causes the specificgravity of the solution to rise. Hence, in addition totesting the consistency of chemical solutions, specificgravity tests may be used to check the amount of silverin the fixing bath. A hydrometer used for this purposemust be calibrated in grams of silver per liter of solution.

A hydrometer consists of a hollow tube with anenlarged lower section, or float, topped by a narrowstem. The lower section is weighted, so the hydrometerwill float in liquids with its stem protruding from thesurface. The stem is graduated with marks that are usedto indicate the density of the liquid in which thehydrometer floats. When the density of the liquid is high,it supports the hydrometer more easily, so less of thestem is submerged. Less dense liquids allow thehydrometer to sink deeper.

Hydrometers are commonly graduated in terms ofspecific gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of thedensity of a substance to the density of distilled water.However, hydrometers designed for special purposeshave different types of graduated scales. An example isthe hydrometer that is used to check the silver contentof a fixing bath.

Because of the effects of surface tension andcapillary action, a meniscus is formed at the interfacebetween the solution and the hydrometer stem. The

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Figure 9-2.–Hydrometer.

reading is taken at the point where the top of themeniscus intersects the stem of the hydrometer (fig.9-2).

pH METERS

The acid or alkali state of a solution is measured inpH values. The pH value of developers and fixersinfluences their activity and proper strength. pH isbasically a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinityof a solution. It provides an invaluable aid indetermining the degree of accuracy with which theprocessing solutions have been prepared. Photographicdevelopers usually have a pH of 8 to 12, while fixersrange between pH 3.1 and 5.

The following scale indicates the location of acidsand alkalis by their pH value (strength):

pH VALUES

ACIDS NEUTRAL ALKALIS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

A pH of 7 is neutral. Working down from this point,the figures indicate weak acids with a pH of 6 on tostrong acids with a pH of 1. Working up from a pH of 7,the figures indicate weak alkalis with a pH of 8 to strongalkalis with a pH of 14.

The pH values are numbered on a logarithmic scale.From 0 through 6, each number indicates a degree ofacidity 1/10 as strong as the preceding number, but 10times stronger than the next succeeding or highernumber. A solution with a pH value of 4, for example,has a degree of acidity 10 times stronger than a solutionwith a pH value of 5, but only 1/100 the strength of asolution having a pH value of 2. When determining thedegree of alkalinity of a solution, figure it in an oppositemanner. From 8 through 14, each number represents adegree of alkalinity 10 times as strong as the lastpreceding number, but 1/10 the strength of the nexthigher number; for example, a solution having a pHvalue of 11 indicates that the solution has an alkalinity1,000 times stronger than a solution having a pH valueof 8, but it would be only 1/100 as alkaline as a solutionhaving a pH value of 13.

Litmus paper is used to indicate whether a solutionis acid, alkaline, or neutral, but it does not indicate theactual pH value. For this purpose a pH meter should beused.

A pH meter is an amplifier meter with a scale thatreads from 0 to 14 and an electrode apparatus (Eg. 9-3).A pH meter has a reference electrode and a pHmeasuring electrode, or these two can be combined intoone combination electrode. The pH electrode actuallymeasures the pH, while the reference electrode thatcontains an electrolyte solution is used only to completethe electrical circuit. The first step in measuring pH isto establish a point of reference by a standardizationprocedure. To standardize the pH meter, you must placethe electrodes in a calibrated buffer solution.

Buffer solutions are available at exact pH values forthis precise standardization. Always select a buffer witha pH value as close as possible to the pH of the sampleto be tested; for example, use a buffer at a pH of 4.00 totest a fixer solution or a pH of 10.00 to test a developersolution. The instrument should be standardized atregular intervals during a long series of measurementsor before each use.

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Courtesy of Beckman Instruments, Inc.302.259X

Figure 9-3.–pH meter.

The ability of a pH meter to determine the pH valueof a solution accurately may be used for the followingpurposes:

To verify that chemicals have been properlymixed

To test prepared chemicals

To assure standardization of the processingsolutions

To determine the exact replenishment rates forphotographic chemical solutions

Tolerances in pH values must be established forindividual labs because of differences in procedures,types of equipment, impurities in water, and so forth. Onthe average, two readings from 10 different batches ofeach solution, mixed at different times, must be takenand recorded to establish these standards. These batchesshould be mixed as they would be for regular use butunder very close control to ensure that the solutions aremixed at the correct temperature, in the proper sequence,and so forth. This operation helps in determining thetolerance. This tolerance is the amount of variation ofthe pH that still produces high-quality results.

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Courtesy of Kreonite, Inc.302.20X

Figure 9-4.–Agitation mixers.

The discussion of pH meters is intended as anintroduction only. Detailed step-by-step operatinginstructions for pH meters are not included in thischapter. Operating instructions in the form of technicalorders and manufacturer’s manuals for specific pHmeters will be available to you in your imaging facility.

MIXERS

In the Navy, we use two methods of mixingchemicals: hand mixing and machine mixing. Handmixing is used when only small quantities of solutionsare needed or when machines are not available. Machinemixing is necessary to handle the large productionrequirements of most Navy imaging facilities.

Agitation Mixers

Proper agitation of the solution during mixingincreases the rate at which the chemicals are dissolvedand prevents undesirable side effects. For properagitation, an agitator type of mixer does not causeexcessive amounts of air to enter into the solution(fig. 9-4). Developers are quickly ruined by oxidation;a few minutes of improper and violent agitation can

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weaken a developer and cause it to underdevelop andsometimes stain film. Too little agitation during mixingmay cause the powdered chemicals to settle to thebottom of the mixer and form hard lumps. When theselumps of chemicals are undissolved and undetected,they can clog pumps and plumbing during transfer fromthe mixer to the storage tank. These lumps can also causethe solution to be less active.

Agitation mixers circulate solutions through a pumpthat causes a stirring action. There are several types ofagitation mixers available. These include large capacitymodels for preparing large volumes of solutions andsmall models for making small amounts of solution.

Impeller Mixers

Impeller mixers provide thorough, rapid mixing, butthey must be used with care to prevent frothing orfoaming and introducing air into the solution. Thesolution must be mixed so a minimum amount of air isdrawn into it. When the shaft is placed in the center ofthe container, the impeller causes a whirlpool effect thatintroduces excessive amounts of air into the solution.Furthermore, when the shaft is in the center of acontainer, there is very little agitation in the bottom-center area of the container and undissolved chemicalspile up directly beneath the end of the shaft (fig. 9-5).

Avoid bumping the shaft or impeller on the sides orbottom of the mixing vessel. This procedure may bendthe mixer shaft, and a bent shaft produces excessivevibrations that can ruin the motor bearings.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

The different systems of weights and measures usedin chemical mixing and the relationship of the variousunits to one another are matters that every photographerwho prepares photographic solutions should under-stand.

These days, photographic chemicals are pre-packaged and are usually published in two systems ofweights and measures: avoirdupois and metric. In theavoirdupois system, chemicals are weighed in ouncesand pounds and are dissolved in pints, quarts, or gallonsof water. In the metric system, they are weighed infractions or multiples of grams and are dissolved incubic centimeters or liters of water. With a conversiontable, a formula given in one system can be easilyconverted to the other.

Weight and Volume Conversion

Two systems of temperature measurement areused: Fahrenheit and Celsius. The Fahrenheit scaleuses °F as a temperature symbol. The Celsius scaleuses °C as its symbol. On the Fahrenheit scale 32degrees is the freezing point of water, and the boilingpoint is 212 degrees. The difference is 180 degrees.The Celsius scale is 0 to 100 degrees from freezing toboiling. One degree Fahrenheit is smaller than onedegree Celsius, one Fahrenheit degree being 5/9 of aCelsius degree. To convert Fahrenheit degrees intoCelsius, subtract 32, multiply by 5 and divide by 9;that is, (°F – 32) x 5/9 = °C. To convert Celsius toFahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32; thatis, (°C x 9/5) + 32 = °F.

Some formulas use the word parts as a measure.They may call for two parts of one chemical, one partof another, and any number of parts of water. This isfrequently done when two or more stock solutions mustbe combined to make the working solution. In suchcases, the word parts means any convenient “volume”measurement may be used; however, the same measureshould be used for everything required by the formula.A part may be a fluid ounce or a gallon, depending uponthe total quantity of working solution needed Formulasuse parts only when volume is to be measured.

The term stock solution identifies a concentratedchemical solution. A working solution is the solutionused for processing. The working solution may be thesame as the stock solution, but more than likely it is adiluted stock solution.

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Figure 9-5.–Impeller mixers.

CHEMICAL MIXING RULES

For both personal safety and efficiency whenmixing processing solutions, there are a fewcommonsense rules that you must follow. Mixing

The principles of common cleanliness and precise

chemicals is simple enough, but even a slight error canchange the working characteristics of some solutions.

measuring will prevent many chemical troubles.Without cleanliness and accuracy, many processesbecome guesswork.

Chemicals should not be mixed in areas wheresensitized materials are handled or stored. Chemical

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dust or fumes can ruin these materials. There should beadequate ventilation, a complete air change every 3minutes, and an exhaust fan to the outside atmospherein the area where chemicals are mixed.

CONTAINERS

Containers for photographic solutions should bemade of a material that does not affect or is not affectedby chemicals. Glass is the best material. Stainless steelis a highly suitable material, provided it is of the propercomposition. Hard rubber and glazed earthenware mayalso be used satisfactorily. Acid and alkali-resistantplastic containers are acceptable.

Containers, graduates, sinks, and every utensil usedin the photographic lab should always be clean. As soonas work is finished with an item of equipment, it shouldbe cleaned and returned to its proper place. Whenchemicals are spilled, clean them up as soon as possible.

Chemical solutions and chemical dust corrode andcause pitting of most materials, including stainless steel,when allowed to remain for any length of time.

ACCURACY

Photographic quality suffers when the chemicals areimproperly mixed. You must be certain that the amountof chemical you put into a solution is the amountspecified.

The mixing of processing solutions has been greatlysimplified over the years by the introduction ofpackaged photo-processing chemicals. Packagedchemicals come in convenient sizes for most needs.They offer standardized quality, economy, andconvenience.

Packaged chemicals include film and paperdevelopers and fixing solutions of various types that aremanufactured under tightly controlled conditions. Thesepackaged chemicals are available in either liquid orpowder form. Processing solutions can be mixed easier,faster, and more accurately with packaged chemicalsthan with bulk chemicals.

When mixing packaged chemicals, you shouldalways mix the entire package. Packaged chemicalsusually contain more than one ingredient. Duringshipping and handling, these ingredients may separatewith the heavier elements settling to the bottom of thepackage. When only part of the package is mixed, someof the ingredients that have separated or settled may not

be put into the solution and the result of the process isnot predictable.

MIXING

Always add chemicals to the water or solution Drychemicals should be poured slowly into the water whileit is being stirred. When preparing a developer, becareful while you are stirring so air is not beaten into thesolution. When water is poured on dry chemicals, theywill cake and form hard lumps that are difficult todissolve.

Lumps or hard particles should be ground up, orcrushed, with the stirring rod or with a pestle. Never addanother chemical to a solution before the previous parthas been completely dissolved Sometimes there is aresidue that will not dissolve. The residue may be sandin the water supply, impurities in the chemicals, or othermatter that found its way into the water; however, whenthe solution is allowed to stand for awhile, theseparticles usually settle and the clear liquid can be pouredoff. To remove sludge or dust particles that may notsettle, pour the solution through a funnel containingthree or four layers of cheesecloth or absorbent cotton.

Many chemicals are very sensitive to heat, and evenmoderate temperatures seriously affect their chemicalproperties. However, the rate of chemical reactionincreases with an increase in temperature, and allchemicals dissolve more readily in warm water than incool water; consequently, many formulas andinstructions recommend that water as hot as 125°F beused to prepare the solution that must then be cooled tothe correct processing temperature. You should alwaystry to mix solutions at the minimum temperaturerecommended by the manufacturer. Solutions oxidizefaster at higher temperatures because of increasedchemical activity at these temperatures.

When all crystals are dissolved, the solution shouldbe practically colorless. Sometimes a solution appearscloudy or milky for a short time after it is mixed. Thisappearance may be caused by air taken into the solutionby the dry chemicals. Air taken into a solution isdistributed through the solution as tiny bubbles thatcannot escape while the solution is being stirred. Whenthe presence of bubbles has caused the discoloration, thesolution will clear up when it is allowed to stand for awhile. The bubbles rise to the surface of the solution andescape into the air.

Always add acid to the water. This is as easy toremember as AAA (Always Add Acid). It is dangerousto pour water into an acid. Some acids generate heat

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rapidly enough to cause boiling or a splashing explosionthat may splash the solution on someone nearby. Acidsshould always be poured slowly into a solution (near theedge of the container) while rapidly but carefully stirringthe liquid.

LABELS

Mixing tanks, storage tanks, and machine tanks fordeveloper, stop bath, fixer, and other solutions must belabeled clearly with waterproof tape or nameplates toreduce the chance of putting a solution into the wrongtank. The label should contain the name of the solution,the date it was mixed, and the name of the person thatmixed it. It is also mandatory that hazardous chemicallabels be attached to all chemical containers.

CONTAMINATION

All of the mixing equipment and the mixing areamust be cleaned immediately after use to preventsolution contamination. The mixing tools and tanksmust be thoroughly cleaned right after use to preventdried solutions from forming encrustations that coulddissolve when a new solution is mixed. Mixing tools thathave not been used in some time should be washedbefore use to remove any dust or dirt that may haveaccumulated.

PREPARATION OF PHOTOGRAPHICSOLUTIONS

When mixing photo chemicals, you should alwaysstart with clean tools and a clean tank with the rightamount of water-usually about one half to three fourthsof the final volume. The temperature of the water mustbe as specified in the instructions. Developers aregenerally mixed at or about 90°F to 125°F, while fixersare mixed in water that should not be much above 80°F.

Always dissolve or dilute ingredients in the ordercalled for by the instructions. Dry ingredients must becompletely dissolved before the next ingredient isadded. All liquids must be completely diluted, whilestirring, before the next ingredient is added.

After a liquid is added to a solution, rinse the bottleand add the rinse water to the solution, so all theconcentrated liquid is used.

After all ingredients have been combined andthoroughly dissolved, diluted, and mixed, water shouldbe added to bring the solution up to the correct volume.Do not forget to mix this water thoroughly into thesolution.

FOLLOW DIRECTIONS

Before mixing photographic chemicals, you shouldread the manufacturer’s directions carefully. Muchresearch goes into the production of chemical products;however, it is only effective when the chemical is mixedand used properly. The directions for even the mostfamiliar product should be reviewed, because there arecontinual attempts to improve photographic materials;for example, new film or developer combinations maycall for changes in dilution, processing time, ortemperature to get the required results. Learn to followdirections. This is very important in the preparation ofchemicals for both quality and safety reasons.

Remember to follow the proper procedures forchemical safety. You should prepare the chemicals in awell-lighted and well-ventilated room. Do not taste orinhale any chemical. You are required to wear rubbergloves, a rubber apron, eye protection, a long sleeveshirt, and a respirator for your personal protection.Remember, for safe mixing and quality results,FOLLOW DIRECTIONS.

CAUTION

In most imaging facilities, it is commonpractice to connect a hose to the water spigot toaid in filling a chemical mixing tank and toprevent splashing in the sink. Aboard ship,hoses attached to potable water spigots can backsiphon chemicals from the tank or sink into thedrinking water supply. Such hoses should eitherbe removed after each use or have a backflowpreventor installed in the plumbing system.

CHANGING PERCENTAGES

You must know how to prepare percentage solutionsfrom liquid chemicals. When the chemical on hand is inliquid form and of known strength, a percentage solutioncan easily be prepared by the following method:

Amount Wanted x Strength DesiredStrength on Hand

Multiply the amount wanted by the strength desiredand divide the product by the strength of the chemicalon hand; for example, you need 11 ounces of 28 percentacetic acid. The chemical on hand is glacial acetic acid,99.5 percent. Thus,

11 x 28 30899.5

=99.5 = 3.09 = 3 ounces

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Add 3 ounces of 99.5 glacial acetic acid to 8 ounces ofwater to obtain 11 ounces of a 28 percent solution ofacetic acid.

temperatures upon contact with organic materials andother chemicals.

CHEMICAL SAFETYPRECAUTIONS

Some of the chemicals used in photography are skinirritants, and others can cause serious injuries.Chemicals should be regarded as poisons and handledwith caution. Before handling or working withphotographic chemicals, you should become familiarwith the safety precautions contained in NavyOccupational Safety and Health (NAVOSH) ProgramManual for Forces Afloat, OPNAVINST 5100.19series, volume I (chapters B3 and B12) and volume II(chapters C1, C9, and C23), Navy Occupational Safetyand Health (NAVOSH) Program Manual,OPNAVINST 5100.23 series (chapters 15, 20, and app.15), and Safety Precautions for PhotographicPersonnel, NAVAIR 10-1-764.

There are several safety items that must be wornwhen mixing chemicals. They are as follows:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Face shield or goggles-Protects the eyes fromcaustic chemicals.

Plastic or rubber apron-Reduces the chance ofchemical contamination of clothing.

Rubber gloves-Protects the hands and lowerarms. Gloves should extend up to the elbows.

Because of the danger of contaminating yourfingers, all precautions concerning poisons should beobserved when you are mixing photographic solutions.

Ingestion of a poisonous chemical is commonlyinduced by hands that are contaminated with a toxicchemical. You should adhere to the precautionspublished for photographic chemicals to avoid contactor ingestion of poisonous or corrosive chemicals.Regardless of the antidote given to anyone that has beenaccidentally exposed to or has swallowed a poisonousor corrosive chemical, the antidote is for EMERGENCYUSE ONLY. The affected person should report to theMEDICAL DEPARTMENT IMMEDIATELY.

Respirators-Used to prevent the inhalation offumes or chemical dust. The correct cartridgemust be used for the type of chemical beingmixed as described in Navy Occupational Safetyand Health (NAVOSH) Program Manual,OPNAVINST 5100.23 series (app. 15).Respirators must be cleaned and sanitized withalcohol and placed in an airtight bag after eachuse.

Long sleeve shirt-Used to protect the arms.

ACIDS AND ALKALIES

There are many types of acids and alkalies used inphotography. In general, acids and alkalies are similarin their injurious properties in that either may cause thefollowing:

The majority of photographic chemicals cause theskin to dry out due to the removal of natural skin oils.Some types of chemistry have an accumulative nature.This is when some of the chemicals are being absorbedinto the skin layers during each exposure to thechemistry. The chemistry then replaces some of thenatural oils that lubricate the skin. Over an extendedperiod of time, which varies for different people,accumulation could result in a total breakdown of theability of the skin to produce natural fats and lubricatingoils. Extreme conditions can result in contact dermatitis.Metol (developing agent) poisoning can be a result ofaccumulation poisoning.

Corrosion (chemical burn) by direct contact withthe skin or eyes or indirectly through the clothing.

Certain precautions must be observed in areaswhere acids and strong alkalies are handled. Theseprecautions are as follows:

Intoxication or suffocation by inhalation of theirfumes. The fumes of some compounds are toxic orpoisonous, while others displace air, thereby producinga suffocating atmosphere.

Poisoning when taken internally.

Warning signs and labels-Signs should be postedin the chemical mixing area, warning personnel of theprincipal hazards of the chemical being used. Allcontainers must be properly identified with hazardousmaterial labels.

Fire and explosion because of their instability Showers and eyewash stations-Showers andunder adverse storage conditions. Also, some acids are eyewash stations must be provided near all chemicalstrong oxidizing agents that can generate ignition mixing areas.

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Ventilation-In a chemical mixing area, exhaustventilation must be provided The exhaust vent mustdraw vapors away from the person mixing the chemicalsand provide a complete air change once every 3 minutes(20 changes per hour).

Mixing and diluting-Strong acids and strongoxidizing agents may react violently or produceexplosive products. Toxic gases may be created whenacid is mixed with such chemicals as sulfides, cyanides,nitrates, and nitrites. Diluting acids with water cangenerate considerable heat; acid should always be addedto water, not water to acid. The addition should be doneslowly with constant stirring.

Never smell a chemical directly from the bottle;instead, hold the bottle at a distance from your nose andsniff its contents cautiously rather than inhale directly.

Never taste a chemical.

Handle all chemicals cautiously; many canproduce burns or skin irritation.

MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS(MSDS)

In addition to the precautions listed previously,every person in your imaging facility must becompletely familiar with the Material Safety DataSheets (MSDS) for each chemical solution used in yourphotographic production. The MSDS are provided byall the manufacturers of hazardous materials. You arerequired to have the MSDS for each solution. TheOccupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA), as well as your safety officer, performsperiodic safety inspections of your imaging facility.Every person is responsible for the location andinformation contained in the MSDS. MSDS aregenerally broken down into 12 sections as follows:

1. Product Information

2. Component Information

3. Precautionary Label Statements

4. Physical Data

5. Fire and Explosion Hazard

6. Reactivity Data

7. Toxicological Properties

8. Protection and Preventive Measures

9. Storage and Disposal

10. First Aid

11. Transportation

12. Preparation Information

It should be noted that separate MSDS may applyto working solutions and stock solutions orconcentrates. Be certain that the MSDS apply to thechemical you are in contact with.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) hastightened regulations drastically and they have asubstantial impact on the way imaging facilities conductbusiness. All Hazardous Materials (HAZMAT) must behandled in complete compliance with EPA regulations.The regulations and tolerances differ from state to stateand base to base. It is important that you comply withthe regulations in your local area

DISPOSING OF HAZARDOUSMATERIALS

Before you pour photographic chemicals down thedrain or throw material in the dumpster or over the side,you must be certain that you are not violating anyhazardous material handling or disposal procedures.You should be completely familiar with theenvironmental protection standards and the Ship'sHazardous Material List for all items that apply to yourcommand. EPA regulations state that anyone violatingenvironmental protection regulations can be personallyaccountable and fined. When you have ANY doubt, askyour supervisor before disposing of the material(s).

The MSDS provide information on how toneutralize and clean up spill containment ofphotographic chemicals. When handling and cleaningup chemical spills, be sure you follow all safetyprecautions mentioned previously. It is important thatany chemical spill be cleaned up immediately becausemany chemicals are extremely corrosive. Thesechemicals may damage or stain the surfaces with whichthey come into contact. Consult your local directives ondisposing of materials used to clean up chemical spillsas well as the chemicals themselves.

SILVER RECOVERY

Silver contained in photographic emulsions andused fixers and bleaches are considered hazardous

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material. Silver recovery was established originally to could be very costly in the fines that may occur whenreclaim the silver from these materials and reclaim for photographic materials are not disposed of properly. Bemoney that was returned to the Department of Defense. certain that you know the proper handling proceduresToday, however, when not performed, silver recovery for photographic materials that contain silver.

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CHAPTER 10

IMAGE PROCESSING AND CONTROL

As a Navy photographer, you must realize thatcomposing and exposing a scene on film does notguarantee top-quality photography. The quality of thefinished print depends on the quality of your darkroomwork. A perfectly exposed film is useless if it is fogged,scratched, or under- or overdeveloped. Therefore, eachstep of film processing is important and you must mastereach step.

During the discussion of basic film processingconcepts, both black-and-white and color filmprocessing are covered. The mechanics of black andwhite and color processing are very similar. The primarydifferences between processing color film andprocessing black-and-white film are there are moresteps in a color film process, and the time andtemperature requirements are more critical.

DEVELOPERS AND DEVELOPMENT

The purpose of development is to convert thoseparts of the light-sensitive material (film or paper) thathas been affected by light to black metallic silver. Thisproduces a visible image from the invisible latent image.Development is usually carried out by bringing theexposed film into contact with a solution that contains adeveloping agent, but no silver salt. The silver that formsthe developed image comes from a reduction of theindividual silver halide grains in the film emulsion. Thisprocess is called chemical or direct development.

In another process that is seldom used, thedeveloped image is derived from a soluble silver saltcontained in the developing solution itself. This processis called physical development. The physicaldevelopment process can be difficult to use becausethere is a tendency for silver to be deposited where it isnot wanted.

The process of chemical development is mostcommonly used for film development. Chemicaldevelopment is the process with which you should beconcerned. In chemical development, the individualsilver halide grains in the film emulsion are reduced toa black metallic silver. Each grain in the emulsion actsas a unit, in the sense that a grain is either developableas a whole or is not developable. When filmdevelopment is performed properly, only exposed grains

containing a latent image are reduced to black metallicsilver. You may ask, “Why doesn’t the developerdevelop the unexposed grains as well as the exposedgrains?” Actually, the unexposed grains are developable. When development is carried out over a longenough period of time, all grains are developed orreduced to black metallic silver. The density that resultsfrom the development of unexposed silver halides iscalled fog. Thus development is a rate phenomenon andthe development of the exposed grains takes place at afaster rate than the unexposed grains.

The individual grains of silver halide in an emulsionare protected against the action of the developer by achemical layer. When light strikes the emulsion, itbreaks down the protective layer at one or more pointson each individual light-struck grain. When the exposedfilm is placed into the developer, the grains are actedupon at these points by the developing agent, and eachgrain that received more than minimum exposure isquickly reduced to black metallic silver. The amount ofblackening (density) over the film surface dependsprimarily upon the number of grains that have beenaffected by the developer. Density is also influencedbecause some grains may not develop to completion inthe time the developer is allowed to act on the film.

COMPOSITION OF A DEVELOPER

There are many different formulas used asdeveloping solutions, but most developers contain thefollowing four essential ingredients: developing agent,preservative, accelerator or activator, and restrainer.

DEVELOPING AGENT

The developing agent, commonly referred to as thereducing agent, is the most important chemical in adeveloping solution. It is the developing agent thatactually converts the silver halide grains in the emulsionto metallic silver. Nevertheless, the other ingredients arenecessary to make the solution function properly.

One of the properties of a developing agent is itsreducing potential. This refers to its relative ability todevelop or reduce the silver halides. An activedeveloping agent attacks silver halides vigorously,whereas one of low potential is slower in its action. For

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certain purposes, one agent may be preferred overanother. The temperature of the solution affects theactivity of some agents much more than others.Hydroquinone, Metol, paraphenylenediamine, andphenidone are some of the more commonly useddeveloping agents.

PRESERVATIVE

All developing agents in an alkaline state areaffected by oxygen. When the developing agentcombines with the oxygen in the air, the efficiency ofthe developing agent is reduced. When elementscombine with free oxygen from the air or water,oxidation occurs. Therefore, a preservative is added todeveloping solutions to prevent excessive oxidation.The preservative prolongs the useful life of thedeveloping solution and prevents stains caused by theformation of colored oxidation products.

The preservative is a chemical with a greatattraction for free oxygen and combines with it whenmixed into a solution. A large amount of free oxygen isin the water used for solutions. When the free oxygen isleft in the water, it oxidizes most of the developing agentand produces stains before the metallic silver image isdeveloped completely. By adding enough preservative,you may remove practically all of the free oxygen fromthe solution, the developing agent works as intended,and no stains are produced. Sodium sulfite is thepreservative most commonly used in developingsolutions.

ACCELERATOR

All developing agents (not developing solutions)are either neutral or slightly acid. Most developingagents must be in an alkaline state to be effectivereducing agents, thus solutions require an alkali toactivate the developing agent. A developing solutioncontains an accelerator so the solution becomes alkaline.

The accelerator serves two functions. First, it speedsup the swelling of the gelatin in the emulsion. Thisswelling permits the solution to penetrate the entireemulsion more quickly. The effect of this action isphysical. The second action is completely chemical. Asthe silver halide salts in the latent image are reduced bythe developing agent, the halide elements freed from thesilver are absorbed by the accelerator and combined intoneutral salts. This prevents harmful effects in thesolution.

Because the accelerator is a determining factor inthe activity of a developing solution, it affects the degree

of graininess produced in the negative. This graininessis dependent upon the clumping action of the silvergrains during the development process. The more activethe developer, the higher the pH, and the greater theclumping action. Therefore, the milder or less alkalinedevelopers yield finer grain. Common accelerators usedin developing solutions are sodium carbonate andpotassium carbonate.

Without an accelerator, there is little or no action.With some accelerators there is too much action. By theaddition of a bromide restrainer, you may slow down theaction of the developing solution to a controllabledegree.

RESTRAINER

Without a restrainer most developing solutions acttoo rapidly and develop unexposed silver halides nearthe surface of the emulsion. This causes chemical fog,developing streaks, and an image with low contrast.During development, some restrainer is released fromthe silver and has a restraining action on the reducingagent during development. However, its action is notenough to prevent fog. When a restrainer is added,development time is prolonged and fog is minimized.Contrast is increased because the activity of thedeveloping agent is cut down in unexposed areas.However, too much restrainer greatly retards the amountof development. The chemical most commonly used asa restrainer is potassium bromide.

TYPES OF BLACK-AND-WHITEDEVELOPERS

As stated previously, when a photographic emulsionis exposed to light, there is an invisible change producedin the minute crystals of silver halides that results in alatent image. To make the image visible, you must treatthe exposed emulsion in a solution known as adeveloper. This solution converts the halides affected bylight to black metallic silver. These black metallic silverparticles form the visible image on the negative.

At the beginning of development, there is littledifference in density between the highlight and shadowareas of the film. However, during normal development,this difference increases because the highlight densitiescontinue to increase after the shadow areas arecompletely developed. Development should stop whenthe contrast between the shadows and highlights reachesa desired difference. The activity of the developer, andto some extent the type of film, primarily determines thisdeveloping action.

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One type of developer cannot cover all situations;for example, film exposed by poor lighting conditionsmay require an active developer to bring out as much ofthe image as possible, while a film exposed undernormal conditions requires a normal working developer.There are many different developers, each providesdifferent activity and quality of development. The actualchoice of the developer to use depends on the type offilm, conditions under which it was exposed, type ofnegative required, and the developing time that is bestfor your development method.

GENERAL-PURPOSE DEVELOPERS

A developer for general-purpose work shouldproduce moderate grain, normal contrast images. Clearareas of the negative, as well as the image areas, shouldbe basically fog free.

Some general-purpose developers are as follows:

HC-110

DK-50

Microdol

FINE-GRAIN DEVELOPERS

All photographic emulsions have a grainy structure.Although this grainy structure is not normally visible tothe naked eye, it becomes visible whenever highmagnifications are used to make prints. The tendency touse small-format film and make large enlargements hasresulted in the need for fine-grain developers.

When enlargements are made from small negativesdeveloped in other than fine-grain developer, the grainof the film may be objectionable. Graininess in the filmshould be controlled in the development of the film.Keep in mind, however, that every film has its own grainstructure or characteristics. For 35mm-roll film, it isnormally best to use a fine-grain developer.

Fine-grain developers achieve the desired result inseveral ways:

They are usually soft working and this tends toreduce clumping of the silver grains.

Some fine-grain developers actually producesmaller individual grains of black metallic silver. This,however, tends to reduce the film speed.

The grayish white images produced by somefine-grain developers help by providing for increased

passage of light between individual grains. This resultsin less local variation in density.

Most fine-grain developers produce relativelylow-contrast negatives. A reduction in contrast in thenegative tends to reduce the graininess of the negative.However, this may not contribute significantly to areduction in the graininess of the final print. Anyadvantage achieved by lowering negative contrast maybe offset by the need to use a higher contrast printingfilter to print the negative.

Some fine-grain developers are as follows:

ID-l1 (Ilford)

D-76 (Kodak)

Atomal (Agfa)

HIGH-CONTRAST DEVELOPERS

To produce maximum contrast on process and linecopy type of films, you must have a developer thatproduces density readily and is free from any tendencyto produce fog within the time of development.

Some of the most popular high-contrast developersare as follows:

Kodalith (Kodak)

D-11 (Kodak)

D-19 (Kodak)

To prevent staining when using a high-contrastdeveloper, you should rinse the negative well betweendeveloping and fixing.

HIGH-DEFINITION DEVELOPERS

A high-definition, or compensating, developer addsincreased sharpness to the image by enhancing contrastof image edges and fine detail in the negative.High-definition developers may increase film speed byone or two f/stops, but they also increase graininess.High-definition developers are recommended for useonly with fine-grain (slow or medium speed) films.

Some of the high-definition developers are asfollows:

Acufine

Ethol TEC

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You should consult the film data sheets or thePhoto-Lab-Index for the recommended developers foreach particular type of film to be processed.

CHANGES IN DEVELOPER WITH USE

The function of a developer is to change chemicallythe sensitized material treated in it. It stands to reasonthen that a chemical change also takes place to thedeveloper itself. Most developers are used more thanonce. Therefore, you must know what changes to thedeveloper can be expected and what can be done toprevent them or at least compensate for them. Theprimary changes that occur to a developer as it is usedare as follows:

Some developer is removed or carried out withthe film and on the film hangers or reels.

The developing agents are used up by reductionof silver halides to black metallic silver and by aerialoxidation. When the developing agents are used up bythe reduction of silver halides, the by-products of thereaction cause the pH of the solution to drop, thusbecoming more acid. When the developer agents areused up by oxidation, the pH tends to rise.

The preservative is used up, thus the developingagents oxidize faster.

The bromide within the solution is increasedbecause the bromide is released from the film emulsionitself.

The effects of these changes to a developer are asfollows:

The development time required to reach a givencontrast index or gamma is increased. Therefore, whena developer is used over and over, development timemust be increased as more film is developed.

The effective film speed produced by thedeveloper decreases because of the increased bromide(a restrainer) in solution. However, this speed loss maybe partially offset by increasing development time tomaintain image contrast.

Complete exhaustion of a developer occurs whenthe developing agents are all used up. The approach ofexhaustion is characterized by a brown color of thesolution. Since a developer in this state can stainsensitized materials, it should not be used.

In most Navy imaging facilities, it is not economicalto use a developer to the practical exhaustion point andthen discard it. The quality of the image usually suffers

long before the exhaustion point of the developer isreached. Replenishers are usually used to prevent thisfrom happening.

Replenishment of a developer involves replacingthose chemicals in the used developer that are exhaustedby a replenisher so that the developer remainsconsistent. The aim of replenishment is not to keep thecomposition of the developer constant but to keep itsactivity constant.

There are two commonly used methods ofreplenishment. The first or “topping off” method is usedextensively in tank processing. When topping off isused, the developer solution is maintained at a constantlevel in the tank by adding replenisher, so the volumeadded is equal to the amount of developer carried out.When you are replenishing by this method, it is possibleto maintain consistency in development for only acertain period of time. After a given volume ofreplenisher has been added to the developer, thedeveloper must be discarded. This procedure is thenrepeated with new developer.

The second replenishment method is called the"bleed" method. The bleed method is used primarilywith machine processing where a circulating developersystem is used. In the bleed method, used developer isdrained off and replenisher (in proportion to the amountof film processed) is fed in, so the characteristics andthe level of the developer in the machine remainconstant.

FIXING, WASHING, AND DRYING

As soon as a light-sensitive material is developed,it contains a visible silver image, but the image is notready to be exposed to light. Only a portion of the silverhalides in the emulsion were reduced to black metallicsilver by the developer. The silver halides that were notreduced restrict both the immediate usefulness and thepermanence of the image. These undeveloped silverhalides must be removed. This is the purpose of thefixing bath. Before treating the sensitized material in thefixer (as it is called), you must stop or at least slow downthe action of the developer. When the light-sensitivematerial is removed from the developer solution, thereis a small amount of developer both in the emulsion andon the surface that must be removed or neutralized. Forthis, you use either a water rinse bath or an acid stopbath.

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WATER RINSE BATH

To slow down the action of development, you mustimmerse the film in a water rinse bath. A plain waterrinse bath is commonly used between development andfixation to slow down the development by removing allthe developer that is clinging to the film (or paper)surface. A rinse bath does not completely stopdevelopment but retards it. A rinse bath has little affecton the developer that is actually in the swollen emulsion.

Rinsing is accomplished by quickly immersing thefilm in plain, clean water. A water rinse bath should bechanged often to ensure it does not become loaded withdeveloper. It is better to use running water.

The rinse bath, then, serves two purposes: first, itslows down development and second, it reduces thework that has to be done by the acid in the fixer. Rinsing,therefore, protects or prolongs the useful life of the fixer.

Following rinsing in plain water, the material (thatis still light sensitive) must be treated in an acid fixingbath to stop the development.

ACID STOP BATH

Although a plain water rinse bath is commonly usedbetween development and fixation, a better procedure isto use an acid stop bath. The function of a stop bath isnot only to remove the developer that is clinging to thesurface of the material but to also neutralize thedeveloper in the swollen emulsion to stop developmentcompletely.

The acid stop bath stops the action of the developerbecause developing agents cannot work in an acidsolution. An acid stop bath also helps protect or prolongthe life of the fixer by neutralizing developer carry-over.

An acid stop bath should meet the followingrequirements:

lThe pH must be low enough to neutralize theaction of the developer carried over.

The acidity should be limited so the small amountcarried over into the fixing bath does not increase thefree-acid content of the fixing bath and causesulfurization.

It must not contain enough acid to produce blisterformations in an emulsion.

You should use only a weak acid stop bath betweendevelopment and fixation. Strong acid and the acid inthe fixing bath have a tendency to form carbon dioxide

gas bubbles in the emulsion. When the film is taken fromthe developer and placed directly into a strong acid orfixing bath, these bubbles may break and cause small,round holes in the emulsion. These bubbles aresometimes mistaken for pinholes like those caused bydust particles settling on the emulsion before cameraexposure.

When you are using an acid stop bath, rememberthat some of the stop bath is carried into the fixer whenmaterials pass through it. Therefore, you cannot use astrong acid (such as sulfuric acid) because it can causeprecipitation of sulphur in the fixer. Acetic acid is thetype of acid used for stop baths. In its pure form asglacial acetic acid (99.5 percent), it freezes at atemperature of about 61°F. Its freezing tendency givesit the name “glacial.” For use as a stop bath, 99.5 percentglacial acetic acid is diluted with water to make a 28percent working solution. Approximately 1/2 ounce of28 percent acetic (not glacial) acid is added to 32 ouncesof water. The process of determining the concentrationof a liquid is discussed in chapter 8.

FIXING

When a light-sensitive material is removed from thedeveloping solution, the emulsion contains a largeamount of silver salts (halides) that has not been affected(developed) by the developing agents. This silver salt isstill sensitive to light, and if it remains in the emulsion,light ultimately darkens and discolors the salt whichobscures the image. Obviously, when this action occurs,the negative (or print) is useless.

The fixing bath is used to prevent this discolorationand to make the developed image permanent. Itaccomplishes this by removing the undeveloped silverhalides by making them water soluble. Therefore, tomake an image permanent, you must “fix” thelight-sensitive material by removing all of theunaffected silver salt from the emulsion.

The fixing bath contains five basic ingredients: thefixing agent, preservative, neutralizer or acidifier,hardening agent, and an antisludge agent.

Fixing Agent

All fixing baths must contain a silver halide (salt)solvent. This solvent is known as a fixer or fixing agent.The two most commonly used in photography aresodium and ammonium thiosulfate, commonly termedhypo (taken from their other chemical namehyposulfite). Ammonium thiosulfate is used in rapidfixers that are stronger and require less fixing time.

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Sodium and ammonium thiosulfate changesundeveloped silver halide to soluble silver sodiumthiosulfate. It removes this compound from theemulsion and refills the space it occupied withnonexhausted fixing solution. Therefore, the function ofthe fixing agent is to convert the silver salts remainingin the emulsion after development to soluble compoundsand to remove these soluble compounds by constantlydiluting and replacing them in the emulsion. The numberof substances capable of functioning as fixing agents issmall because a good fixer must meet the followingrequirements:

It must dissolve silver salts without affecting themetallic silver image.

The compounds it forms must be soluble so theycan be removed from the emulsion.

The fixer should neither swell excessively norsoften the gelatin.

Preservative

A preservative prevents oxidation of the developingagents that are carried over into the fixing bath by thefilm. It also prevents decomposition of the fixer.Oxidized developer in a fixing bath produces stains.

Strong acids may cause a fixing agent to decompose(sulfurize). You must add preservative (sodium sulfite)in the fixer to prevent sulfurization. The preservativeprevents the acid from decomposing hypo into freesulfur, prevents discoloration of the solution because ofoxidation, and aids in preventing stains.

Neutralizer

After development, the pores of the swollenemulsion retain a portion of the developer. If allowed toremain, the developer continues its activity. Even whenthe emulsion is thoroughly rinsed in a water bath beforebeing placed in the fixer, some developer activityremains. This causes uneven stains in the gelatin of theemulsion and makes the negative unusable. To stopdevelopment and prevent stains, you must add an acidneutralizer to the fixer. The most frequently usedneutralizer is acetic acid.

Hardening Agent

During development, the gelatin becomes softenedand swells. Frilling, reticulation, scratches, and otherundesirable effects may result when processing iscontinued without hardening the emulsion. A hardening

agent is included in the fixer to harden the emulsion inthe fixing bath. The most common hardening agent ispotassium alum. The hardening and toughening of thegelatin by the alum stops the tendency of the emulsionto swell but leaves it expanded and rigid enough for thewashing process.

Antisludge Agent

The pH range of the fixer is limited. It must be lowenough to neutralize the activity of the developer andalso be high enough to prevent sulfurization. Thereduced acidity of the bath is gradually neutralized bythe alkali of the developer carried into the fixer by thefilm. When the active acidity is neutralized too far, asludge of aluminum sulfite forms that can make the fixeruseless. An antisludge agent, such as boric acid, is addedto the fixer. This agent is capable of absorbing a largequantity of the developer before sludge occurs, thuslengthening the useful life of the fixer.

Time Required for Fixing

The time required for film to fix depends on severalfactors:

The type of emulsion and its thickness. All elsebeing equal. fine-grain emulsions fix faster thancoarse-grained ones. Thin emulsions require less timeto fix than thick emulsions.

The type of fixing bath and degree of exhaustion.When sodium thiosulfate is the fixing agent, aconcentration of about 75 percent gives the fastest rateof fixation. However, because of the tendency of hypoto bleach out the image, most fixers for negatives havea concentration between 20 and 40 percent.

The fixing bath temperature. An increase in thetemperature increases the rate of fixation. (Do notinterpret this to mean that you can raise the temperatureof the fixer above the temperature called for by theparticular process being used.) The temperature of thefixer is not as critical as the temperature of the developer.However, you should keep all processing solutiontemperatures constant to avoid an increase of graininess.

The amount of agitation. The rate of fixation isaffected by diffusion of the chemicals, so agitationreduces fixation time.

The amount of exposure. The more exposure thefilm has to light, the less unused silver halide to beremoved by the fixer, and hence the faster the rate offixation.

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As a general rule, a film is considered completelyfixed after twice the time it takes to clear it. Clearing orfixation occurs when all visible traces of the silverhalides (a milky appearance) have disappeared. Theclearing time can be determined by taking anundeveloped piece of the same type of film and agitatingthe film in the fixer until it clears. This procedure can beperformed under normal room lights. The tongue cutfrom the beginning of the 35mm film may be used forthis purpose.

Life of a Fixing Bath

The useful life of a fixing bath depends on severalfactors. One of which is the amount of material treatedin the fixing bath. You cannot state accurately the exactamount of film or paper that can be safely fixed in agiven amount of fixer. It is common practice to considerthe fixer exhausted when the clearing time for the filmis double the time it was originally. For a fixer usedsolely for prints, this is not easy to determine; therefore,the life of the fixer is considered ended after a givenamount of paper has passed through it. This is usuallyabout 200 8x10 prints (or equivalent) per gallon of fixer.

Using an exhausted or near exhausted fixing bathmay cause the staining of films and paper. To avoid suchstaining, use two fixing baths in succession is the bestpractice. Initially, two fresh fixing baths are used. Thematerials are treated in the first bath until they are justcleared; then they are transferred to the second fixingbath for an equal period of time. In time, clearing timein the first bath (which is doing most of the fixation) isdoubled from the original time required when the bathwas fresh. When this occurs, the first bath is removedfrom use and replaced by the second bath. The secondfixing bath is replaced by a completely fresh solution.This process is repeated as required, so the second bathis always relatively fresh. Using this procedure ensuresthat all film (and photographic paper) leaves the secondfixer in stable condition and does not fade with time.This method is also economical, because all fixer is usedto a point beyond that at which a single bath could beused.

WASHING

An unwashed or improperly washed emulsion willstain, crystallize, and fade. Therefore, the washing of thephotographic emulsion is as important as any other partof processing. Removing as much of the salt and fixer

from the emulsion is essential. Only by good washingtechniques can image permanence be assured.

The purpose of washing is to remove the solublesalts from the emulsion. Fixing converts silver salts intosoluble salts that must be removed. If the fixing processis incomplete, even prolonged washing cannot make theimage permanent. This is because the compounds ofsilver sodium thiosulfate remaining in the emulsiondiscolor in time and produce stains. Thorough washingis necessary to remove the fixing agent that, if allowedto remain, slowly combines with the silver image toproduce brownish yellow stains of silver sulfide andcauses the image to fade.

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Water containing iron should not be used forwashing. However, impurities, such as rust, dirt, or silt,can be removed by installing a 5 micron water filter inthe supply line.

Seawater may be used to wash negatives if it isfollowed with a freshwater rinse. Salt water removes thehypo from film in about two thirds of the time requiredfor a freshwater wash. However, a short rinse with freshwater is required to remove the salt from the film.

Temperature, chemical contamination, and rate ofwater change all affect the time required to wash filmcorrectly.

Temperature

The wash should be kept within a range of 60°F to75°F (15.6°C to 23.9°C). Within this range of washtemperatures, the warmer the water, the shorter thewashing time required. However, for black-and-whitefilm, a wash temperature of 75°F should not beexceeded. Water at temperatures above 75°F swells thegelatin and tends to inhibit diffusion. It also can damagethe emulsion. Therefore, you should keep thetemperature of the wash water constant with theprocessing solutions.

Chemical Contamination

Adding negatives fresh from the fixer into a tank ofpartially washed negatives nullifies the effects ofprevious washing, and you must start the washingprocedure again. The reason for this is that the negativeswith the higher concentration of fixer add enoughchemicals to the washed negatives to contaminate thepartially washed film. This situation can also occur if

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your hands are contaminated by chemicals when youplace them in the wash tank.

Rate of Water Change

The length of washing time also depends on thediffusion of the hypo from the emulsion of the material.The rate of diffusion depends on the amount of freshwater coming into contact with the emulsion. Hyporemaining in the emulsion is continually halved in equalperiods of time as the washing proceeds; for example,the average negative gives up about one half of the hypoit contains in 1 minute when in direct contact withrunning water. After 2 minutes, one fourth of the hyporemains, and so on, until the amount of hypo remainingeventually becomes negligible. Thus the rate of washingdepends upon the degree of agitation and the amount offresh water that comes in contact with the emulsion. Theminimum washing time for negatives in running wateris 20 minutes when a complete change of water occursevery 3 minutes.

Rapid film washers are designed to provide aconstant freshwater exchange across the film emulsion.When rapid film washers are used, such as a Hurricanetype of film washer, the film can be washedsatisfactorily in 5 minutes.

WETTING AGENT

After washing, water often drains from film in anirregular manner, clinging to both emulsion and basesides in drops, streaks, and uneven patterns. When suchpartially drained or incompletely wiped films aresubjected to hot air or radiant heat, the areas under thesestreaks and drops of water dry much more slowly thanthe surrounding film. The swollen gelatin at these pointsis subjected to stresses and shrinks unevenly, changingthe density of the silver image. When surplus water isremoved from the emulsion side and drops of waterremain on the base side, drying of the emulsionimmediately opposite the water spots is retarded anddrying marks usually result. The use of a wetting agenthelps to prevent the formation of these water spots.

Wetting agents are chemicals that “superwet” thefilm to promote faster and more even drying. Wettingagents are chemically different from soaps, but theyperform a related function. They all lower surfacetension of liquids so the film surfaces are wetted quicklyand evenly. Kodak Photo-Flo is a wetting agent used inimaging facilities.

After washing, bathe the film in a 1- or 2percentsolution of wetting agent (prepared according toinstructions provided by the manufacturer) for about 2minutes. Then drain the film briefly for about 30seconds. Squeegee the film between your index andmiddle finger to remove surface foam and excesswetting agent. Be sure your hands are clean anddampened with the wetting solution before squeegeeingthe film.

DRYING

The final step in processing is to dry the wet film.This step should be given special attention. Film dryinghas two distinct phases. The first is the removal of excesswater from the film surfaces. The second is the dryingof the film by evaporation.

When you are drying the film, the primary problemsyou must guard against are uneven drying, dust,scratches, and damage to the emulsion caused byoverheating. Dry the film in a vertical position, hangingit from a line or beam by film clips. When you are dryingroll film, curling can be avoided by hanging another filmclip at the bottom of a strip of film. Sheet film should behung from one corner of the film to prevent dryingstreaks. Film should not normally be dried in the hangeror reel in which it was processed, since uneven dryingresults.

Dust and water spots are the problems youencounter most frequently when drying films. When thedust is not embedded in the emulsion, you can removeit with a camel-hair brush. Embedded dust in the filmrequires the film to be rewashed and dried properly.Water spots are more serious, since uneven drying cancause not only white stains but also small craterlikeformations in the film under each spot. The white stainscan be removed with alcohol, but the craterlike spotsbecome a permanent defect. The best cure is prevention.You can avoid these problems by keeping the filmsurface clean and by using a wetting agent before drying.

The photographic emulsion consists of one or morelayers of gelatin with silver halides of varying sizesdistributed through the layers. After exposure anddevelopment, the halides are changed to metallic silverthat occupies space and does not absorb water. In anemulsion that is unexposed, the undeveloped silver saltsare made soluble and are removed from the emulsionduring the fixing and washing stages. Only the gelatinand the space occupied by the halides remain, and thesedo absorb water. Because of these conditions, dense

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negatives, or negatives containing many heavilyexposed areas, contain less water and dry faster than thinnegatives. When you think about this for a moment, youcan see that since the heavily exposed and lightlyexposed areas are distributed randomly throughout theaverage negative, drying occurs rapidly in the denseareas, more slowly in the intermediate areas, and mostslowly in the thin or unexposed areas. Obviously, then,film does not dry uniformly.

When gelatin dries, the water it contains must firstmigrate to the surface and then evaporate into the air.Ideally, these processes should take placesimultaneously and at the same rate. However, when thesurface moisture evaporates too rapidly, the surfacebecomes hard, and the internal moisture is unable toescape it. In addition, when drying is too rapid, the outersurface shrinks while the rest of the gelatin layer is in anexpanded state. This causes strains that can have aharmful effect upon the emulsion.

For a negative to dry, it must be surrounded by dryair; that is, air that contains a lower relative percentageof moisture than the gelatin. When the heated aircirculates, the damp air moves away from the surface ofthe wet film and replaces it with dry air that permits thedrying process to continue. This is the principle behindthe air impingement dryers currently in use. Heated airaccepts more moisture than cool air. When the air doesnot move, air can become heated and rapidly reach astate of equilibrium with the moist film, and dryingstops.

In an air impingement drying system, air is warmedand blown against (impinges upon) the surface of thewet film. The warm, dry air picks up moisture and moveson. It is immediately replaced by more warm, dry air,and the process continues until the film is dry. The rateof drying is controlled by adjusting the velocity,temperature, and humidity of the air in the dryingchamber. In hot and humid climates where the air issaturated with moisture, the air must be passed througha dehumidifier before it enters the drying chamber.When this is not done, the film does not dry. In dryclimates, you must reduce both the heat and the airvelocity to prevent overdrying.

Photographic films begin drying at the corners andedges as well as in the areas of heaviest density. Thisintroduces strains in the direction of the dry areas. As afilm continues to dry, the strains gradually begin toequalize, and the film, when dried properly, ultimatelylies flat. The surface is not moist to the touch, but it isfirm and soft enough that flexing does not damage it. If

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overdried, the film curls toward the emulsion and canbecome brittle.

The rate of drying and the amount of curl alsodepend upon how thick the emulsion layer is andwhether or not the film has a gelatin backing. Naturally,the thicker the layer, the longer the drying time. A gelatinbacking takes time to dry, but it introduces an opposingcurl and causes the dried negative to lie quite flat.

FILM PROCESSING EQUIPMENT

Hand processing of photographic film is best carriedout in a darkroom that is properly equipped. Whetherthe darkroom is large or small, certain essentials arenecessary for good quality processing.

The darkroom must be clean and well ventilated.Shelves, bottles, racks, processing equipment, walls,and floors that are spotted with dried chemicals areharmful to photographic images. Navy photo labequipment, therefore, must always be spotlessly clean.

The arrangement of a darkroom should beconvenient, “a place for everything and everything in itsplace.” There should be adequate and correct safelightsplaced at recommended working distances. Onlynecessary sensitized material should be in the darkroom.Temperatures in the lab should be maintained as closelyas possible to the normal processing temperature-about70°F to 75°F. The well-equipped darkroom shouldcontain the following items: sink, graduates, requiredchemicals, waterproof aprons to protect clothing, cleantowels, accurate thermometer and timer, and thenecessary film hangers, trays, reels, and tanks. Alldarkrooms should be well stocked with preparedchemicals in containers that are labeled properly. Ingeneral, good photographic quality demands that allwork must be conducted in a clean, orderly, andsystematic manner.

DARKROOM SINKS

Sinks in the photographic darkroom should be sizedadequately and constructed properly. Most sinks inNavy labs are factory-made and meet all therequirements for photographic work Sinks should bebig enough and built so they drain thoroughly. The sinkshould have duckbords to keep trays and tanks off thebottom and to permit water to circulate under and aroundthe solution tanks to maintain correct and constanttemperatures. Sinks, also, should have a mixing valveto control the temperature of the water in the sink and a

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standpipe to hold water in the sink at the correct depth,yet still allow water to flow out (fig. 10-1).

SAFELIGHTS

The function of a safelight is to transmit themaximum amount of light that can be used safelywithout damaging the sensitized materials beingprocessed. The color sensitivity of different sensitizedmaterials varies. Therefore, the color and intensity oftransmitted light must be varied accordingly. Adarkroom safelight is the combination of a rated lightsource and a filter designated to protect a specificsensitized material.

The word safe. of course, is a relative term since nosensitized photographic materials are ever completelysafe from the effects of safelight illumination. However,a filtered light is accepted as safe when the sensitizedmaterials can be handled under the illumination with noevidence of fogging for at least twice as long as thenormal processing time. No procedures must befollowed precisely when safelights are used:

303.23Figure 10-1.–Photographic processing sink

Use only the size of incandescent bulb specified;for example, 7 1/2 watt, 15 watt, or 25 watt.

Handle sensitized material at the distancerecommended by the manufacturer. This is usuallybetween 3 and 6 feet.

To determine whether a safelight is safe, you shouldfollow these procedures:

1. In the dark, place a sheet of unexposed film,emulsion-side up, on the working area where the film isto be processed.

2. Place several coins on the emulsion and turn onthe safelight. Leave the safelight on for twice the lengthof time the film will normally be processed.

3. Process the film normally and check to seewhether there is less density in the areas covered by thecoins. When there is less density, it indicates the filmwas fogged by the safelight and the safelight is not safe.A safelight that causes fogging may be corrected byreplacing the filter, by installing a lower rated bulb, or

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Figure 10-2.–Safelights.303.24

by increasing the distance between the safelight and thematerial. Safelight filters are covered in chapter 3.

A safelight is most efficient when its output of

angle to the sensitized material. Figure 10-2 showssafelights used in photographic darkrooms.

illumination is indirect or reflected. When the safelightis not constructed on the indirect principle, it shouldnever be pointed directly at the sensitized material; itshould be placed so the light beam is away from or at an

SHEET FILM HANGERS

Sheet film hangers are made of stainless steel orplastic that resist corrosion in photographic solutions

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Figure 10-3.–Sheet film hangers.

Figure 10-4.–Roll film processing tank and reel.

(fig. 10-3). They are constructed of perforated metal orplastic and channeled to receive and suspend film insolution. This allows the solution to circulate freely overthe film surface. Sheet film hangers are used in tankdeveloping and their use is described later in the thischapter.

ROLL FILM TANKS AND REELS

Hand processing of roll film is usually done on reelsin roll film tanks. The center-feed reel and tanks usedmost commonly in the Navy are made of stainless steel.The film is wound onto a spiral reel. The reel is thenplaced into a tank for processing (fig. 10-4).

TRAYS

Trays used for processing photographic film (roll orsheet) are the same as those used for processingphotographic prints. They may be made of any materialthat is not affected by, or cause contamination of,

photographic solutions. Most trays used today are madeof stainless steel or plastic.

SHEET FILM DEVELOPING TANKS

Tanks used for developing sheet film come in avariety of shapes and sizes. They are usually made ofstainless steel.

To process sheet film in tanks, load the film intosheet film hangers and then place it into the developingtanks of solutions (fig. 10-5).

FILM WASHING EQUIPMENT

Film washing does not require special equipment.Sheet film can be washed in the same type of tank ortray that is used to process the film or in tanks designedfor film washing.

When a tray is used, only one film at a time shouldbe washed. When more than one piece of film is washedat a time, the films will probably rub together and be

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Figure 10-5.–Film developing tanks.

Figure 10-6.–Washing film in trays.

scratched. Only line copy types of negatives are usuallywashed in a tray.

The most effective washing method in a tray is whena siphon device is attached to the edge of the tray. Thedevice siphons water from the bottom of the tray, whilefresh water enters at the top (fig. 10-6). Because fixer isheavier than water, it sinks to the bottom of the tray.

The best way to wash hand-processed sheet film(especially more than one sheet at a time) is in asheet-film washing tank. Film hangers hold individualnegatives suspended separately in the tank. Fresh waterflows into the bottom of the tank and runs out aroundthe sides at or near the top of the tank (fig. 10-7). Whenyou place the film hangers into the tank, ensure thenegatives are separated, so sufficient fresh water reachesall areas of each negative.

WARNING

Figure 10-7.–Film washing tank

Figure 10-8.–Rapid roll-film washer.237.126

A rapid roll-film washer is excellent for washinghand-processed roll film. It is a cylindrical tank, largeenough to hold several spiral reels. The washers comein a variety of sizes that will wash from two 35mm reelsto as many as six or eight 120 reels (fig. 10-8).

Aboard ship, hoses attached to potablewater spigots can back siphon chemicals orwash water from the trays or sink into thedrinking water supply. These hoses must havea backflow preventer installed in the plumbing The rapid roll-film washer is constructed so thesystem. wash water enters the tank at the base and flows up

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Figure 10-9.–Washing film in processing roll-film tank.

through the tank and around the film at a rapid rate. Bydischarging the water from the top of the tank, you canremove more hypo in a shorter time.

Roll film also can be washed in the roll-film tank inwhich it was processed. To wash roll film in a roll-filmprocessing tank, simply push a small hose down into thecenter of the reel and have the faucet turned on, so thewater overflows steadily from the tank (fig. 10-9).

TIMERS

Every darkroom should have a reliable timer.Ideally, the timer should have both a minute hand and asweep second hand. The timer most commonly used inthe Navy is a Gray Lab timer (fig. 10-10). Not only doesthis timer have a minute and sweep second hand but thenumbers and hands are fluorescent so they can be seenin the dark A Gray Lab timer also has an alarm (buzzer)that indicates when the time for processing is up.

PROCESSING METHODS

No matter how many rolls or sheets of film youdevelop, it helps when you carry out the processing inthree distinct phases, beginning with preparation. First,your work area must be clean, and the equipment neededmust be arranged so it is easy to locate in the dark Thesecond phase is processing. If you are not familiar withdarkroom work, you should complete ALL theprocessing steps with dummy or practice film and waterto substitute for processing solutions under white lightand then practice a few times in the dark. The third phaseis film drying.

Figure 10-10.–Gray Lab timer.302.285

To make the latent image visible and permanent,you must process the film in different chemicalsolutions. There are five steps in the black-and-whiteprocessing phase. The first step is development. In thisstep the film is placed in a developer that transforms thelatent image into a visible black metallic silver image.In the second step the developing solvents areneutralized, and development is retarded or stopped bya rinse bath or acid stop bath, respectively. The third stepinvolves placing the film into a fixing bath to removethe light sensitive, undeveloped silver halides. Thefourth step is to wash the film to remove all thechemicals, and the last step is to dry the film. Each ofthese steps is explained further in this chapter, sincethere are certain controls that must be applied to eachstep.

Some of the processing steps may be carried out inwhite light, while others must be done under appropriatesafelight conditions or in total darkness. The steps thatmust be done in darkness or under suitable safelightconditions begin when the film package, holder, or rollis opened and end when the film is removed from thefixer.

As discussed earlier, there are five steps in filmprocessing. The steps and the lighting conditions underwhich they are carried out are as follows:

1. Development-dark or appropriate safelight

2. Rinse or stop bath-dark or appropriate safelight

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3. Fix-dark or appropriate safelight

4. Wash-white light

5. Dry-white light

In addition to exposure, there are four factors indevelopment that control image density, contrast, and,to a limited degree, the uniformity of individualdensities in a negative. These four factors are the typeof developer used, development time, temperature of thedeveloper, and agitation as follows:

Type of developer. One type of developer cannotcover all film exposure/processing situations. Forexample, film exposed under poor lighting conditionsmay require a vigorous developer to bring out as muchimage detail as possible, while film exposed undernormal conditions requires a normal working developer.There are many different developers, each provides adifferent activity and quality of development. The actualchoice of the developer to use depends on the following:the type of film, conditions under which it was exposed,type of negative required, developing time that is bestfor the method of development to be used, and themanufacturer’s recommendation.

Time and temperature. Many factors must beconsidered if you want to ensure correct developmentduring film processing. Two of these factors are thelength of time the film is allowed to develop and thetemperature of the developer solution. Both factors canhave a significant impact on the quality of the processedfilm.

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The normal temperature for hand processing mostblack-and -white film is 68°F (T-Max film with T-Maxdeveloper is 75°F). There are several reasons for thisstandardization. At a temperature of 68°F, the gelatinswells sufficiently to allow adequate penetration of thedeveloping solution without oversoftening to the pointwhere it is easily damaged (which occurs at highertemperatures). Temperatures lower than 68°F slowdevelopment excessively. Only when time is of theutmost importance are accelerated temperatures used. Inmost instances when high temperatures are used, thefilm is treated in a hardening bath before processing, orthe film is designed specifically for being processed atsuch temperatures. Since a rise of several degrees intemperature shortens development only a small amount,there is little to be gained by deviating from standardprocessing temperatures.

As explained earlier, the activity of a developerincreases as its temperature increases. Filmdevelopment carried out for a given time at a giventemperature produces both predictable and desiredresults-assuming, of course, that the film has beenexposed properly. When film is developed for a giventime at a given temperature, it is called "time andtemperature development."

When you know the time and temperaturerelationship for a given film and developer combination,processing in total darkness becomes simple. Yousimply adjust solutions to the prescribed temperatureand then process the film for the required time.Assuming proper exposure, time and temperatureprocessing can produce a correctly developed negativewithout your having to see what is happening in thesolution.

In the time and temperature method of filmprocessing, as in any method of film processing, if thefilm is developed for too short a time or at too low atemperature, a weak, low-contrast image results.Underdevelopment can result in insufficient highlightdensity. On the other hand, if the negative is developedfor too long a period or at too high a temperature, theresult is a negative having too much density. Thedeveloper solution overdevelops the exposed areas andmay even develop some of the unexposed silver halides.

All solution temperatures (developer, rinse, fix, andwash) should be as close to each other as possible. Whenthere is considerable difference in the temperature of thesolutions, excessive graininess may result, or theemulsion may be subject to excessive expansion andcontraction that causes it to wrinkle or crack This effectis called reticulation. Since reticulation is not correct-able, it causes the negative to be useless for printing.

For correct development, both time and temperaturemust be accurately controlled. Within limits, time can

The temperature of solutions may be adjusted bysurrounding them with hot water, cold water, or ice.Never add water or ice directly to a solution because itdilutes the developer to an unknown degree. Ice may beplaced in a container and suspended in the solution. Animmersion heater may be used in the solution to raise itstemperature.

be adjusted for a given temperature, or temperature canbe adjusted for a given time.

There is a definite correlation between time andtemperature. When it is impossible to maintain solutiontemperature at the desired level, time can be shortenedor lengthened to compensate. As the temperatureincreases, developing time must be decreased to provideequivalent development. As the temperature decreases,development time must be increased.

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Agitation. If a film is placed in a developer andallowed to develop without movement, the chemicalaction soon slows down because the developing agentin contact with the surface of the emulsion becomesexhausted and bromide (a restrainer) is released as aby-product. When the film is agitated, however, freshsolution is continually brought to the surfaces of thefilm, and the rate of development remains constant.Therefore, agitation also has an important effect on thedegree of development. An even more important effectof agitation is it prevents uneven development. If thereis no agitation, the exhausted solution that becamesaturated with bromide from the emulsion may flowslowly across the film from the dense highlight areasand produce streaks. Constant agitation is usuallyrecommended for the first 30 seconds of tankdevelopment and for the entire developing time whenthe film is being processed in a tray. After the initial30-second agitation cycle, the film should be agitatedfor 5 seconds, once every minute during the remainingtime.

The time, temperature, and amount of agitationrequired for a film/developer combination arerecommended by each manufacturer of film ordeveloper. These recommendations are in theinstructions that accompany the film or developer.Another reference source is the Photo-Lab-Index.

There are three different methods of processing filmby hand. These are as follows: the tray, the sheet-filmtank, and the roll-film tank. Each method is discussedhere with an example of the darkroom arrangementused.

TRAY PROCESSING

The tray method is used primarily for processingonly a few sheets of film. With a lot of experience, youcan process as many as 6 to 12 sheets of film in a trayat one time. You will find it easier to work with only afew sheets of film at a time, and repeat the process, thanto start all the sheets at the same time and damage them.

The tray processing method described here hasproven satisfactory under most conditions forprocessing one sheet of film at a time. You should usethis method as described and develop the necessary skillusing this procedure before you attempt to usevariations.

The trays should be considerably larger than thefilm being processed; for example, 4x5 film should beprocessed in 8x10 trays, 8x10 film in 11x14 trays, and

11x14 film in 16x20 trays. Ideally, the trays should bearranged in a shallow sink that contains temperature-controlled circulating water. The trays should bearranged with the developer to your left as you face thetrays. The stop bath goes next to the developer, followedby the fixer and the wash tray.

In all Navy imaging facilities, it is standardprocedure when processing film (or prints) by hand towork from left to right.

Rinse the trays with fresh water as a precautionagainst contamination, and prepare the solutions. Whenthe solutions are ready, place the exposed film holder tobe unloaded on a clean, dry area of the workbench nearthe developer. Set the timer for the correct developingtime, and place it in a convenient location near theprocessing solutions. Then, if you are processingpanchromatic film, turn out all the lights. If you areprocessing monochromatic or orthochromatic film, youcan use a suitable safelight.

Remove one sheet of film from the holder andsubmerge it quickly, emulsion-side down, into thedeveloper. Then immediately turn it over (emulsion-sideup) and slide it back under the surface of the developerquickly, and agitate it vigorously to eliminate possibleair bubbles. The surface of the film must be wettedquickly and evenly; otherwise, developing marks mayresult. Start the timer just before the film is placed intothe developer.

During tray development, the tray should be rockedcontinuously to provide constant agitation. Be carefulthat the tray rocking is not too fast and that it is variedat intervals; for example, first front to back, and thenside to side to avoid patterns of uneven developmentcaused by regular waves.

CAUTION

Do not allow your fingernails to touch thefilm emulsion at any time.

Tray development involves constant agitation, anddevelopment time is usually about 20 percent less thanif the same film were being developed with intermittentagitation. When tray agitation is done very slowly, theagitation should be considered intermittent and thedeveloping time adjusted accordingly.

When the timer rings, remove the film from thedeveloper, drain it from one corner, and submerge it inthe stop bath. Agitate the film in the stop bath for about5 seconds; then transfer it to the fixer. You must agitate

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the film vigorously in the stop bath and initially in thefixer because gases are released in these solutions andthere is danger of air bubbles forming on the filmsurface. If you allow these air bells, or bubbles, to form,they may cause dark spots. This is due to the continuedaction of the developer beneath the bubbles. Agitate thefilm in the fixing bath for a few seconds and then thesafelights or the white lights may be turned on. Continueagitating the film until it loses the cloudy or creamyappearance. Note the time required for this change tooccur because it is just half the total required fixing time.Agitate the film several times during the second half ofthe fixing time. After the film clears, continuousagitation is not necessary.

After fixing is completed, transfer the negative tothe wash water and continue to agitate it unless a regularfilm washing tank or tray is available. After washing iscomplete, the film should be treated in a wetting agentand dried.

As stated earlier, with experience you can processseveral sheets of line copy film at a time in a tray.When processing several sheets in a tray at once, thereis an added step. This is a predevelopment rinse inclean water that should be at the same temperature asthe rest of the processing solutions. The predevelop-ment rinse is located to the left of the developer. Itspurpose is to prevent the films from sticking togetherin the developer.

The procedure for processing more than one sheetof line copy film at a time is the following:

1. When the solutions are ready, place a dry,dust-free paper or cardboard on the workbench near thepredevelopment rinse. Place the exposed film holdersnear this clean working space.

2. Set the timer.

3. Turn out the lights.

4. Remove one film from its holder and place it,emulsion-side down, on the clean paper. Remove thesecond film and place it, emulsion-side down, on top ofthe first. Continue until all the film is placed in a loosepile on the space provided for them.

5. Pick up the film on top of the pile with your lefthand (keep it dry until all films have been placed in thewater), drop it, emulsion-side down, into the water, andimmerse it quickly with your right hand. Pick the filmup immediately, turn it over, emulsion-side up, and pushit back under the solution. Place the wet film,emulsion-side up, at one end of the tray. Immerse thenext film in the same manner. Stack it on top of the first

film, and continue with this procedure until all the filmsare stacked in a pile at one end of the tray. Your left handshould follow the last film into the tray to assist in theagitation of the films.

Wet film may be handled with wet fingers.However, be extremely careful to KEEP WETFINGERS OFF DRY FILMS. Slight pressure with theballs of the fingers is not harmful to a wet emulsionunless it has swollen excessively.

The films should be agitated or shifted constantly toprevent the individual sheets from sticking together.Agitation is accomplished by moving the first film fromthe bottom of the stack and placing it on top or bystarting a new stack at the other end of the tray. Continueagitating the films from bottom to top until they becomecompletely saturated with water-about 1 or 2 minutes issufficient. After the emulsion is completely saturated,the danger of films sticking together is no longer aproblem.

6. Remove the films, one at a time, from thepredevelopment rinse and immerse them in thedeveloper. Place the films in the developer,emulsion-side up; slide them under the surface of thesolution quickly, and agitate them vigorously toeliminate possible air bells. Start the timer just beforethe first film is placed in the developer. Use your lefthand to remove all films from the water, and be carefulnot to get the water contaminated with developer. Yourleft hand should follow the last film transferred from thewater into the developer to help with the agitation.

It is important for you to locate the first sheet of filmplaced in the developer quickly. To do this, align the longdimension of all other films at a right angle to the firstsheet placed in the developer.

The films are immersed, emulsion-side up, in thedeveloper to reduce greater damage that would occur ifthe emulsion, already softened by presoaking, wereallowed to come in contact with the bottom of the tray.Be careful not to dig or drag the comer or edge of a filminto the emulsion surface of the film below it. Do notallow your fingernails to touch the emulsion at any time.Stacking films by aligning their edges against the sidesof the tray helps to reduce scratches and abrasions.

7. Agitate the films constantly, not by rocking thetray, but by moving each film from the bottom of thestack and placing it carefully on top, and pressing itdown gently to assure a flow of solution over its surface.Continue this procedure until the developing time is up.

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237.137Figure 10-11.–Sheet film hangers arranged for tank processing.

8. When the timer rings, remove all the films fromthe developer in the same order that they were placed inthe developer, and submerge them in the stop bath. Yourright hand should go into the stop bath with the first filmand stay there to handle each film as it is transferred fromthe developer by your left hand. Use your left hand onlyfor transferring the film to avoid contamination of thedeveloper or spotting of the film. A few drops ofdeveloper will not affect the stop bath or the fixing bath,but a few drops of either of these solutions could rum adeveloping solution.

9. After all the films have been shifted severaltimes in the stop bath, they should be transferredindividually to the fixing bath or hypo. Shift the filmsseveral times in the fixing bath, agitating themvigorously. Then safelights or the white lights may beturned on. Continue shifting the films until they lose thecloudy or creamy appearance. You must shift the filmsseveral times during the second half of the fixing time,but continuous agitation is not necessary.

10. After fixing is completed, transfer thenegatives to the wash water and continue agitationunless a regular film washing tank or tray is used. Thenegatives also may be put in regular film hangers forwashing.

11. Treat the film in a wetting agent and dry it.

TANK DEVELOPING SHEET FILM

Tank development is the recommended method forhand processing of orthochromatic and panchromaticsheet film. The solutions and the tanks are deep enoughto cover the films in the vertical position completely. Thefilms are supported individually in the tanks by the filmhangers. Films supported in this way are much lesssubject to damage. The solutions last longer when usedin tanks and can process more films than when they areused in trays.

Tank development for sheet film requires tanks tohold the solutions, and racks, reels, or hangers to supportthe films while in the solutions. The solutions usedshould have good-keeping qualities, and they should bethe type that can be replenished by adding fresh solutionor replenisher, so the volume in the tanks can bemaintained at the proper working level.

The minimum number of tanks that can be used isthree: one each for developer, stop, and fixing bath.However, when a predevelopment rinse is used, fourtanks are needed.

The tanks are arranged in the processing sinksubmerged in enough water to maintain the solutions atthe prescribed processing temperature. Again theprocess is arranged so you work from the left to right.

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The film hangers are simply channeled framessuspended below a bar. The bar is long enough to reachacross the tank and allow the frame to hang below thesurface of the solutions. The frame has channel pieceson the bottom and both sides and a hinged channelacross its top. Each hanger holds from one to four films.The hangers accommodate standard film sizes, such as4x5, 8x10, and so forth. After the films are loaded intothe hangers, they may be carried through the entireprocess without being touched by the hands.

The darkroom should be checked using the stepscommon to all film processing, as explained earlier inthis chapter. After you check the solutions and theirarrangement, check the temperature of the solutions,and check the safelights. Then arrange an adequatesupply of clean, dry, empty film hangers on a rack, andan empty rack to hold the loaded film hangers (fig.10-l1). If the darkroom is not equipped with racks tohold the film hangers, clean, dry tanks can be used tohold both unloaded and loaded hangers. Set the timer,place the exposed film holders between the empty filmhangers and the rack or tank that is used to hold theloaded hangers, and turn out the lights.

To load a sheet film hanger, remove one of the sheetfilms from its holder. Take a hanger in one hand andplace the thumb at one end of the hinged channel. Bushthe hinged channel up and back with the thumb until thefilm can be slid along the inside of the end channels tothe bottom of the frame. HANDLE THE FILM BY THEEDGES ONLY. Make sure the film is seated properly inthe three channels of the hanger. When the film is seatedproperly in the side and bottom channels, bring the topchannel forward and down over its top edge (fig. 10-12).This encloses all four sides of the film in the channeledframe. The hanger should be given a slight shake toensure that the film is in place. Set the loaded hanger onthe rack or in the empty tank to hold it.

The film should be loaded onto the hangers with theemulsion side facing you. This prevents the top channelfrom scratching the emulsion as the film is slid into theframe. Load the other film to be developed in the samemanner. However, do not load more hangers than can behandled conveniently in the tanks at one time.

When the hangers are loaded, lift all of them by theircrossbars and lower them into the predevelopment waterrinse, if one is being used. They should be lowered intothe tank until the hanger crossbars rest on top of the tankThe predevelopment water rinse is optional when usingthe tank method of development, but the water rinse hasthe following advantages:

Figure 10-12.–Loading a sheet film holder.

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Figure 10-13.–Sheet film tank processing agitation.

The air bubbles that usually occur when dry filmis immersed in a solution can be removed withoutharmful effects in the predevelopment water rinse.

When the water-softened emulsion is placed inthe developer, the action of the solution beginsuniformly over the entire emulsion. Thus uneven orstreaky development is avoided.

The predevelopment water rinse removes theantihalation backing dye that interferes with the actionof some developers.

The predevelopment water rinse brings thetemperature of the film and the hangers to the processingtemperature. Maintaining constant temperatures in all ofthe processing solutions is very important.

The predevelopment water rinse is given byimmersing the loaded hangers in a tank of water andagitating them for about 2 minutes. The temperature ofthe water should be the same as that of the otherprocessing solutions. The loaded hangers are then liftedout of the water, drained by one comer, and processedin the usual manner.

Immerse the hangers in the developer slowly andsmoothly to avoid splashing or the formation of air bells.Air bubbles usually result when films are immersedrapidly, especially when a predevelopment water rinsewas not used. All the hangers should be immersedsimultaneously to assure uniform agitation anddevelopment.

Strike the hangers sharply against the sides of thetank several times to dislodge any air bubbles that may

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Figure 10-14.–Reel processing rack.

with a film clip. Dry the hangers, after washing them inhot water, without film in them.

With suitable racks designed to hold reels, roll filmcan also be processed in tanks (fig. 10-14).

TANK DEVELOPING ROLL FILM

have formed. Start the timer and agitate the film for 1minute. After the first minute of development, agitatefor 5 seconds at l-minute intervals.

The most convenient and reliable way to handprocess roll film is in a small roll-film tank. Theconstruction of tanks and reels differ somewhat among

The processing tank usually has enough space forseveral additional hangers. However, this space isneeded for proper agitation of the film hangers.Agitation should be accomplished by lifting the hangersout of the tank draining them momentarily from a

the various manufacturers’ models, resulting in

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differences in loading and use. Generally, the basic unitused in Navy imaging facilities consists of a stainless

different comer each time, and replacing them in thesolution (fig. 10-13). Hangers should not be agitated toovigorously from side to side. This forces the developerthrough the holes in the hangers at high speed, causingdeveloping trails near the holes. The objective is toassure an even flow of fresh solution over the surfacesof the films regularly according to a fixed schedule.

About 10 seconds before completion of thedeveloping time, lift each of the hangers out of thesolution, let them drain for 10 seconds, then lower theminto the stop bath. Agitate them several times in the stopbath, drain them, lower them into the fixing bath, andagitate them constantly for 2 or 3 minutes.

The fixing and the washing requirements are thesame as described previously in this chapter. Whenwashing is complete, place the film hangers and filminto a wetting agent; then remove each sheet from itshanger and hang it up by one corner to dry.

When the film is dried in the hangers, there is anumber of drying marks along the edges of the film, thusreducing the actual usable size of the negative image. Itis better to suspend each film individually from a line

rewound, you do not have to open the cassette to removethe film. The leader or loading tab on 35mm film can becut off square while in the light to ease loading of thespiral reel (fig. 10-15).

Figure 10-15.–Cutting leader tab film 35mm film.

steel, center feed, spiraled reel to hold the film; a tankwith a lighttight cover; and a filler cap. Each reel isconstructed for a specific size roll of film; for example,35mm, 120, and 220. The tank top permits pouring thechemicals in and out of the tank under white lightconditions. The tanks come in sizes to hold from one35mm reel to as many as eight 35mm reels or five 120reels. Small roll-film tanks of all metal construction(tanks, lids, caps) should be numbered or marked in sucha way that prevents mixing different tanks, lids, andcaps.

The proper loading of a film reel in total darknesscan be the most important steps and challenges inprocessing roll film.

When processing roll film with a paper backing, thepaper tape sealing the exposed roll should not be brokenuntil the lights have been turned out. Also, for 35mmfilm, the cassette should not be opened until the lightshave been turned out. If a short length of film is leftprotruding from the 35mm cassette when the film is

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There are three ways of loading a center-feed spiralreel. You should practice each method (with a dummyroll), both in white light and in total darkness, and selectthe method that is most comfortable for you. Thenperfect that method. Although the three methods aresimilar, there are differences that may make one methodeasier for you. However, before beginning one of thesemethods, make sure that both the reel and your handsare clean and dry.

First method. Remove the film from the cassette(35mm) or separate it from the paper backing (120 or220). The film must be handled only by the edges toprevent scratches and fingerprints. (When you work

Figure 10-16.–Leading 35mm film on wire reel.

with 35mm film, the tongue of the leader must be cutoff to make a square end before loading the reel.)

If you are right-handed, the ends of the wire spiralmust be positioned on the top and pointing to the right(fig. 10-16, view A). For left-handed people, the ends ofthe wire spiral reel when positioned at the top must pointto the left.

Next, bow the film slightly concave to clear theedges of the spiral and clip or hold the film to the core(center) of the reel (fig. 10-16, view B). The filmemulsion must face in or toward the reel center. Thetension on the film should be firm enough to prevent thefilm from skipping the spiral grooves, but not so firm itoverlaps or falls into the same groove twice.

Turn the reel, apply gentle pressure, and keep yourthumb and forefinger on the film edges. This pressureproduces a slight curl in the film and allows it to passonto the edges of the reel. As you continue to turn thereel, the film straightens out and fits into the groovedspaces in the reel (fig. 10-16, view C). Apply enoughtension to the film so it does not skip grooves. However,too much tension may cause the film to overlap in thesame grooves of the reel.

Second method. Prepare the film as before. Holdthe reel to be loaded on a clean working surface in yourleft hand with the ends of the wire spiral at the top,pointing toward the right (fig. 10-17, view A). If you areleft-handed, hold the reel in your right hand with theends of the spiral wires at the top, pointing toward theleft.

Hold the film by its edges in your right hand andbow it between your thumb and forefinger. With yourleft index finger or thumb, depress the grip clip andgently push the end of the film into the core of the reel(fig. 10-17, view B). When the reel does not have a gripclip, insert the film end about 1/4 to 1/2 inch into the reelcore and hold it there with your left thumb and indexfinger (if right-handed). Remember, always load the reelwith the film emulsion facing in, or toward, the reel core.Be sure the film is held straight at the reel center(fig. 10-17, view C).

Now turn the reel smoothly in a counterclockwisedirection with your left hand, and guide the film into thespiral grooves with the thumb and forefinger of yourright hand (fig. 10-17, view D).

Third method. Slowly unwind the paper backingfrom the film until you feel the film with your finger. Donot completely unwind the paper backing from the film.

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302.286Figure 10-17.–Loading 120 film on reel.

For 35mm film, if the film was not completely rewoundinto the cassette, cut the tongue off and leave the film inthe cassette.

Hold the reel to be loaded in your left hand withthe spiral wire ends at the top, pointing toward theright. Allow about 3 more inches of the paper backingto unroll. Bow the film and place it straight into thereel core. Smoothly and slowly turn the reelcounterclockwise, guiding the film onto the reel.Allow the paper backing to unwind as the film iswound onto the reel.

When all but about 3 inches of the film is on thereel, you will feel the end of the film taped to the paperbacking. With 35mm film in a cassette, the film stopsunrolling from the cassette when the end is reached.

When you feel the tape or the end of the film isabout 3 inches from the reel, carefully separate thefilm from the paper backing or cut the 35mm filmright next to the cassette, being careful not to pull thefilm from the reel. Finish loading the reel.

The paper backing on 220 roll film does not runthe full length of the film as does 120 film. The paperbacking on 220 film serves as a leader and tailer thatare taped to the ends of the film. Therefore, whenusing the third method described above, you mustremove the paper tailer from the film before loadingthe reel.

Before processing film using a reel, you mustpractice loading it by using a roll of practice film inwhite light, then repeating the procedure in totaldarkness until you feel comfortable and do not damagethe film. Only after you have the reel(s) loaded properly,should you think seriously about processing.

When a roll-film tank is used to process fewerrolls of film than the tank can hold, you must take upthe extra space in the tank with enough empty reels tofill the tank. The empty reels go into the tank on topof the reels holding the film. When you are pouringsolutions into the tank, completely cover ALL thereels in the tank.

When processing with a roll-film tank that has alighttight cap, you can add or dump the chemicalswithout removing the cover. Only one tank is neededbecause the required solutions are poured out of andinto the tank through the tank cover duringprocessing. This can be done in white light. Thechemicals should be arranged in the darkroom sinkfrom left to right (developer, stop bath, etc.) and be

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Figure 10-18.–Arrangement of materials for processing film.

brought to the correct processing temperature in a waterbath (fig. 10-18).

A clean, dry area should be provided on the workcounter for loading the film onto the reels. The followingsteps are used to process roll film in small tanks:

1. Load the reel or reels with the film to beprocessed.

2. Place the loaded reels into the tank. If theloaded reels do not come to the top of the tank, addempty reels to take up the space. Place the cover and capon the tank. The lights may now be turned back on. Oncethe lights are on and before the film is fixed, be carefulnot to remove the tank cover or the film will be exposedto light and ruined.

3. Hold the tank in one hand and tilt it slightly;pour the developer directly from the graduate into thetank through the light trap pouring hole. Pour as fast asyou can without spilling. As the developer nears the topof the tank, hold the tank level or set it in the sink. Fillthe tank to just overflowing. This step should take about10 to 20 seconds, depending on the tank size.

4. Once the tank is full, immediately start thetimer, replace the cap, and strike the tank on the edge ofthe sink once or twice to dislodge any air bubbles. Nowagitate the film by inverting the tank slowly end to end(fig. 10-19). The initial agitation should be 30 seconds.Place the tank in the sink on its bottom (cover up).

5. Once every minute, agitate the film for 5seconds by slowly inverting the tank end to end. After

each agitation cycle, place the tank back in the sink. Ifyou are holding the tank during the entire developingperiod, the heat from your hands may heat the developerand produce unpredictable results.

6. When only 10 seconds of developing timeremain, remove the cap from the tank cover.Immediately start pouring the developer out of the tankthrough the light trap pouring hole. Dump thechemicals according to local instructions of theimaging facility. This step should take about 10 secondsto complete.

7. When the developer has been emptied from thetank, fill the tank to overflowing with stop bath. The stopbath must be poured into the tank through the light trappouring hole in the tank cover. Replace the cover cap.Agitate the film in the stop bath for about 30 secondsusing the end-for-end method.

8. When the stop bath portion of the process iscomplete, pour the stop bath through the light trappouring hole in the tank cover.

9. With the tank cover still in place, pour fixer intothe tank and replace the cap. Dislodge the air bubblesand set the timer to the required fixing time. Start thetimer and agitate the film using the same agitation as thedeveloper.

10. When the prescribed fixing time has elapsed,remove the tank cover and pour the fixer from the tankback into the bottle from which it came. Never pour the

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303.41Figure 10-19.–Agitation of a small tank.

fixer into the sink. The fixer can be reused and then latersaved for silver recovery.

11. The film can be washed either in the tank or ina roll-film washer. When the tank is used, insert a hosedown through the center of the reels until it is about 1/2inch from the bottom of the tank. Adjust the water (atthe same temperature the film was processed) so asteady overflow is created. Wash the film for about 20minutes. When you use a rapid roll-film washer, again,adjust the water temperature and place the reelscontaining the processed film into the washer. Adjust therate of water flow until the reels start to turn. When thereels start to turn, adjust the rate of water flow until thereels stop turning. Set the timer and wash the film forabout 5 minutes.

12. While the film is washing, rinse the processingtank, tank cover, and cap with clean water. Fill the tankwith water (check the temperature) and add the wettingagent. After the film has been washed, place the film,still on the reels, into the wetting agent solution. Replacethe tank cover and cap and agitate the film in the wettingsolution very S-L-O-W-L-Y for 1 minute.

13. After 1 minute in the wetting solution, removethe loaded film reels from the tank. (Do not save thewetting solution.)

14. To dry the film, attach the end of the film to afilm clip in the drying cabinet. Let the film unwind fromthe reel as you slowly lower the reel.

When the film is unwound, depress the grip clip (ifthe reel has one) or remove the film from the core of thereel. Squeegee the film and attach a second film clip tothe lower end of the film. Close the drying cabinet doorand dry the film.

Photographer’s Data Sheets

Sometimes a photographer's data sheet willaccompany film that enters your imaging facility to beprocessed. The photographer's data sheet will provideyou with information on how the film was shot, lightingconditions, and specific processing instructions. Whena photographer's data sheet accompanies the film or joborder, you should process the materials specified by theform.

Cleaning Up

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After processing, the darkroom and all equipmentmust be cleaned up immediately. Rinse thoroughly allprocessing equipment: tanks, reels, hangers,thermometers, funnels, and so forth, in clean, warmwater. Place the clean equipment where it can dry beforeit is needed for the next processing run. Always keep theprocessing room shipshape.

REVERSAL PROCESSING

Normal processing of black-and-white filmproduces a negative; from this negative, a positive ismade. However, by using the reversal process, you canproduce a positive image directly on theblack-and-white film.

In the reversal process, a negative image is firstobtained by developing the original latent image in adeveloper that contains a silver halide solvent. Thisdeveloper dissolves some of the excess silver halides.After leaving the developer, the negative image isdissolved away in a bleach bath. The silver halidesremaining are chemically “exposed” (fogged) anddeveloped by a second developer that provides thepositive image.

Not all black-and-white films reverse well. Filmsthat reverse well are Kodak Direct PositivePanchromatic Film 5246 (35mm), T-max 100 DirectPositive Film, and Kodak Technical Pan Films (35mm).Instructions for reversal processing of these films canbe found in the Photo-Lab-Index.

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COLOR PROCESSING

Color adds realism to photographs. At one timecolor was difficult to work with. It required specialcameras and specialized films that could be processedonly by the manufacturer of the film. Now, colormaterials have been improved and are used extensivelyin the Navy. They are far more popular than black andwhite.

As discussed in chapter 2, color films have at leastthree emulsion layers. Primary colors affect oneemulsion layer only, while complementary colors affecttwo emulsion layers; for example, the color cyan affectsthe blue and green sensitive layers. White light affectsall three emulsion layers. Black has no effect on anylayer. The type of process used depends on whether thefilm is a negative type of film or a reversal (slide) film.The most common processes used in the Navy areKodak Flexicolor for color negatives and KodakProcess E-6 for color reversal films. The EastmanKodak Company continually strives to improve theirprocesses by making them more environmentally safe.Always consult the Photo-Lab-Index for the mostcurrent information concerning film and paperprocesses.

COLOR NEGATIVE PROCESSING

In negative color film, the dye couplers producedare complimentary to the primary colors of light;therefore, a blue light records as yellow, a green lightrecords as magenta, and a red light records as cyan. Allcolors within a scene are recorded through varyingcombinations of these yellow, magenta, and cyan dyes.The color negative is a halfway stage to a color print.

The cyan and magenta dye image layers formed bycolor processing absorb some light wavelengths thatshould be transmitted. In negative color film, theseabsorbed wavelengths of light cause a color cast whenprinted. To prevent this color shift, the manufacturer hasgiven the green and red sensitive emulsion layers ayellowish and pinkish tint, respectively, duringmanufacturing. These tints are what form the overallorange mask that you see in finished color negatives.Some color film used for aerial photography does nothave this orange mask. This allows for a directinterpretation of the negative image. An orange-masking filter is added when these films are printed.

The Kodak Flexicolor process is used forprocessing color negative films and some monochromefilm, such as Ilford XP2. There are four chemical stepsand two wash cycles in the Flexicolor process. They are

as follows: color developer, bleach, wash, fix, wash, andstabilizer.

Color Developer

The first step in color negative processing is colordevelopment. A color developer in color processesworks nearly the same as a black-and-white developer.The exposed silver is developed by a developing agentand converted to metallic silver and by-products arereleased. As the color developer is working atdeveloping the silver, it becomes oxidized and reactswith nearby dye couplers. Dye couplers are built into theemulsion around all of the metallic silver sites. Theprimary function of a color developer is to develop theexposed silver halide crystals to metallic silver and thenform dye around the metallic silver, using the oxidizedcolor developing agent.

Temperature of the color developer is the mostcritical of all the processing steps. The temperature ofthe color developer must be 100°F ±0.25°F (37.8°C±0.15°C). All other wet steps in the process can bewithin the range of 75°F to 105°F (24°C to 41°C);however, it is best to maintain all solutions at constanttemperatures.

Bleach

Bleach is found in all color processes. The purposeof the bleach is to take the metallic silver still in the colorfilm (or paper) and convert it to a form that can be fixed.In color products, all of the silver must be removed.Only the color dyes form the image. The bleachchemically converts the silver metal back to a solublesilver halide.

Fixer

The function of fixer is the same in color processesas it is in black-and-white processes. A fixer convertsthe silver halide to a water soluble form. Most fixers usethiosulfate as the fixing agent in an acidic solution.When fixing is incomplete, unwanted silver remains inthe image. This causes a loss in contrast, added density,and an unwanted color cast.

Stabilizer

The final wet step in color negative film processingis the stabilizer. The main purpose of this solution is toprovide a wetting agent to prevent spotting of the filmand to prevent unused magenta dye couplers fromattacking the newly formed magenta dye.

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Unlike black-and-white film processing, colornegative film cannot be “push processed” successfully;therefore, you must choose a film with an appropriatefilm speed for the lighting conditions in which youphotograph your subject.

COLOR REVERSAL FILM PROCESSING

Color transparency film forms dyes according to areversed silver positive; for example, a yellow dyeimage forms in the top emulsion that corresponds to anabsence of blue in the original scene. This yellow dyesubtracts blue light. A blue image is formed by magentadye (minus green) and cyan dye (minus red), thusleaving blue. In color transparency film, the dyessubtractively produce a correct color positive image ofthe scene photographed.

The Kodak E-6 Process is used in the Navy forprocessing color reversal film. There are seven chemicalsteps and two wash cycles in the Kodak E-6 Process.They are as follows: first developer, wash, reversalbath, color developer, prebleach, bleach, fixer, wash,and final rinse.

The first chemical step is the first developer. Thefirst developer is a black-and-white developer thatconverts the exposed latent image in each emulsionlayer to a metallic silver. Like black-and-white negativeprocessing, after the film leaves the first developer, thereare undeveloped areas where the silver halides areunaffected by camera exposure. It is these undevelopedareas that the final color positive images are formed inreversal film.

After the first developer, the film is chemicallyfogged or “re-exposed” in the reversal bath. The reversalbath exposes the silver halides that were not developedin the first developer. This re-exposure is what forms thepositive image. After 1 minute in the reversal bath, thenormal room lights can be turned on.

After fogging, the film is developed in a colordeveloper. The color developer works the same way incolor reversal processing as it does in color negativeprocessing. It changes the fogged silver halides to blackmetallic silver and at the same time, cyan, magenta, andyellow dye couplers are formed by the exhausteddeveloper.

At this stage the film looks completely blackbecause the formed dyes are shielded by the developedsilver. The film is then placed in a prebleach. Theprebleach prepares the film for the bleach and alsostabilizes the dye layers.

The metallic silver is removed by the bleach andfixer processes. The bleach and fixer work the same wayas they do for color negative processing. After the silveris removed, only the dyes remain, forming the image.

The film is then washed to rinse away any remainingchemistry and soluble silver. The last chemical step inthe E-6 process is the final rinse. Final rinse provides awetting agent to aid in uniform drying.

It is possible to “push process” (underexpose andoverdevelop) or “pull process” (overexpose andunderdevelop) most color reversal film; however, somesacrifice in quality results in "push processing." Lessdetail in the shadow areas (weaker blacks), lessexposure latitude, and noticeably increased grain occurwhen color reversal film is "push processed." When thefilm speed is altered, only the first developer time ischanged. All other chemical steps remain the same. Youshould not exceed two f/stops when you intend on“push” or “pull” processing.

MACHINE PROCESSING

Today most film processing is performed bymachine, especially in larger imaging facilities.Machine processing has many advantages compared tohand processing. Machines can process high-volumeproduction more efficiently and more consistentlycompared to hand processing. When machines are used,the variables involved in processing can be controlledmore easily. Time, temperature, and agitation can bekept constant if the machine is properly maintained andoperated properly. With fully automatic processingmachines, all you must do is feed the film or paper intothe machine and retrieve the finished product.

When there are advantages, there are alsodisadvantages to machine processing. Machines requiremaintenance, can jam, occupy precious shipboardspace, and may require special plumbing, ventilation, orpower requirements. The need for proper maintenanceis most critical. Poor equipment maintenance isprobably the major cause of machine processingproblems. Therefore, it is very important for scheduledpreventive maintenance to be performed properly on allimaging equipment, especially automatic processors.The best images captured by a camera are not of any useif they are not processed correctly and without defects.You must be qualified completely in the PlannedMaintenance System (PMS) to become a valuablemember of an imaging facility.

In a high-volume production facility, the advantagesof automation far outweigh the disadvantages. There are

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302.287Figure 10-20.–Image Maker processcr.

numerous automatic processors available on the markettoday. Two types of machine processors are commonlyused in Navy imaging facilities. They are the rotarydrum and the roller transport type of processors.

ROTARY DRUM PROCESSOR

The semiautomatic processor most commonly usedin Navy imaging facilities is the Image Maker,manufactured by the King Concept Corporation (fig.10-20). When this type of processor is used, film andpaper are processed in a lighttight canister. Before beingprocessed, the material must first be loaded on stainlesssteel reels for roll film or in a plastic basket for sheetfilm or paper. Depending on the setup of the processor,the holding tanks are either filled with chemicalsmanually, or they may be filled automatically. Thesolutions are then automatically added to and dumpedfrom the processing drum. The time, temperature, andsolution steps are all controlled by a computer. After thematerial is processed, it is then removed from the drum,squeegeed, and dried.

The advantages of a rotary drum processor is it is ofrelatively low cost, small in size, and can run manydifferent processes through the same machine. Themajor disadvantage is that the chemicals are dumped

instead of replenished which is not environmentallysound and can be costly.

ROLLER TRANSPORT PROCESSOR

Automatic processors commonly use rollertransport systems (fig. 10-21). When you are using thesemachines, the material being processed moves at aconstant speed by friction. The materials are guidedthrough the processing solutions by a series of rollersand rack assemblies. On many processors, a leader tabmust be attached to the beginning of the roll to aid inpulling the film through the machine.

The size of the solution tanks and the length of thepath through the solution determine how long thematerial must remain in each solution (processing time).On some automatic processors, the finished, dried,processed material leaves the processor and is thenautomatically cut and sorted.

Roller transport processors contain two majorsections: the wet section and the dryer section. The wetsection contains the developer, fixer, and wash tanks.The film is then transported through a squeegeeassembly and enters the dryer.

Many different types of processors are usedthroughout the Navy. Each type has specific installation,

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Figure 10-21.–Roller transport processor.

operation, and maintenance instructions supplied withit. Therefore, in this section only general informationthat applies basically to any machine processor isdiscussed.

TRANSPORT SPEED

Most black-and-white automatic film processorshave a variable speed operation. Unlike hand processingwhere developing time is measured in minutes andseconds, machine processing developing times aremeasured in feet-per-minute (fpm). Both methodsmeasure the length of time the material is affected bythe developer and other solutions. Most color processorshave a set machine speed that can only be adjustedslightly because color materials must be processed tospecific parameters so processing cannot be manipu-lated.

The time the solutions are allowed to act on the filmor paper is a result of the speed that the machine movesthe sensitized material and the length of time thematerial is immersed in a particular tank. Most machineshave an fpm indicator that shows the set speed of theprocessor. The temperatures of solutions and thespecific number of feet in each section of the machineare usually constant factors. It is the rate the paper orfilm travels that determines the total processing time; forexample, if the speed is set to 10 fpm and the total roller

path in the developing tank is 30 feet, a certain point onthe material being developed takes 3 minutes (30 ÷ 10).

Regardless of the machine speed, film or papercannot be processed faster than the total requiredsolution times. For example, you are processing filmthat requires a processing and drying time of 10 minutesand 20 seconds. When the machine is processing thisfilm, it takes 10 minutes and 20 seconds before the firstfoot of film leaves the dryer. However, the total time toprocess the entire roll is related to the speed of themachine and the total length of the material. Forexample, if the machine speed is 10 fpm and the roll is10 feet long, the film takes 10 minutes, 20 seconds, plus1 minute (10 ÷ 10). With a 200-foot roll, access time is10 minutes, plus 20 seconds, plus 20 minutes(200 ÷ 10), or a total of 30 minutes, 20 seconds. It isimportant for you to know the access time of theprocessor. When the material being processed does notexit the machine in the required time, a machinemalfunction or jam is evident.

WATER TEMPERATURE AND FLOW RATE

Wash water is an important processing con-sideration. Not only is the water temperature importantbut also the flow rate of the water. Two factors that mustbe considered are as follows: sufficient flow to ensure

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complete washing of the material and to control oreliminate waste.

If the wash-water temperature is allowed to drop to65°F (18°C) or below, emulsion staining may result. Asthe temperature decreases, less emulsion swellingoccurs, reducing the effective penetration of fresh watersupplied to the emulsion. When the emulsion does notswell, the chemical-laden water does not get out throughthe emulsion surface. These retained chemicals cancause stains.

The wash water flow rate is another important factorto consider. This rate must be high enough to wash thematerial, but no more. When insufficient water flow issupplied to the machine, crystallized chemicals may beseen on the material, and additional staining can result.You must not adjust the water flow rate higher than isneeded. A few extra gallons-per-minute flow rate maynot seem important; however, over time this effect canbe extremely costly, particularly aboard ship.

SOLUTION TEMPERATURE

In machine processing, the temperature may vary,depending on the machine and the kind of processingbeing performed. High-speed processing machinesoperate at higher solution temperatures. Temperaturecontrol is critical and must be maintained to producecorrect results. Although this may be considered avariable factor, the temperature is controlledautomatically by processing machines. In somemachines, the solution tanks are immersed in atemperature-controlled water jacket. By controlling thewater temperature within the water jacket, you cancontrol the temperature of the solutions inside the tanks.In other machines, the solution temperature is directlycontrolled by separate heaters or heat exchange controlunits in the recirculation system. A temperature probe inthe solution tank monitors and controls the temperaturecontrol unit.

SOLUTION LEVELS

The solution levels of a processor must be checkedbefore processing material. If the solution level is toolow, stains, improper tracking, and roller marks mayaffect the film or paper. When the machines are shutdown for a period of time, some evaporation occurs.Since only the water from the solution evaporates, youmust top off the solution tanks with water beforeprocessing material. There is a certain amount ofcarry-over of solution from one tank to another withinthe machine. Usually, chemical carry-over is minimized

with roller squeegees. When the replenishment rate ofthe processor is set properly, this carry-over iscompensated by supplying fresh chemistry to thesolution tanks.

REPLENISHMENT

Most processing machines use relatively largequantities of solutions to carry out the process properly.However, even considering the large quantitiesinvolved, certain chemical components within a givensolution are used up at varying rates. In addition, thereare certain reactions that form by-products that build upin the tank of the processor; for example, bromide (arestrainer) gradually builds up in the developingsolution. Also, there is a certain amount of carry-over ofsolutions from one tank to another. This causes acontinuous change in solution strength and solutionpurity. The replenisher solution replaces the usedchemicals, dilutes the excess chemicals or by-productsthat have built up, and replaces the solution lost bycarry-over and evaporation.

The replenishment system used in machineprocessing is called the bleed method. When the bleedsystem is used, a calculated amount of replenishersolution is added and forces some of the used solutionout through an overflow drain in the solution tank. Youmust check the established replenishment rates as wellas the replenisher holding tanks before and duringprocessing. Inconsistent results occur when the processis not replenished correctly.

DRYER TEMPERATURE

After the material is processed and washed, itcontinues through the machine into the drying cabinetwhere moisture is removed. The drying cabinet is morethan a heated compartment for the processed material.In a majority of machines, both the temperature and thehumidity of the cabinet are carefully controlled. Toolittle drying causes the emulsion to be tacky, whereastoo much drying may produce excessive curl andbrittleness. Brittleness, once it occurs, cannot beeliminated; so it must be prevented. Both thetemperature and the relative humidity must be adjustedfor the speed of the machine and the type of materialbeing dried.

Under ideal conditions, the drying cycle shouldyield a stable 50 percent relative air humidity. To lowerthe relative humidity of air, you must heat the air; thisaccelerates the evaporation of moisture. The rate ofevaporation and the relative humidity are directly

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proportional to the temperature. When the temperatureis too low, evaporation is slowed down. When it is toohigh, the emulsion may be damaged.

Roller transport processors provide very consistentprocessing results and can be converted easily to a newprocess. The disadvantages of roller transportprocessors are: they can leave scratches and scuffs fromdirty rollers touching the film, they require a highamount of maintenance due to the large number ofmoving parts, and oxidation can be a problem due to thechurning action of the rollers in the chemistry.

QUALITY PROCESSING

The processing required to produce a qualityproduct of any particular film varies with differentdeveloper and film combinations, time and temperatureof the process, agitation, the film exposure, and the skillof the darkroom worker. A good, high-quality image isone that is free from all processing faults, includingscratches and dirt, and so forth.

When processing black-and-white film, your goal isto produce a “normal” negative that is as fault-free aspossible. Normal is a rather vague term; however, anormal negative is one that yields a pleasing print orreproduction of the original scene when printed withouta printing filter or with a No. 2 printing filter.

When film is exposed and processed properly, it isa normal negative. However, when a negative variesfrom normal, you should be able to determine whatconditions caused the deviation.

A negative has several basic characteristics toconsider when evaluating quality. These basiccharacteristics are as follows:

General negative density or opacity to light.

Image highlights or areas of greatest density.

The shadows or areas of least density.

Contrast or the differences between highlight andshadow densities.

Tonal gradation or the range of grays between thehighlights and the shadows.

Graininess or the appearance of silver grains in anegative that have clumped together. The size of theclumps determines the degree of graininess in theprocessed material.

All the basic characteristics of a negative areaffected to some extent by a combination of exposure

and development. By studying these characteristics, youcan usually determine the cause of an error or poorquality in a negative.

DENSITY

Density determines how much of the incident lightfalling upon a negative passes through the image. Whena small amount of silver is present in the negative, theimage appears thin (transparent), and it has low density.When there is a large amount of silver present, only asmall amount of light passes through the image, and thenegative is said to have high density.

A low density, thin negative can be caused byunderexposure or underdevelopment or by acombination of the two. A heavy or dense negative is theresult of either overexposure or overdevelopment or acombination of the two.

HIGHLIGHTS

The highlights, or dark areas, of a negative for mostpurposes should not lack detail. When detail is lackingbecause the highlights are too dark, the highlights aretoo dense or blocked up. Excessive highlight density iscaused by overexposure and/or overdevelopment.When both the highlights and the shadow areas are toothin and lack detail, the negative is probablyunderexposed. Thin highlights are caused byunderexposure and/or underdevelopment.

This may seem like a repetition of the previousdiscussion on density. However, a negative could andmay have overall good density except in the highlightareas. This situation is a result of exposure latitude thatis not great enough for the scene brightness range.

SHADOWS

The shadows, or the more clear areas of thenegative, also should contain image detail. If these areasare so thin and weak that they are transparent or nearlyso, the shadow areas are said to be lacking in detail. Lossof shadow detail is caused normally by underexposure.

The need for detail in both the highlights and theshadows for photographs of most subjects cannot bestressed too strongly. One is as important as the other inthe production of good photographs.

CONTRAST

Contrast is the difference in density between thehighlights and the shadows in a negative. When this

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difference is great, the negative is said to be contrasty.When the density difference is small, the negative is saidto be flat or lacking in contrast.

For a negative to have normal contrast, the densitydifferences between the highlight and shadow areas ofthe negative must be proportional to the reflectivebrightness range of the subject photographed

A contrasty negative usually is the result ofoverdevelopment but also may be caused by a highscene lighting ratio (a contrasty original scene). A flatnegative, on the other hand, may be caused, primarily,by underdevelopment or a low-contrast original scene.

TONAL GRADATION

Photographers often concentrate on the density anddetail of highlights and shadows when they shouldactually be considering the most important or middletones of the negative. Middle tones are the various tonesof gray between the highlights and the shadows; that is,the densities that are not highlights or shadows aretermed middle tones or intermediate tones. The middletones vary with the type of film and the subject contrast.A negative should have a range of middle tone densitiesthat correspond proportionally to the middle reflectivebrightness of the subject. A panchromatic negative thatdoes not have proportionate midtones is contrasty orflat.

GRAININESS

Because photographic images made from film aremade up of fine silver grains, the images may appear“grainy” or exhibit graininess (fig. 10-22).

All negatives show graininess to some extent. Themost important factors affecting negative graininess areas follows:

The composition of the emulsion or the inherentgraininess of the emulsion. That is to say, the size of thegrains used to produce the emulsion.

The type of developer used. When fine grain isdesired, a fine-grain developer with the appropriate filmshould be used.

The extent of development. Overdevelopment isa major cause of excessive graininess.

Exposure or negative density. Overexposure isanother key contributor to graininess. As negativedensity increases, so does graininess.

Figure 10-22.–Grain structures in emulsions.

Image sharpness. The sharper the film image, thegreater the image detail and the less apparent thegraininess.

EFFECTS OF EXPOSURE ANDDEVELOPMENT VARIATIONS

The nine negatives reproduced in figure 10-23compare the effects of exposure and developmentvariations. From the left, they show the effects ofdevelopment; from the top, they show the effects ofexposure. The center negative has been given bothcorrect exposure and normal development and is a“normal” negative that will print without a filter or witha No. 2 filter.

Negatives 1, 4, and 7 have been underdeveloped,while 3, 6 and 9 have been overdeveloped.

The negatives across the top-1, 2, and 3-areunderexposed and lack detail in the shadow areas.Increasing development (No. 3) had no appreciableeffect on the lack of shadow detail. Little can be done toimprove negative quality when exposure is insufficient.Underexposure is identified by lack of shadow detail.

The negatives across the center-4, 5, and 6-weregiven correct exposure and all have sufficient shadowdetail. However, No. 4 was underdeveloped and is flator lacks adequate contrast. Negative No. 5 receivednormal development, has good shadow detail, and goodcontrast. It is a “normal” negative. Negative No. 6,although having received correct exposure, wasoverdeveloped. This resulted in excessive highlightdensity with a loss of highlight detail and excessivecontrast. The highlights in both 6 and 9 are too dense.

Negatives 3, 6, and 9 are all overdeveloped. Thecorrectly exposed negative, No. 6, is so dense thatalmost no detail is visible in the highlights. Thehighlights of the overexposed and overdevelopednegative, No. 9, are completely blocked up.

When a correctly exposed film is given normaldevelopment as in negative No. 5, the negative has

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303.43Figure 10-23.–Exposure and processing affects.

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clearly defined detail in all parts of the image from thestrongest highlights to the weakest shadows. Thecontrast is satisfactory. It may not reproduce the contrastof the original scene exactly, but it has sufficient contrastto produce a pleasing reproduction.

When the film is overexposed and normallydeveloped, as in No. 8, the highlights in the image showa loss of detail. Giving the overexposed film less than

normal development may save some highlight detail,but it also reduces the contrast. When the overexposedfilm is overdeveloped, as No. 9 was, all highlight detailis destroyed and the contrast is also reduced.

Table 10-1 is a listing of defects that commonlyoccur in film processing. The appearance, the cause, andthe remedy for each of the defects listed are alsoprovided.

Table 10-1.–Negative Defects: Their Appearance, Cause, and Remedy

Defect Appearance Cause Remedy

Abrasionmarks orstreaks.

Fine black lines, usuallyresembling pencil scratchesand running in the samedirection.

Friction on emulsion caused by Great care should beimproper handling or storage. Dirt, taken in storage of film.or grime, in camera or magazine. Boxes containing film

should be stored onend, so no pressure isexerted on the surfaceof the emulsion. Care,also, should be takennot to rub or dragsensitized material overa rough surface. Besure camera back ormagazine is clean andfree from dirt, or grime.

Air bubbles. An air bubble occurring Transparent spots occurring in the Immerse film carefullyduring development shows developer are caused by bubbles and thoroughly inas a small, transparent spot. of air on the surface of the developing and fixingSometimes minute dark emulsion. These prevent the solutions. Move filmstreaks lead from the spot. developer from coming into during developmentWhen the negative is rocked contact with the emulsion. and fixation to break upin a tray, streaks project from Darkened streaks are the result of and prevent air bells.each side of the spot in the excess oxidation of the developer, Water always containsdirection the tray was caused by air in a bubble. Dark some air and whenrocked. If the tray is rocked spots that occur in the fixing bath there is a rise inin two directions, streaks are caused by a pocket of air temperature, air isform a cross with a holding the fixer away from the expelled and gathers intransparent spot in the center. emulsion and allowing a slight the form of smallIn tank development. dark continuation of development. bubbles on the inside ofstreaks usually form at the the tank and also on thelower edge of the transparent surface of the filmspot. In the fixing bath they during preliminaryshow as small, round, dark stages of development.spots.

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Table 10-1.–Negative Defects: Their Appearance, Cause, and Remedy-Continued

Defect

Blisters.

Appearance Cause Remedy

They resemble the familiar Liquid or gas formed between the Blisters can be avoidedones that are caused by slight emulsion and film support when by eliminating theirbums on human skin. the solution has become too warm causes.

and has loosened the gelatin fromits support. Also, produced bydeveloper and fixer being toostrongly concentrated. Changingfilm from one bath to the next maycause the formation of gasbetween the emulsion and sup-port. Frequently caused by takingthe film from an alkali solutionand placing it into a strong acid.Another common cause isallowing water from a faucet toflow directly on the emulsion.

Brown spots. Small brown- or Produced by oxidized developer or Avoid exhausted orsepia-colored areas or spots by fine particles of chemicals oxidized developer.on the negative. settling on the film before Keep processing room

development. May also occur clean and free from dryduring washing, from rust, and chemicals. Filter theother impurities in the water. wash water.

Crystalline Surface of the negative Insufficient washing after fixing. Increase the final washsurface. emulsion has a crystalline Hypo remains in the film and time.

appearance, resembling frost crystallizes.on a windowpane.

Dark lines. These lines are divided into The first class is caused by For the first class, moretwo distinct classes. The first insufficient agitation of the frequent agitationclass, those that run from negative in tank development. during development.dark areas to more Cause of the second class is The remedy for thistransparent areas of the thought to be of an electrolytic class aggravates thenegative, and the second origin. defect in the secondclass, those that run from the class. Only knownmore transparent areas to the remedy is to remove alldarker areas. In both cases, film hangers from thelines are wider, not as clean tank four or five timescut, and not nearly as parallel during the developingas abrasion marks. period, holding the

hangers in a bunch, andallowing the corners ofthe hangers to rest onthe edge of thedeveloping tank for 10to 15 seconds.

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Table 10-1.–Negative Defects Their Appearance, Cause, and Remedy-Contiuued

Defect Appearance Cause Remedy

Fadingtendency.

Sepia- or yellow-colored Incomplete fixation or insufficient Properly fix and washstains or areas in the negative. washing causes fading. Remnants negatives.

of the fixing bath left in theemulsion continues its action, andin time, this defect appears.

Fingermarks. Imprint of fingers shows up Impressing wet or greasy fingers Keep hands clean andon negative. on the emulsion of film before or dry when handling

during development and fixation. film. Sometimes naturalIf mark is merely an outline of the oil on the fingertipsfinger, it was caused by water or causes grease marks.grease on the finger; if dark, it was When fingers becomecaused by developer; if transparent wet with water oror light, it was caused by fixer. solutions, wash and dry

thoroughly beforeattempting to handlefilm.

Fog (Aerial). A slight veiling of the Negative exposed to air duringnegative or parts of the development. Occurs mostnegative. frequently in freshly mixed

developers.

Fog(Dichroic).

Usually a fog of little density, Hypo or excessive amount of Removed by treatingconsisting of finely divided sulfite in the developer. the negative in a weakparticles of silver. When solution of potassiumviewed by transmitted light, permanganate. Furtherit is pinkish; when viewed by prevention through usereflected light, it appears of clean tanks forreddish green. developer and fixer.

Frilling. Edges of the gelatin becomedetached from the base.Detached edge of emulsionmay either break off or foldover.

Careless handling; using solutions Handle film carefullythat are too warm; insufficient and sparingly; usehardening of emulsion due to working solutions thatinsufficient fixation; exhausted are mixed correctly andfixing bath or one containing are at the properinsufficient amount of hardener; or temperature. Wash filmexcessive washing. Frilling is sufficiently, but neverusually caused by a combination excessively.of careless handling and any othermistake that will render theemulsion or film soft.

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Table 10-1.–Negative Defects Their Appearance, Cause, and Remedy–Continued

Defect Appearance

Air bubbles. Minute pimples or blisters.

Cause

Develop by transferring thenegative from strongly

Remedy

Use an acid stop bath.

concentrated developer to stronglyacid fixing bath withoutthoroughly rinsing after removingit from the developer and beforeimmersing it in the fixing bath. Inwarm weather, air bubbles mayappear even when using solutionof normal strength, if rinsingbetween development and fixationhas been insufficient.

Pitmarks. Fine holes or pits in emulsion. Excessive alum in fixing bath; Proper fixing andsulfurous precipitation from fixing drying.bath when negatives are fixed in atray; and film being dried toorapidly.

Pinholes. Minute transparent spots. Dust on film before exposure. Proper handling offilm. Clean cameraback or film holdersbefore use.

Reticulation. Leatherlike graininess or Too great of a difference in the Keep all solutions at thewrinkling of the emulsion. temperature of baths or between same temperature.

final wash water and the air in Reticulation effect maywhich the negative is dried. sometimes be removedGelatin may become badly by placing the negativeswollen due to the temperature of in a10-percent solutiona solution or wash water, and upon of formaldehyde for ashrinking, contracts irregularly few minutes and thendue to the metallic silver drying it rapidly withincorporated in the emulsion. heat. Use ampleExcessive softening of the ventilation when dryingemulsion followed by a strong negatives treated inhardening bath, or an alkaline formaldehyde.treatment followed by strong acid.

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Table 10-1.-Negative Defects: Their Appearance, Cause, and Remedy-Continued

Defect Appearance Cause Remedy

Streaks. Streaks and patches. In thecase of spots, may be dark,white, or transparent.

May be due to unevendevelopment, caused byinsufficient agitation. May also bedue to developer splashed on thefilm before development, a dirtytank, fixer tray or tank used fordeveloping, or a light fog. If theedges of the film are clear, troubleis in the camera; if the edges arefogged, it is due to a light leak inthe film magazine or processingtank. Certain types of resinouswoods and varnishes cause darkpatches. White or transparentpatches may be due toobstructions in the camera thatprevented light from acting on thefilm; an oil or grease thatprevented action of the developer;hypo on film before development.Drying marks in the form ofteardrops or white patches arecaused by splashes of water on adry negative or by leaving spots ofwater on the film before drying,especially if the film is dried inwarm air.

Trace the cause of thestreaks. In many cases,they can be avoided inthe operation andmaintenance ofequipment. Whendrying negatives, besure to use wettingagent or stabilizer.

PROCESS MONITORING

To consistently produce the highest qualityphotographic products possible and to prevent chemicalprocessing defects, you must monitor the photographicprocesses. From a hand-processing system to asophisticated, computerized processing system, processmonitoring is necessary to achieve high quality on aconsistent basis. When it is performed routinely, processmonitoring can detect minor problems before a majorcasualty to your imagery results as well as aid in theproper replenishment of your processing system.

The area of quality control and process monitoringcan be very complex. Some Navy Photographer's Matesearn an NEC and specialize in the field of quality controlfor photographic processes. It is not the intention of thistraining manual to provide you with the informationnecessary to become a specialist in photographic quality

control; however, you must learn the appropriate stepsto monitor the process.

The production of high-quality photographicproducts requires control over all the factors that affectlight-sensitive materials. Film exposure and processingare the most important of these factors. Negatives orpositives that have not been uniformly and correctlyexposed and processed may provide unusable results.By monitoring the process and providing high-qualityproducts, you can save time and operating costs byreducing waste and retakes.

Any monitoring system for the photographicprocess requires a reference or standard, andcomparison of daily production to this standard. Visualcomparison of the reference to the standard is verysubjective and limited in accuracy because of personalopinion. A more accurate method is to measure yourproduction against the standard. Two means of making

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Figure 10-24.–EG&G sensitometer.

Courtesy of EG&G, Inc.302.288X

these measurements are through sensitometry anddensitometry. When sensitometry and densitometry areused, variations from the standard and the correctionsrecommended are expressed in numbers, not in terms ofpersonal opinion.

SENSITOMETRY

Sensitometry is the science of determining thephotographic characteristics of light-sensitivematerials. In sensitometry, special test or control stripsare prepared by accurately exposing the material withvarying amounts of light. These test strips are thenprocessed.

A sensitometer is an instrument used to produce thespecial test strips called sensitometric strips. Asensitometer is used to produce these sensitometricstrips because it provides consistent and repeatableexposures of a known quantity and quality of light. Thesensitometer is used to expose a strip of film withvarying amounts of known exposure on the same stripof film. Since the sensitometer provides repeatableexposures each time, any changes in density indicates achange in processing. In Navy photography, thesensitometer is used to expose black-and-whitematerials only. There are several uses for sensitometric

strips; but in this training manual, we are only concernedwith monitoring a process. Here the sensitometric stripsare used as control strips. Control strips are made andprocessed under the controlled conditions of time,temperature, and agitation. This is true for bothblack-and-white and color materials. Black-and-whitecontrol strips are usually made in the photo lab, whilecolor control strips are obtained by the manufacturer ofeach material.

Ideally, a sensitometer should be designed so youcan accomplish the following objectives:

1. Predetermine the total amount of exposure.

2. Determine the difference in exposures given tovarious areas.

3. Control the color quality of the light.

4. Consistently reproduce or duplicate the samelighting conditions.

5. Provide a wide range of exposures.

The sensitometer used most commonly in the Navytoday is the Egerton, Germeshausen, and Grier (EG&G)sensitometer (fig. 10-24). This sensitometer uses a

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Figure 10-26.–Densitometer with both transmission and reflectioncapabilities.

Figure 10-25.–Step tablets.

daylight balanced xenon flashtube. It can also produceexposure times from 1/100 to 1/10,000 second.

Step Tablets

A sensitometer is set up to make only one exposure.In order to provide a range of exposures, a step tablet isplaced between the light source and the light-sensitivematerial. The step tablet is a strip of neutral-densityfilters in equal increments, ranging from 0.05 to 3.05.This range provides a 10 f/stop range. The most commonstep tablets are as follows (fig. 10-25):

1. 21-step tablet-1/2 f/stop between eachincrement.

2. 11-step tablet-1 full f/stop between eachincrement.

Courtesy of X-Rite, Inc.302.339X

Control Strips

A sensitometric control strip should be processed asa minimum-at the beginning of a production day (orshift), before any production is processed, and beforeshutdown. You should process a control strip just beforean important mission, or a special-interest film isprocessed.

To expose and process a control strip, you shouldtake the following steps:

1. Take the film (in a lighttight container) and place

2. Turn on the sensitometer and allow it to warm

3. Turn off the room lights.

4. Place the film emulsion-side down on the

5. When hand processing or using a rotary tube

6. When a roller transport processor is used, check

7. Stick the film into the processor so the lightly

it next to the sensitometer.

up for a minimum of 15 seconds.

sensitometer and lower the platen to make yourexposure.

type of processor, load the control strip on thereel. When machine processing, replace the filmin a lighttight container. Turn on the room lightsand turn off the sensitometer.

the speed, temperatures, and the properoperation of all systems.

exposed end of the film enters the machine first.When hand processing or using a rotary tubetype of processor, process normally.

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302.290Figure 10-27.–Control strips read from center of each step with emulsion facing up.

DENSITOMETRY

A densitometer is an instrument used for measuringand reading the density of film and paper directly. Filmis read on a transmission densitometer, and paper is readon a reflection densitometer. Most densitometerssupplied by the Navy today have both transmission andreflection reading capabilities on the same meter (fig.10-26).

A densitometer uses a photoelectric cell to measurethe light transmitted through film or reflected frompaper electronically. Before a densitometer can be used,it must be checked and calibrated against a referencestandard. To use the meter, you must place the materialto be measured, emulsion-side up, in the light beambetween the source and the photocell. The densityreading is then read directly from the meter.

There are several sets of filters incorporated in thehead of the densitometer. When you are readingblack-and-white materials, the yellow filter must be inplace. When color materials are read, there are twodifferent sets of filters that are used. They are Status Aand Status M filters. Status A filters are used to readcolor transparencies and prints. Status M is used to readcolor negative film that has an orange mask

Only certain steps of the control strip are read. Thesteps that you are required to read are established by themanufacturer of the material or are established by thequality control technician within your imaging facility.When you are reading the steps on your control strip, besure that the emulsion side is facing up and take thereading from the center area of each step (fig. 10-27).

PROCESS CONTROL CHARTS

A process control chart provides a visualrepresentation of a process. Control strips that areprocessed and read on a densitometer are then plottedon a control chart. The points plotted on the graphindicate what has occurred in the process at the time thecontrol strip was processed. Through the use of controlcharts, a determination can be make whether the processis operating normally. As stated before, only selectedsteps of a control strip are monitored. For black-and-white film, the minimum steps monitored are asfollows: base plus fog (B + F) or gross fog, high density,low density, speed point, and contrast.

For each step monitored on a control chart, there arethree lines. The center line represents the mean (X)(pronounced “bar X”), or average, a top line thatrepresents the upper control limit (UCL), and a bottomline that represents the lower control limit (LCL).

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Figure 10-28.–Process control chart.

Refer to figure 10-28. For example purposes only, B+F is 0.12.the following steps are monitored and plotted on acontrol chart below. The steps being monitored are asfollows:

High density (HD) is step 17 and reads 1.20.

Low density (LD) is step 6 and reads 0.60.

Speed point (SP) is step 4 and reads 0.23.

When plotting a control strip, you should alwaysannotate the date and the time the control strip wasprocessed. When all points plot within the upper andlower control limits, the film can be processed. Whenany point plots outside the upper control limit (UCL) orlower control limit (LCL), the process is out of control.You should notify your supervisor before processingany material through that particular process.

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CHAPTER 11

BLACK-AND-WHITE PRINTING

In photography, printing is the term used to describethe process of making positive images from negatives(and in some instances, from film positives). The mostfamiliar example is the print made on a paper base. Aphotographic print is made by passing light through thenegative onto a piece of paper coated with alight-sensitive emulsion, very similar to film.

The two primary methods of making photographicprints are contact printing and projection printing.The principal difference in the two methods is themethod of exposing the paper. In contact printing, thepaper is physically in contact with the negative; whilein projection printing, the paper is separated from thenegative, and the image of the negative is projected ontothe paper by a lens. Because projection printing isusually used to produce an enlarged image, it isgenerally referred to as enlarging. Contact printingproduces positive images that are the same size as thenegative images. Enlarging usually produces positiveimages that are larger than the negative image; however,because optics are used in projection printing, the imageformed on the paper can also be made smaller or thesame size as the negative image.

The quality of the photograph can be varied duringprinting through the choice of printing material,exposure, and processing. In printing, some negativedefects may be compensated for, thereby eliminating thereproduction of the defect in the print.

A well-planned, black-and-white or print roomshould have at least the following material andequipment arranged properly so the flow of work moveseasily from one stage to another:

A contact and/or projection printer (enlarger)

A sink large enough to accommodate the largesttrays used in the print room

Safelights

A set of print trays

A graduate

A thermometer

Print tongs

A wall clock with a second hand

Hand towels

Photographic printing papers are predominantlyblue and green sensitive and may be processed under theappropriate safelight conditions. Consult the data sheetpackaged with the paper you are using or thePhoto-Lab-Index for the recommended safelight.

A minimum of three trays are needed for handprocessing prints. The trays should be arranged in thesink from left to right-one each for developer, stop bath,and fixing bath. The ideal setup has five trays-one eachfor developer, stop bath, first fixer, second fixer, and awater rinse. This setup saves chemicals and results inbetter fixing of prints.

The chemistry used to develop and fix prints issimilar to and serves the same purposes as filmprocessing. When processing conditions are controlledcarefully, the processing specifications recommendedby manufacturers for their printing papers can be usedto provide excellent and consistent results.

The print developer used most commonly in Navyimaging facilities is the llford Multigrade developer.The recommended tray processing developing timesvary with the type of paper and developer being used.With the developer at 68°F, resin-coated paperdevelopment is complete in about 2 minutes. The imageappears in about 30 seconds. Because developer isincorporated in the paper, the useful capacity of 1 gallonof Ilford Multigrade developer (diluted 1:9) is about 4008x10 prints, or equivalent.

Any standard stop bath serves sufficiently. A stopbath may be used at all times, but it is necessary whenprocessing a large number of prints; furthermore, the useof a stop bath after development prolongs the life of thefixing bath. If no acid is available for a stop bath, a waterrinse should be used after the developer.

A standard fixing bath should be used to fix theprints. Consult the Photo-Lab-Index for the variousprepared chemicals available for fixing prints. Followthe manufacturer’s instructions when fixing printsbecause there are adverse effects in over-fixation as wellas underfixation. Overfixation tends to produce thinning

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Figure 11-1.–Proof printer.303.46

or bleaching of the photographic image. Underfixationcauses the image to darken with time.

WARNING

Never dump fixer down the drain. Disposeof all chemicals according to the localinstructions of your imaging facility.

In this chapter, the procedures and techniques forproducing black-and-white positive paper prints fromblack-and-white negatives are discussed. Keep in mindthat the procedures and techniques provided are thebasics for printing color negatives and positives toproduce color prints as well as making duplicateblack-and-white film positives.

CONTACT PRINTING

A contact print is produced when you expose a sheetof photographic printing paper through a negative withthe paper emulsion and the emulsion side of the negativein contact with each other. Light is directed through thenegative which controls the amount of light transmittedto the paper. The dense areas of the negative pass less

light than do the more clear or less dense areas. Theimage densities formed (after development) in theemulsion of the paper make a positive print thatrepresents the tonal values of the original subject. Sincethe paper is in direct contact with the negative, the printproduced is exactly the same image size as the negative.

When you are making a print from a negative by thismethod, only a 1:1 ratio is obtainable, but contactprinting is generally a more rapid means of makingprints than enlarging.

The quality of contact prints usually surpasses thatof enlargements because there is no scattering of theimage-forming light; however, with the ever-increasinguse of small film format sizes and since only same-sizeprints can be made by contacting, enlarging has, for themost part, replaced contact printing in the Navy exceptfor making proof prints.

CONTACT PRINTERS

Contact printing is the quickest, simplest, and mosteconomical method of producing photographic prints.For making proof prints and small volume printing, alla “contact printer” needs is a sheet of glass, a light

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Figure 11-2.–Contact printing arrangement.

source, and some sort of padding. For large volume andfine printing control, a specially designed andconstructed contact printer is used

Glass and Pad

For you to make contact proof sheets and anoccasional contact print job, only a glass and asupporting pad are necessary. “Contact printers,”consisting of a sheet of glass hinged to a metal frameand a pad assembly, are generally known as proofprinters (fig. 11-1). When such a device is not availableor is not large enough for the negatives to be contactprinted, a piece of 1/4-inch plate glass and soft padding(such as a rubber typewriter pad) can be used.Quarter-inch plate glass is heavy enough to keep thenegatives and paper flat and in contact during exposure.The glass must be free of flaws, scratches, bubbles, anddirt. For color contact printing, the glass should be waterwhite or crystal grade; otherwise, filtration is requiredto overcome the color tint of the glass. The edges of theglass should be beveled and the corners slightly roundedor taped. This is a safety measure to prevent cuts whenthe glass is being handled.

The pad should be at least as large as the glass. Thepad provides a cushioned surface to press the paper andnegative together under pressure from the glass.

To use either the proof printer or the glass and padto make contact prints, you should place the printingpaper emulsion side up on the pad material. Thenegatives are then placed emulsion side down on thepaper and the glass is positioned on top. Then turn on

303.47Figure 11-3.–Using an enlarger as a light source for contact

printing.

the exposing light (fig. 11-2). This, of course, is done inthe darkroom under suitable safelight illumination.

Adequate pressure must be kept on the negative andprint paper so their entire surfaces are in contact duringthe exposure. Any separation between the negative andthe paper results in an unsharp point in the image.

The light source may be any controlled lamp forprinting with a proof printer or glass and pad. Anoverhanging light bulb or a safelight, with the filterremoved, connected to a timer is a convenientarrangement. In most Navy imaging facility printrooms, an enlarger is used as the light source (fig. 11-3).

Contact Printer

For large volume contact printing, a contact printeris more convenient. A contact printer is basically a boxwith exposing lights, safelights, and viewing lightsinside with a glass top. It has a hinged pressure cover tohold the negative and paper in contact during exposure.Switches on the printer control the lights in the printeror the printer may have a built-in timer. Also, the contactprinter may be connected to an external timer.

Contact printers are all built around the same basicidea. However, consult the manufacturer’s instructions

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that accompany the contact printer for specific operatinginstructions.

A useful feature on contact printers is an adjustablemasking device. This device is attached to the printer soit fits snugly over the printing glass. The mask consistsof thin metal leaves used to “frame” the negative. Theseblades make it possible for the prints to have whiteborders or margins. To produce prints with whiteborders when using printers that are not equipped witha masking device, you can use hand-cut masks fromthin, black paper.

The basic steps necessary for you to produce a printwhen using a contact printer are as follows:

Place the negative emulsion side up on theprinting glass.

Place the paper emulsion side down over thenegative.

Bring the platen or pressure cover down into theprinting position.

Turn the printing light(s) on for the requiredexposure time.

Release the platen, and process the paper.

When you are viewing the negative under a whitelight, it has a shiny side and a dull side. The shiny sideis the film base; the dull side is the emulsion side. Asimilar examination of photographic paper under asafelight shows that the paper has a shiny side and a dullside. In this case, the shiny side is the emulsion side; thedull side is the paper support. Photographic papernormally has a slight curl toward the emulsion side,although this is not true in all cases.

To make contact prints, you must place the dull sideof the negative in contact with the shiny side of thepaper; that is, they must be emulsion to emulsion. If thenegative base is in contact with the paper emulsion, thephotograph will be reversed. In some cases, such areversal in the print is not easily seen, but it becomesstrikingly clear when there are letters or numbers in thepicture.

CONTACT PRINTING PROCEDURE

Check the lamp to be sure it is operating properly.Rinse the trays with fresh water, and prepare thedeveloping, stop bath, and fixing solutions. The traysshould be larger than the prints to be produced, and oneof the largest or deepest trays available should be usedfor the fixing bath.

303.48Figure 11-4.–Black tape used as paper stops.

When the solutions are ready, rinse and dry yourhands. A supply of printing paper should be availableand conveniently located near the printer. Place anempty paper box or paper safe near the printer if theprints are not to be processed after each is exposed. Holdthe paper in the paper box or paper safe until the paperis ready to be processed. If the paper is not stored in apaper box or paper safe, it will eventually fog even undersafelight conditions.

Masking the Negative

When contact prints require white borders, sometype of mask is needed to prevent the printing light fromexposing the edges of the printing paper. When theprinter is not equipped with a masking device, make amask to fit the negative. (Usually proof prints do notrequire masking.) The material used for masks shouldbe opaque and not much thicker than typing paper. Whenthe masking material is too thick it causes a distinctblurring along the edges of the print image.

Some type of guideline or paper stop is useful whenplaced at one end and one side of the mask opening. Thepaper stop forms a square-corner guide for alignment ofthe printing paper. The paper guide helps you to placethe paper evenly and parallel with the opening in themask, and it helps keep the borders even on the print(fig. 11-4). The corner guide or stops can be quite thickwithout causing poor contact between the negative andthe printing paper during exposure. Some printers areequipped with metal strips, so you can mask thenegatives by setting the strips to frame the negative.

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The negative and printing glass must be cleanedbefore you place the negative on the printer. Place thenegative emulsion-side up on the printing glass andarrange them under the mask until the desiredcomposition is obtained. When you must make morethan one print from the same negative, tape the negative(at the corners only) to the printing glass. If the negativeis completely taped down, air can be trapped between itand the glass. When the platen or pressure cover ismoved into the printing position, the air does not escape.This results in an unsharp print. When you use ahand-cut mask, tape the mask to the glass along one edgebefore positioning the negative.

Printing Filter Selection

The first requirement for you to make a good printis a clean negative. The negative must then be examinedto determine the contrast (flat, normal, or contrasty) andthe approximate exposure time required to produce aquality print. As a beginning darkroom worker, you maynot be able to make these determinations accurately;however, in a short time and with a little experience, youshould overcome any trouble.

In analyzing a negative to determine the mostsuitable printing filter, be careful not to confuse contrastwith density. When in doubt, make test prints. If the testprint is contrasty, you should make another test printwith a lower numbered filter to lower the contrast. If theoriginal test print lacks contrast, change to a filter witha higher number to increase the contrast. This is a goodtime to review the information on printing filters andprinting papers in chapters 2 and 3.

Test Print

The printing exposure is the operation most likelyto cause trouble for an inexperienced darkroomtechnician. Unlike most films that can tolerate someoverexposure and underexposure and still yield usablephotographs, printing papers must be exposed correctlyto produce good prints.

Experience and familiarity with printing equipmentdoes help; but for a beginner, the correct exposure forprints from most negatives is best determined by makingtest prints.

The factors that affect exposure are as follows:

The intensity of the printing lights

The distance between the printing lightsand the printing glass

The sensitivity of the printing paper

The density of the negative

The first three factors are standardized and,therefore, eliminated as variables by using the contactprinter and by printing with the same type of paper. Theonly remaining variable is negative density. You candetermine negative density by making a few testexposures. The exposure time for a negative of averagedensity may be about 1 to 3 seconds. When the negativeis large, avoid the expensive and wasteful temptation ofusing a whole sheet of paper; instead, use a strip about2 inches wide and as long as the negative for the testexposure. For example, an 8x10 sheet of paper can becut into three or four small strips.

After you have determined the filter and thetest-exposure time, set the timer accordingly. Place thepaper test strip over the negative in the printing position.Place the test strip on the negative so the test exposureincludes some highlights, midtones, and shadow areas.Hold the paper in position with one hand and lower theplaten. As soon as the platen grips the edge of the paper,move your hand away. When the platen is fully lowered,turn on the printing lights for the test-exposure time.

When the test strip has been exposed, develop it forthe recommended time. If the image is too dark, theexposure was too long. If the image is too light, theexposure was too short.

It is difficult for even an experienced photographerto judge the contrast of an under- or overexposed printthat has been under or overexposed. Before attemptingto judge the contrast of a print, you must change theexposure until the proper density is reached. A normallyexposed print develops gradually, but steadily-shadowsfirst, then midtones, and finally highlights. The imageshould appear in about 30 seconds, providing thedeveloper is at the proper strength and temperature. Ifthe image develops very quickly with a general mottling,it is overexposed and the next test should be given lessexposure. An overexposed print develops in a very shorttime, and the common temptation is to “pull” (remove)it from the developer. This prevents the image fromgetting too dark, but results in a flat, muddy, uneven,tone image. On the other hand, when the recommendeddevelopment does not produce a print of the properdensity after 2 minutes, the print is underexposed. Afteryou have successfully exposed and processed a fewprints, you will rapidly gain enough experience toestimate, closely, the density of negatives for contactprinting exposures.

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PH2 Noel R. Guest303.49

Figure 11-5.–A processed test strip used to determine exposure.

When a change in exposure time does not producea print of good contrast, a different printing filter isneeded. When a properly exposed and developed testprint lacks clean highlights and shadows, try a highernumber of printing filter. When the print is mainly blackand white with few middle tones, use a lower numberfilter. Once you have produced a satisfactory test print,you can make the production prints from that negative.

If you use a printing frame (glass and pad or proofprinter) to make contact prints, the most convenient andeconomical way to determine exposure and correctcontrast is to expose the test strip in progressive steps ofsay 2, 4, 6, and 8 seconds. You do this by holding anopaque card on top of the glass and covering threequarters of the paper and exposing one quarter of thepaper for 2 seconds. Then move the card to cover onehalf of the paper and give it an additional exposure of 2seconds. Move the card so it covers one quarter of thepaper and give it another 2 seconds of exposure. Finally,remove the card and give the entire sheet one lastexposure of 2 seconds. This shows a distinct progressionof exposures of 2, 4, 6, and 8 seconds (fig. 11-5).Develop the test strip normally. To determine the correctexposure, you must examine the test print under whitelight.

When the correct exposure appears to be betweentwo steps, the required exposure can usually beestimated with some accuracy; however, additional testprints may be needed.

After the exposure time and contrast for onenegative have been determined by tests, other negativesof similar density and contrast can be given the samefiltration and exposure as a starting point. At first,negatives with widely differing contrast and densityrequire test prints. With experience, you can judge mostnegatives without resorting to test prints.

Exposing and Processing Prints

When a test print develops in the recommendedtime, rinse it in the stop bath, immerse it in the fixingbath for about 30 seconds, rinse it in fresh water, andinspect it carefully under white light. When the densityand contrast of the image look correct under white light,make your first “straight print.”

Place the sheet of printing paper, emulsion-sidedown, over the negative in the printing position byaligning the edges of the paper with the paper stops onthe mask (if a mask is used). With one hand, hold thepaper in the printing position with one hand to keep it

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from slipping out of place when the platen first pressesagainst the edge of the paper, and start the printing cycleas described previously. After the printing cycle iscompleted, remove the paper for processing. Anynumber of duplicate prints can be made by repeating theprinting cycle.

Drop the print, emulsion-side down, into thedeveloper. Immerse it immediately with a quick slidingmotion while pushing the print under the surface of thesolution. Grasp one edge of the print, lift it up, and turnit over. Replace the print emulsion up on the surface ofthe solution. Push the print under the surface again andleave it under during the remaining time in thedeveloping tray. The print must be immersed rapidly andevenly to prevent air bubbles from forming on theemulsion surface. Be sure that all the emulsion gets wetwith the developer in the shortest time. Agitate the printconstantly for the remaining developing time.

Each type of printing paper has its own workingcharacteristic. The main difference in each type is thelength of time required for the image to develop in agiven type and strength of developer. A correct print isone that develops to the proper density and contrast inthe recommended time. A print should be exposed so itreaches the proper density and contrast only with fulldevelopment; otherwise, the tone and appearance of theprint will be below acceptable standards. If the exposureis insufficient, the image does not develop to the desireddensity even with longer developing time. It appearspale and lacking in brilliance. Also, stains may occurwhen development is carried out too long. Paperdevelopers work more rapidly than those used for films;consequently, print immersion must be quick and even,and agitation should be constant.

When the print is fully developed, lift it out of thedeveloper, drain it momentarily, and place it in the stopbath. After about 5 seconds in the stop bath, lift the print,drain it briefly, and place it in the fixing bath. Agitate itin the fixing bath for a few seconds and examine it fordefects that might cause it to be discarded. When theinspection is completed, place it emulsion-side down inthe fixer and complete the fixing process. Follow themanufacturer’s instructions as to the required fixingtime. Fixing for Ilford Multigrade paper is completeafter about 30 seconds in fresh fixer.

Some papers have a tendency to float in the fixingbath, especially if the bath is mixed a little stronger thanusual. When prints float in the fixer, they should behandled constantly or turned facedown to prevent theemulsion from being exposed to the air. The parts of a

print exposed to the air during fixing may becomestained

Prints that float facedown should not createproblems except for the chance that air bubbles can betrapped under the prints. Air bubbles under a printproduce stains and must be prevented. By immersing theprints edgewise and facedown, you eliminate airbubbles.

CAUTION

Never attempt to work backwards throughthe sink-line process. A few drops of fixer onyour hands or from a print will contaminate thedeveloper.

Group Print Development

Several prints can be processed at one time,provided they are separated and agitated sufficientlyduring the process. Each entire print must be wetteduniformly by the solutions so all parts of each print areprocessed uniformly.

When you are processing several prints at one time,immerse them in the developer separately at regularintervals and, at the end of the proper developing time,remove the prints in the same order and at the sameregular intervals. To prevent the prints from stickingtogether, you should let each one be completelyimmersed before the next print is put in the developer.Agitation should be done by rotating the prints in thesolution. To do this, take each print, in turn, from thebottom of the tray and place it on top of the other prints.

As the prints reach full development, transfer themone by one to the stop bath. Treat them for 10 to 20seconds; then place them in the fixer and agitate eachprint to make sure none of them stick together.

After the prints are fixed, they must be washed anddried. The RC or polyethylene coating on paper preventsabsorption; therefore, they require a short wash time.Wash prints for 2 minutes in a good supply of runningwater to ensure they are completely free of chemicals.The water temperature should not be lower than 41°F(5°C). Prints may be dried in a print dryer designed forpolyethylene or RC papers not to exceed 190°F (68°C).Adjust the print dryer to the minimum temperaturerequired to dry the paper sufficiently. If the print dryeris too hot, the polyethylene coating on the paper willmelt. When a paper dryer is not available, remove theexcess water and dry the prints naturally at room

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Courtesy of Ilford Photo302.307X

Figure 11-6.–Ilford 2150 black-and-white paper processor.

temperature. The prints should be dry in 10 to 15minutes.

In the Navy today, most imaging facilities processprints through automatic processors (fig. 11-6). It isimportant for you to know how to processblack-and-white prints in trays, because not all of thesmall facilities have automatic machines. Like allmachines, automatic processors breakdown and requiremaintenance periodically.

When processing photographic prints through anautomatic processor, you feed the unprocessed print intothe machine; and within seconds, it exits the processorwashed and dried. Your hands never get wet, and youcan process a large number of prints rapidly. The twomost common black-and-white print processors used inthe Navy are manufactured by Ilford and Kodak.

When contact printing an entire roll of negativesthat are not consistent in exposure, it is necessary foryou to make more than one proof sheet from the sameset of negatives. Each sheet of paper should be exposedto print some of the negatives correctly on that roll. Theresult is a composite proof sheet where all the framesare readable. After all, a proof sheet is a tool to selectthe best frames for enlargement and delivery to therequester. The proof sheets can be stapled together for

filing. This is why, as a photographer, you should striveto expose each and every photograph correctly. Amateursnapshooters can shoot film with wildly varyingexposures; professional photographers cannot. A goodprint shows detail in both the highlights and theshadows.

Cleanliness is essential to produce good printsconsistently. Keep a supply of clean towels handy, andwash and dry your hands before handling paper andnegatives. Clean, dry fingers should touch only theextreme edges of the emulsion side of these papers.When developer is on your hands, dark fingerprintsshow on the print. Fixer produces white fingerprints.These fingerprints develop and show clearly on thefinished prints. You should use two print tongs–one forthe developer and one for the stop and fixing baths.

It is not economical to use minimum quantities ofdeveloper. Small quantities oxidize (turn brown) veryquickly. Oxidized solutions cannot produce clean,brilliant, pleasing photographs.

PROJECTION PRINTING

Projection printing is the process of making positiveprints by projecting the negative image ontophotosensitive paper. The projected image may be

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enlarged the same size as the negative image or reducedin size. When the print images are larger than thenegative images, the process is called enlarging. Whenthe print images are smaller than the negative images,the process is called reducing. Because projectionprinting is usually used to make positive prints withimages larger than the negative, projection printers arereferred to as enlargers. The term enlarging generallyrefers to all forms of projection printing.

Projection printing differs from contact printingbecause the negative is separated from the paper, andthe image is projected by a lens onto the sensitizedmaterial The negative is placed between an enclosedlight source and a lens. The lens receives the light thatpassed through the negative and projects the image ontothe paper. Changing the distance between the lens andthe paper controls the size of the image. The image isfocused on the paper by adjusting the distance betweenthe negative and the lens. You can enlarge or reduce thesize of the projected image by changing and adjustingthese distances.

Enlarging is a very adaptable and versatile process,because considerable image and exposure control canbe used. The main advantage of enlarging over contactprinting is large prints can be made, but there are severalother important advantages. The advantages ofprojection printing are as follows:

Cropping or selecting the main area of interest ina negative can be enlarged to any suitable size. Thisprovides an opportunity for you to eliminate unwantedand distracting elements from around the point ofinterest of the picture.

Dodging or burning in. This allows you to applylocal exposure control to bring out more detail in thehighlight and shadow areas.

Local fogging with a small external light, such asa penlight, to darken selected areas; for example, bydarkening the background of a portrait, you direct theviewer’s attention to the face.

Special effects can be performed, such aschanging the appearance of the image by use of diffusersor patterns between the lens and paper.

Image distortion correction or introduction canbe done by tilting the enlarger easel. (An easel is thedevice used to hold the paper during exposure.)

Figure 11-7.–Basic enlarger.

ENLARGERS

In general, all enlargers are similar in design andoperation. They have an enclosed light source, somemethod of providing an even distribution of light overthe negative, a negative carrier, a lens, a means ofadjusting the lens-to-negative and lens-to-paperdistances (fig. 11-7). The degree to which the image isenlarged can be referred to in terms of diameters; forexample, a two diameter or 2X enlargement is twice thelength and twice the width of the negative image, or fourtimes the area A three diameter or 3X enlargement isthree times the length and width of the negative image,or nine times the area.

Most enlargers have a tungsten lamp as a lightsource. The lamp is enclosed in a lighttight housing thatis ventilated to prevent excessive lamp heat fromdamaging the negative. Some enlargers have blowers tocirculate air and cool the inside of the lamp housing.

The negative carrier used in an enlarger may beeither a dustless type or a glass sandwich type. Thedustless type of carrier is made of two metal plates withan opening in the center large enough to hold thenegative. The negative is placed between these platesand held in position by its edges. This type of carrier isgood for negatives 4x5 or smaller, since these negativesare stiff enough to remain flat. The glass sandwich type

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Figure 11-8.–Condenser enlarger.

of carrier is a holder where the negative is placedbetween two sheets of glass. This type of holder is usedfor larger negatives since they have a tendency to sag inthe center when they are not supported by glass.

The lens used in an enlarger should have an angleof field large enough to cover the negative being printed.A lens with a focal length approximately equal to thediagonal of the largest negative to be printed providessufficient angle of field.

The bellows of an enlarger should be capable ofextending at least twice the focal length of the lens. Thisamount of bellows extension is necessary for making1:1 reproductions. Although it is possible to makereductions to any desired size, the bellows on mostenlargers cannot be extended far enough to makereductions smaller than 1:1. Smaller reductions can bemade by using a longer focal-length lens, but a bettermethod is to use a reducing attachment. A reducingattachment consists of a section of supplementarybellows fitted with a longer focal-length lens.

The systems used to distribute the light evenly overthe negative divide enlargers into three generaltypes–condenser, diffusion, and condenser-diffusionenlargers.

CONDENSER ENLARGERS

A condenser enlarger has a set of condensing lensesbetween the light source and the negative. Thecondensing lenses concentrate or focus the light from alight bulb and direct the light rays straight through thenegative to the lens (fig. 11-8).

Figure 11-9.–Diffusion enlarger.

The condenser lenses are a pair of planoconvexlenses mounted as a unit with their convex surfaces faceto face. A condenser enlarger produces a sharp, brilliantimage and produces higher contrast and detail thandiffusion enlargers. Negative defects and scratches aremore apparent in the print when made on a condenserenlarger.

The characteristics of a condenser enlarger are asfollows:

It produces maximum tone separation.

It is suitable for making prints to a high degreeof enlargement, because of its opticalcharacteristics.

It produces a higher image contrast with a givennegative than printing with a diffusion enlarger.

It is not recommended for negatives that havebeen retouched, because the edges and ridges ofthe retouched areas may print as dark lines.

It may be used to emphasize negative defects andsilver grain structure.

DIFFUSION ENLARGERS

A diffusion enlarger has a diffusion screen (usuallyground or optical glass) between the light source and thenegative. Light from the lamp, as well as the lightreflected from the reflector of the lamp housing, falls onthe diffuser that scatters the light. After the light passesthrough the diffuser, it travels in many directions whenit falls upon the negative (fig. 11-9).

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When a diffusion enlarger is used, negative defectsare not recorded as clearly in the print, compared tocondenser enlargers. There is an apparent overall“softening” of the image sharpness and a reduction inimage contrast.

Most of your negatives can he enlarged equally wellwith either a condenser or diffusion enlarger; however,for certain work the choice of enlarger may be animportant factor.

The characteristics of a diffusion enlarger are asfollows:

It should be used for printing negatives that havebeen retouched.

It subdues negative defects and grain.

It has less image contrast than that produced witha condenser enlarger.

It is not suitable for making large prints due tothe softness of the image produced.

Diffusion enlargers should be considered for use inportraiture and when the negatives have been retouched.

CONDENSER-DIFFUSION ENLARGERS

A condenser-diffusion enlarger or semidiffusionenlarger is a compromise between the two extremes ofcondenser and diffusion. A condenser-diffusion enlargeruses a diffusion (frosted) bulb and condensers, or adiffusion bulb with either a diffusing glass over thecondensers, or else one of the condensers itself acts asthe diffuser.

A condenser-diffusion enlarger has the advantagesof a diffusion enlarger to reduce the effects of negativedefects, silver grain structure and dust, and it also usesthe condenser system for speed and uniformity of light.

The enlargers in general use by most Navy imagingfacilities are the condenser-diffusion type. They usefrosted or diffusion bulbs with or without a diffusionscreen placed above the condensers.

ENLARGER LENSES

As with a camera, the lens of the enlarger is the heartand should be high quality and reasonably fast. It issenseless to buy high-quality lenses for the camera, thennullify the quality they provide with an inferiorenlarging lens; however, a quality camera lens is notsuitable for enlarging. Even a moderately good

Table 11-1.–Enlarging Lens Focal Lengths for Various NegativeSizes

Negative size Lens focal length35mm 50mm120 (2 1/4 x 2 1/4) (6x6cm) 75mm

120 (2 1/4 x 2 3/4) (6x7cm) 105mm

4 x 5 inch 135-150mm

enlarging lens is better for enlarging than most cameralenses.

The focal length you use with an enlarger should bebased on the size of the negative to be enlarged. (Seetable 1l-1.) Generally speaking, the focal length of theenlarging lens for a given negative size should be thesame as a normal-focal-length lens used by the camerafor the negative.

While it is not necessary for the lens to cover thefull area of the negative, the longer the lens focal length,the less magnification at a given lens-to-paper distance;therefore, you must have several lenses of various focallengths available for your enlargers when you want tomake large prints from small portions of your negatives.

Because an enlarger produces an image from a flatfield (the negative) onto a flat field (the paper), depth offield is not a factor, except when distortion control(discussed later) is used. An enlarger lens can usually beused at large f/stops; however, when an enlarger lens isused at its maximum aperture, there may be some falloffof light at the edges of the circle of illumination.Therefore, an enlarger lens is usually stopped down oneor two f/stops from wide open. Like a camera lens, whenan enlarger lens is used at very small apertures, there isa loss of image definition due to diffraction.

ENLARGING PROCEDURE

The darkroom design, the equipment, and thearrangement for enlarging are basically the same as forcontact printing. The safelights should be appropriatefor the type of paper being printed. The size of the printsmay require larger trays and greater amounts of solution,but they should be set up in the sink the same as forcontact printing.

To produce good enlargements, you need goodnegatives, a clean enlarger, clean printing filters, correctexposure and development, and careful processing andfinishing. Although most negatives can be printed byprojection, there are a few desirable characteristics. A

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good negative has normal density and contrast. It mustbe sharp and free from such defects as scratches,abrasions, dust, lint, and fingerprints.

ENLARGER AND EASEL ADJUSTMENTS

Insert the negative in the negative carrier so theemulsion side is down when placed in the enlarger. Inother words, the base of the negative (the shiny side)should be up or facing the lamp when inserted into theenlarger. Clean the negative and be sure there is no duston it. You can use the light from the enlarger to checkfor dust. Blow off any dust with a bulb syringe orlow-pressure air. Then, use a camel-hair brush to brushor lift off any remaining dust. Replace the negativecarrier containing the negative into the enlarger; ensureit is seated properly.

Set the paper guide or masking device on the easelto form the border width needed or use a preset easel.As an aid for composing and focusing the imageaccurately, place a sheet of white paper in the easel-thebase side of the paper is used for a focusing sheet-thenturn out all white lights.

Turn the enlarger lamp on, open the lens to itsmaximum aperture, and move the easel around until thedesired portion of the image is in the picture area Raiseor lower the enlarger head on the upright standard orcolumn and focus the image. Shift the easel as needed,and continue these adjustments until the image isenlarged (or reduced) to the desired size, focusedsharply, and composed on the easel correctly.

The size of projection prints is limited by the opticalsystem used and the working space available. A scenemay be printed in sections on several sheets of paper andspliced together. Likewise, the enlarger can be turned180 degrees and projected on the floor. If you use thisbaseboard method, be sure to counterweight the enlargerby placing a heavy weight on the baseboard to preventthe enlarger from tipping over.

The picture is easier to compose with the sceneright-side up. When it is upside down from your pointof view, the negative carrier should be rotated orremoved and the negative repositioned. The imageappears right-side up on the easel when it is positionedupside down in the negative carrier.

You should adjust the easel until the bestcomposition is obtained. When composing the image,try to correct errors of image composition in thenegative. The way the scene is composed on the negativemay be a controlling factor in the final composition.

Straighten the horizon, and when possible, prevent itfrom cutting the print image in half. When the horizonis not to be included in the print, make sure verticalobjects are parallel to the sides of the print. When thespace around the point of interest of the picture isdistracting, you can change the composition of thepicture through cropping. You can do this by increasingor decreasing the magnification of the image and byreadjusting the easel.

After the image is correctly composed and focused,the lens aperture should be stopped down so your basicexposure time is about 10 seconds. An exposure time of10 seconds allows you to accomplish a normal amountof dodging and is fast enough to be practical for quantityproduction. The exact amount the lens should be stoppeddown depends on the density of the negative and themagnification of the image. This can be difficult todetermine without experience. If you are new toprinting, you should start by stopping down the lens toabout f/5.6 or f/8 for a normal negative.

MAKING A TEST PRINT

There are many factors that affect exposure times inthe enlarging process. Some of these factors are asfollows:

The light source and illumination system of theenlarger

The f/stop of the lens

The density of the negative

The degree of enlargement

The speed of the paper

The density and color of the contrast printingfilter

The best way for you to determine the correctenlarging exposure is by making a test strip. Althoughthe test strip is the most reliable way to determineexposure, you do not need a test strip for everyenlargement. It is, however, a wise practice wheneveryou are in doubt as to the exact exposure required.

A test strip for enlarging is made the same way asfor contact printing. When making the enlargement teststrip, you must try to select the proper printing filterbased on negative contrast.

Once the printing filter has been determined, set theenlarger for producing the desired size prints. Set thelens f/stop at f/5.6 or f/8, for example. Next, examine

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the projected image on the focusing paper in the easeland estimate the amount of exposure time you think theprint requires. From experience, you estimate thecorrect exposure time to be about 15 seconds. Becauseyour estimate may be incorrect, a logical procedure is toexpose a test strip in four sections.

To make the actual test strip, you must do thefollowing:

1. Place one test strip on the easel in a position tosample the highlights, midtones, and shadows.

2. Cover three quarters of the strip with opaquepaper or cardboard and expose the uncovered section for5 seconds.

3. Move the cardboard to cover one half of the stripand give another 5 seconds of exposure.

4. Again move the cardboard-this time to exposethree quarters of the strip-and provide 5 seconds ofexposure.

5. Now uncover the entire strip and expose it foranother 5 seconds. This produces a strip with exposuresof 5, 10, 15, and 20 seconds.

6. Process the test strip the same as contact prints.

7. Examine the processed test strip under whitelight and select the segment representing the exposurethat gave the best results. If a time between two sectionsgives the best result, make another test at the estimatedtime. When you have selected the exposure, you areready to make a full-size print-if the contrast is correct.If not, change filters and make another test strip.

The primary purpose for a test print is to determinethe correct exposure, but it can also help you determinethe correct contrast or printing filter to use. When thetest print is too contrasty or too flat, make another testprint with a higher or lower number of contrast printingfilter.

When printing, contrast (the difference in tonalvalue between the highlights and shadows) is asimportant for you to determine as is the correctexposure. Almost all Navy imaging facilities usevariable contrast printing papers. To control contrastwith this type of paper, you must use variable contrastprinting filters.

Unlike film, increasing the development time ofpaper does not increase the contrast significantly. In fact,when paper development is carried out much beyond therecommended time, contrast can actually decrease dueto fogging. Likewise, short development times shouldnot be used in an attempt to get lower contrast. The result

Table 11-2.–Multigrade Filter Selection Guide

Filter Number Use

00 Normal prints from very contrastynegatives. Produces very flatprints from normal or low-contrastnegatives.

2 Normal prints from normalnegatives, flat prints from low-contrast negatives, and contrastyprints from contrasty negatives.

4 Normal prints from low-contrastnegatives, and contrasty printsfrom normal or high-contrastnegatives.

5 Normal prints from very low-contrast negatives, and verycontrasty prints from normalnegatives.

of short paper development times is usually a print thatis not fully developed, and the print has poor tone qualityand a “muddy” appearance.

Variable contrast printing filters are the onlypractical way of altering print contrast with variablecontrast papers. Variable contrast papers haveorthochromatic sensitivity. The blue light-sensitive partof the emulsion controls high contrast, and the greenlight-sensitive part controls low contrast. By using theproper variable contrast filter between the light sourceand the paper, you can control the contrast. Variablecontrast filters range from yellow (low contrast) throughdeep magenta (high contrast).

When making test strips to determine correctexposure, you also need to determine the contrast. Youdo this by examining the shadow area of the test stripthat has the correct highlight exposure. When theshadow area of this test is too light, the test does not haveenough contrast. When the test does not have enoughcontrast, a higher number filter is required. When theshadow area is too dark, the test has too much contrastand a lower number filter is required.

Table 11-2 is based on using Ilford Multigradefilters and Ilford Multigrade papers. Ilford Multigradefilters are available in the following 12 grades: 00, 0,

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PHC Carl Hinkle302.308

1/2, 1, 1 1/2, 2.2 1/2, 3, 3 1/2,4,4 1/2, and 5. Use thistable as a guide to help you determine the correct filter.The principles, also, apply to the use of filters not shownin the table, such as 0, 1, 1 1/2, 2 1/2, 3, 3 1/2, or 4 1/2.

Figure 11-10 shows the difference in contrastobtained from one negative using different contrastprinting filters.

When using variable contrast paper and filters, youmust remember the following:

The filters should be clean and in good condition(not scratched, etc.). Like all filters, they fade and mustbe replaced.

The density of filters changes with the differentnumbers. Filter numbers 0 - 3 1/2 require a one f/stopincrease of exposure compared to the exposure when nofilter is used. Filter numbers 4 - 5 require a one f/stopincrease compared to the exposure when a 1 - 3 1/2 filteris used, or a two f/stop increase of exposure comparedto the exposure when no filter is used. For example,when you make a test print with an exposure of f/8 at 10seconds with a No. 3 contrast printing filter, and thenmake another test print with a No. 4 contrast printingfilter, your new exposure will be f/5.6 at 10 seconds.

It is possible to control local contrast by changingfilters. For example, one possibility is for you to printan overall exposure with a No. 2 filter while holding

Figure 11-10.–Comparison of a number 0, 2, and 5 contrast printing filter.

back or dodging the sky and then burning in the sky witha No. 1 filter. When printing with more than one filter,you should work from a full test print to determine thebest approach.

Study the manufacturer’s directions so you canuse their filter and paper combination to best advantage.

Many of us are guilty of throwing away themanufacturer’s directions that come with photographicmaterials. By maintaining them in a reference book, youhave a tremendous source of information available thatcan save time and materials.

Having determined the correct exposure andcontrast, you are now ready to produce the productionprints. Until you become proficient in printing, maketest prints for each negative you print.

By adjusting the lens f/stop, you may use longer orshorter exposure times than the test exposure timedetermined previously, providing they do not becomeexcessive in either direction. Very short exposures arenot practical. Very long exposures subject the negativeto excessive heat from the printing lamp and also wastetime. Five seconds is the minimum amount of exposuretime that you should use. Twenty seconds is about thelongest exposure time required for normal negatives. Astandard procedure is to change the exposure by varyingthe f/stop of the lens to bring the exposure time withinpractical limits.

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CREATIVE CONTROLS IN PRINTING

Because of the many ways you can control the finalappearance of the photograph, enlarging is a creativeprocedure. You can use printing exposure to make yourprints lighter or darker, and the contrast can be alteredby your choice of printing filters. You, also, have othercreative controls available, such as cropping(composition), dodging, printing, or burning in,vignetting, diffusing, correcting image distortion, and soon.

You should devote as much attention and care toprinting as to making the original negative; otherwise,you do an injustice to your skill and reputation as aphotographer.

Figure 11-11.–Grain focuser.

GRAIN FOCUSER

Focusing the negative image on the enlarging papercan be difficult when the negatives are dense or have nosharply defined lines that you can see in the projectedimage.

Focusing is easier and more consistent when youuse a magnifier or grain focuser. A grain focusermagnifies the negative grain structure by 10X to 25X.This magnification allows you to focus the actual grainstructure of the image. A grain focuser provides you withthe sharpest focus you can get from a given negative.

The projected image of the negative is reflected bythe mirror of the grain focuser to the eyepiece. Thedistance from the mirror to the eyepiece is equal to thedistance from the mirror to the easel (fig. 11-11);therefore, when you see a sharp image of the grainstructure in the magnifier, the image projected on theeasel is equally sharp. The area of the negative visiblein the magnifier is extremely small. You are not actuallylooking at details of the image but at the grain structureof the negative that actually produces the image.

To use the grain focuser, you should enlarge andcompose the picture normally on an easel. Place thegrain focuser on the easel with a sheet of focusing paperin it, so a central portion of the projected image reflectsfrom the mirror into the eyepiece of the grain focuser.Examine the grain structure through the eyepiece andadjust the fine focus until the grain structure is inabsolutely sharp focus.

COMPOSITION AND CROPPING

Printing only a part of the entire image recorded ona negative is called “cropping.” Cropping is theprocedure in printing used to improve the compositionof the photograph. Most photographs are intended topresent an idea or provide the viewer with some type ofinformation. The better the composition of the finishedpicture, the better it communicates the intendedmessage.

Photographic composition should be controlled orestablished with the camera when the picture is taken;however, the majority of photographs can be improvedduring the printing process by cropping. You can usecropping to eliminate distracting or unwanted sceneelements, to straighten a tilted horizon, to alter the centerof interest, or to strengthen leading lines.

Since personal opinions differ, there are nohard-and-fast rules for cropping; however, the followingare rules of thumb that may help you produce picturesthat are pleasing to most people:

Crop out any elements at the edges of the picturearea that may draw attention from the intended center ofinterest.

The center of interest should not normally belocated in the physical center of the print. The center ofinterest should be somewhat to the left or right and alittle below or above the physical center of the picture.The exact location for the center of interest depends onthe subject and the format of the print.

Horizontal, vertical, and diagonal lines shouldnot divide the photograph into equal parts. The horizonin a photograph should be absolutely horizontal. Thevertical lines of buildings, with one exception, should

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303.57Figure 11-12.–Cropping arms can be used to determine cropping.

be vertical. The one exception is the vertical lines ofbuildings that naturally appear to converge. In this case,the central vertical line, either real or imaginary, shouldbe rendered as vertical.

People or animals shown in profile or near profilewithin a photograph should appear to be looking into thepicture, not out of it; for example, the subject shouldhave more picture area in front than behind.

Unless you are producing micro- or macro-photography, the printed images should not normally belarger than the actual size of the subject.

The image area of a picture should appear to havea solid support. This effect can sometimes be achievedby printing the lower part of the picture darker than the

upperpart

In a landscape or seascape picture, print theforeground somewhat darker than the middle distance,and print the middle distance darker than the fardistance. Then gradually increase the density of the skyfrom the horizon upward. This creates a feeling orillusion of depth.

A contact print (proof print) of the full negative tobe printed is helpful in determining the most effectivecropping for the picture.

Have available a set of cropping arms such as theones shown in figure 11-12. Cropping arms can be cutfrom pieces of cardboard. Be sure the arms have trueright angles. You should use the following procedure tocrop or mark the proof print:

303.58Figure 11-13.–Marking the print to be cropped.

1. Place the cropping arms over the proof print andmove them about until you have the desired cropping,composition, and picture proportion or format.

2. With the cropping arms held in place on theproof, mark the print with a grease pencil (or othersuitable marker) to outline the desired area orcomposition of the picture (fig. 11-13). You should usethe marked proof print as a guide for setting up theenlarger and easel.

3. With the negative in the enlarger and theprinting lamp turned on, adjust the enlarger for thedesired image size and cropping. Use the proof printas a visual guide.

4. Adjust the adjustable masks on the easel to thecorrect format and desired cropping. The adjustablemasking device on the easel should be adjusted so atleast a 1/4-inch white border is left on all four sides ofthe finished print. Excess border can be cut off the printafter it is processed.

There may be occasions when you may want toproduce prints with borders larger than 1/4 inch orwith borders of various widths, such as 1/2 inch atthe top and sides and 1 1/2 inches at the bottom, oryou may want prints without borders or with blackborders. To make a print without borders, cut theborders off after the print is processed or use aborderless type of easel.

5. Adjust the picture composition by moving theeasel, by changing the border masks, or by changing thepicture enlargement or any combination of these until

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the projected image is the same as the cropped area inthe proof print.

LOCAL PRINT CONTROL

No matter how good your camera work, somewherein the negative there will probably be areas that do notprint correctly. A “straight” enlargement from a negativeis seldom the best possible print. When everything hasbeen done to match the negative with the proper printingfilter and still the print is unsatisfactory, you may resortto manipulating the light while exposing the paper. Thismanipulation may be dodging to prevent part of theimage from getting too dark or it may be burning-in toproduce detail from a part of the negative that is toodense. Local print control can be used to compensate foruneven lighting of the scene photographed or to providemore prominence to a selected part of the picture.

Dodging

As discussed before in contact printing, you mayoften find it necessary to dodge or hold back some partsof images to produce the best print. When projectionprinting, hold the dodging material in the beam of light,so its location and coverage can be seen and controlledduring the printing exposure. The dodging tool is placedbetween the lens and the printing paper so it preventslight from falling on the area being dodged. The shadowarea the dodging tool creates may be small or large. Thecoverage depends on the size of the tool and the distancefrom the printing paper where the dodging tool is held.Dodging is generally necessary for only part of the totalexposure time. The tool being used must be movedconstantly to prevent a sharp line between the area beingdodged and other parts of the image.

processed print is lighter than it would have been haddodging not been used.

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Dodging can be used for creative and correctiveeffects. It is used to hold back shadow areas, therebypreventing these areas from printing too dark and losingdetail; for example, part of a person’s face may be toomuch in shadow because of the hat he or she is wearing,while the rest of the face is brightly lighted. You candodge or hold back some of the light from the shadowarea of the face image; this keeps the shadow fromprinting dark, and a more pleasing and detailedphotograph is produced.

Accurate dodging may be done with your hands orvarious shaped tools. Your hands, when used as dodgingtools, can cast a variety of different sizes and shapes ofshadows to hold back unwanted light from the print.Some photographers prefer to use dodging tools, suchas a stiff wire with various sizes and shapes of blackcardboard or crumpled cellophane attached (fig. 11-14).Another dodging tool is a loop of a thin, stiff wire bentto the desired size and shape. The loop is then coveredwith black masking tape. Even a plain piece ofcardboard can make an effective dodging tool.

The amount of time you should dodge can varywidely, depending on the subject, the negative, and theoverall exposure time. Even an experienced printer mayhave to produce several test prints to determine thecorrect amount of dodging.

Remember, to prevent any distinct outline of thedodging tool from reproducing in the print, you mustkeep the dodging tool in constant motion during theexposure. Use a circular, sideways, or shakingmovements to accomplish this.

Burning-in

Because light is held back from an area duringdodging, the dodged area receives less exposure than thesurrounding image area. Thus the dodged area of the

Burning-in makes an area within a print darker thanit would be otherwise. A burning-in tool is usually apiece of cardboard with a hole in the center that is

Figure 11-14.–Dodging took.

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Figure 11-15.–Vignetted head-and-shoulders portrait.

PH1 Anthony Contos303.63.2

smaller but approximately the same shape as the area to print darker. The rest of the image is blocked by eitherbe burned in. Your hands can be shaped to form a hole the tool or your hand.to allow light to pass. For burning in, the usual procedure is to give the

A burning-in tool is positioned between the enlarger printing paper the overall required exposure duringlens and the printing paper, so light passes through the which time any required dodging is performed. Thenhole and exposes only that part of the paper you want to re-expose the area to be darkened.

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PHC Carl Hinkle302.309

Some areas of a negative that may require burningin are the dense areas that would otherwise reproduce aspure white with little or no detail or very light gray inthe print; for example, a bright sky, a white uniform, awhite cake, or highlights on a face.

Like dodging, to prevent an outline of the tool fromreproducing, you should keep the tool in constantmotion during the burning-in exposure.

Vignetting

In printing, vignetting is a technique that causes theimage to fade gradually into the background toward thecorners of the print. A vignette effect is produced byprojecting the desired negative image area through alarge hole cut in a piece of cardboard or by dodging thecentral image area during part of the exposure time.When the background is to be printed light, the entireexposure should be made through the vignetting card.When the edges of the hole are serrated, the outline ofthe vignette will be soft and diffused In most cases, asoft, diffused vignette produces the most pleasing result.

Head-and-shoulders portraits are usually the mostsuitable for vignetting, although vignetting may beapplied to other subjects (fig. 11-15). A photograph witha light background provides the most pleasing vignetteresults. For a head-and-shoulders portrait, the vignetting

card should have an egg-shaped hole cut in it. Thesubject in a vignette should be a little smaller than it isin a straight nonvignetted print. Leave plenty of spacearound the image. Balance the head-and-shouldersimage on the paper by leaving more blank paper belowthe image than above it. The blank paper at the sidesshould be about equal, but less than at the top. As withdodging and burning in, the vignetting card must be keptmoving during the exposure.

Diffusing

Photographs can be diffused so sharp lines of theimage are softened, subdued, or blurred slightly in thereproduction. Diffusion can be used to produce a hazyeffect, such as the effect seen on a warm lake in earlymorning. In printing portrait negatives, diffusion can beused to subdue the reproduction of facial blemishes orwrinkles. The effects of harsh portrait lighting orretouching also may be softened with diffusion (fig.11-16).

The best diffused enlargements are made using aglass diffusing disk placed under the lens of the enlarger.Other suitable diffusing materials are transparentcellophane, either smooth or wrinkled, or a piece ofpanty hose, or similar fabric. Dark gray or black ispreferable.

Figure 11-16.–Head-and-shoulders portrait using diffusing techniques.

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The amount of diffusing with a given material iscontrolled by the distance of the material from the lensof the enlarger and the density of the diffusing material.Diffusing tends to lower image contrast; therefore, youmay need to use a higher contrast printing filter thannormally required for a given negative. The exposurethrough the diffusing material should be about one thirdof the total required exposure time.

To use dodging, burning-in, vignetting, anddiffusing effectively, you should make one full-straight(uncorrected) print, using the basic exposure determinedwith your test strips. Study this print and determine thelocation(s) you are going to dodge, burn in, and so forth.The application of these techniques may appeartime-consuming, but you will make professional-quality prints that are rich in detail and mood.

MINIMIZING GRAININESS

As you know, most black-and-white photographicimages on film emulsions are made of fine grains ofsilver. Because of this silver grain structure, enlarge-ments, especially large ones, may appear “grainy.” Thegraininess of a print is a direct result of the graininess ofthe negative and the degree of enlargement. Thegraininess of a print, however, may be modified to alimited extent during the printing stage by the followingtechniques:

The diffusion enlarger should be used wherenegative graininess is serious and objectionable in theprint.

The appearance of graininess in the print can bereduced by using a rough, surface paper instead of asmooth, glossy paper.

A diffuser used between the enlarger lens and theprinting paper helps subdue the appearance of grain.Crumpled cellophane, fine mesh screen, or a piece ofnylon stocking can be used as a diffuser.

The enlarger can be set to project an image thatis slightly out of focus.

The permissible graininess in a print depends verymuch on the viewing conditions. For a large displayprint to be viewed from a relatively great distance, moregraininess can be tolerated as compared to a smallerprint held in a person's hand for viewing.

Figure 11-17.–Distortion corrected by tilting the easel.

DISTORTION CONTROL

When you tilt the camera upward to make apicture of a tall building, the vertical lines convergeand the building walls seem to be at the point ofcollapsing. A view camera is equipped withmovements that allow the film to be parallel, or nearlyso, with the subject, in spite of the viewpoint;however, most of the negatives you print probably arenot made with a view camera. Many negatives showan undesirable, noticeable convergence of lines.Changes in these images can be made by tilting thehead on some enlargers or by tilting the easel andpaper to correct image distortion (fig. 11-17).

Most enlargers have an easel separate from theenlarger. Because the easel is separate, it can betilted by blocking it up on one end. A smalldiaphragm opening (high f/stop) must be used toincrease the depth of focus to include both the partof the easel nearest the lens and the part of the easelfarthest from the lens. Within the limits of what youcan keep in focus, you can correct some or all ofthe distortion. With some enlargers, you can tilt thenegative carrier by propping up one side with oneor more coins.

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One big disadvantage of tilting the easel is thatan extremely small diaphragm opening must beused for depth of sharp focus. The use of a smalld iaphragm opening makes focus ing andcomposition difficult. This makes it necessary touse long exposure times.

PROCESSING DEFECTS

The prints you produce will not be perfectevery time. Table 11-3 shows some of the mostcommon defects found in black-and-white prints.Use this table to identify and correct print defects.

Table 11-1-Print Defects

Defect Appearance Cause Prevention

Abrasion marks orstreaks.

Surface of paper abraded Friction or rubbing on Store paper boxes onor scratched; results in the surface of the paper. their edges; handlefine dark lines on the carefully; make sure thatsurface of the processing solutions areprint, especially with free from grit orglossy paper. undissolved particles.

Inspect and clean rollersof processing machine.

Bad definition in parts of Parts of print poorly Buckling of paper in the Check contact pad inprint. defined, blurred, as if out contact printer, thereby printer. Pressure springs

of focus, though negative blurring these parts. should be firm andis sharp. strong.

Bad definition overentire print.

Completely blurred print In contact prints, because In contact printing,thefrom sharp negative. of printing from the paper emulsion must

wrong side of the always be in contactnegative. In with the emulsion of theenlargements, careless negative. Enlargersfocusing or, more should be braced firmlyoften, vibration of the and protected fromenlarger, especially at vibrationhigh magnification.

Round white (light) Air bells preventspots on print.

Round white or lightspots in picture area.

Proper agitation of printdeveloper from working in developer.on parts of paper.

Round dark spots on Round or circular-prints. shaped dark spots.

Air bells on surface ofprint in fixing bathallows developer tocontinue to work

Use a stop bath betweendeveloper and fixer.Agitate thoroughly infixing bath.

Round discolored spotsappearing some timeafter drying.

Round discolored spotsin picture area of print.

Air bells in washing Thorough washing withprevent removal of hypo constant agitation.in these areas

Small, well-definedbrown spots.

Brown spots on front or Particles of rust in washback of print. water from rusty wash

Where quantities of rustare present, use a water

tanks or water pipes filter in the line.and/or particles ofchemical dust.

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Table 11-3.–Print Defects–Continued

Defect Appearance Cause Prevention

Tone of image Correctly exposed andunsatisfactory. underdeveloped developed.

Excessive contrast. Contrasty print.used. filter.

Lacks contrast.

Greenish or muddy tone. Overexposed then

Wrong printing filter Use a lower number

Flat print. Wrong printing filter Use a higher numberused. filter

Fading Fading or tarnishing. Incomplcte fixing and/or Give adequate fixationwashing. and washing

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CHAPTER 12

COLOR PRINTING

The mechanics of color printing are similar toblack-and-white printing. Once you have mastered thetechniques of black-and-white printing, you will have asolid foundation to build your knowledge and skills incolor printing. The most difficult task in color printingis distinguishing between various and sometimes subtlecolors and selecting filters to produce a color balancedprint. That is not as difficult as it may sound. Throughtime and practice, you will make excellent color prints;however, before color printing is discussed, theprinciples of color photography and how they apply tocolor printing will be reviewed.

PRINCIPLES OF COLORPHOTOGRAPHY

Most people see in color and expect theirphotographs to be in color. Because of customerdemands and the cost benefits involved, colorphotography has nearly replaced black-and-whitephotography in Navy imaging facilities. Few amateurphotographers understand the complexity of colorreproduction in color photography. Most of theseamateurs take their unprocessed film to a drug store ora 1-hour photo finisher. As a Navy Photographer’s Mate,you are a professional. To produce professional qualitycolor photographs, you must have a basic understandingof the color process.

Usually white is thought of as no color; however, itis more accurate to think of it as all colors. When one ofthe colors is absent, the color is not white light, but adifferent color-green, for example. When magenta (abluish red color) is absent, the resulting color is green.When cyan (a greenish blue color) is absent, the coloris red, and so forth.

As you read this chapter and when you color print,you may find it helpful to think of a color as white withsomething missing; that is,

blue is minus yellow;

green is minus magenta;

red is minus cyan;

yellow is minus blue;

magenta is minus green; and

cyan is minus red.

Also keep in mind that

all color is light; and

white is all colors.COLOR IS LIGHT

The color you see is simply light. Where there is nolight, there is no color. When you “see” a colored object,what you are actually seeing is the light reflected oremitted from that object; therefore, the light alone iswhat you see and not the actual object.

The color of light people are most familiar with iswhite. Actually, white light is made up of all the colors,although they are impossible to see directly. When yousee white light reflected from a sheet of white paper, youare actually seeing an equal mixture of red, green, andblue light being reflected in equal amounts. You mustrealize and understand this fact before you print color.

LIGHT PRIMARIES

White light is a mixture of all the colors of light;however, only three primary colors are actually neededto make white light. These three primary colors are red,green, and blue. Not only do these three light primariesproduce white light, but they produce any and all othercolors; for example, imagine a blue, a green, and a redspotlight shining on a white screen so the spotlightcircles partly overlap. There are three places where twoof the light primaries overlap and one place where allthree light primaries overlap. In the areas where twoprimaries overlap, a distinctly new color is created

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C303.73Figure 12-1.–Mixed beams of the three primary colors of light.

(fig. 12-1). When you overlap red and green, yellow iscreated; green and blue, cyan is created; blue and red,magenta is created. In the area where all three lightprimaries overlap, you, of course, have white.

In the actual production of color prints, you shouldremember that

yellow is greenish red;

cyan is greenish blue; and

magenta is bluish red.

The above information should help you rememberthe colors of light that make up yellow, cyan, andmagenta, which are the light secondaries. Lightsecondaries are the colors produced when two lightprimaries are mixed.

Additive Primaries

Now that you have an understanding of lightprimaries, they will be called the additive primaries. Thename additive primaries indicates that certain colors oflight can be added together to create distinctly newcolors.

As explained in chapter 2, color films and papershave three separate emulsion layers that are sensitive tored, green, and blue light. Because the emulsions aresensitive to the additive primaries, they can record allcolors. In the three emulsion layers, three separate,superimposed images are formed and when viewedtogether, they give a full range of colors.

The color formation, however, is not direct; forexample, in a color print, a cyan image is formed in thetop or red sensitive emulsion layer, a magenta image inthe middle or green sensitive layer, and a yellow imagein the bottom or blue sensitive layer. These three colorsor dyes-cyan, magenta, and yellow-are what producethe colors we see when we view a color print. Thesecolors-cyan, magenta, and yellow-are called thesubtractive primaries.

Subtractive Primaries

Keep in mind that the additive primaries-red,green, and blue-are the basic starting colors from whichall other colors of light can be created. When you areworking with light, the additive primaries produce allthe other colors; however, they will not do this as dyesor pigments; for example, blue and green dyes cannotbe mixed to produce cyan, though blue and green lightcan.

For dyes and pigments, another set of primaries areneeded. This other set of primaries happens to be yellow,cyan, and magenta. Dye couplers are what form thecolors within a color print (or film). The dyeprimaries-cyan, magenta, and yellow-can be usedseparately or superimposed (mixed), one image over theother, to produce other colors; that is,

cyan + magenta = blue;

magenta + yellow = red; and

yellow + cyan = green.

The colorant primaries-cyan, magenta, andyellow-are called the subtractive primaries becausethey subtract certain colors from the light falling onthem.

Anything that is colored is subtracting somethingfrom white light; that is, an object appears a certain colorbecause it is subtracting or absorbing a certain othercolor or colors from the light falling upon it; forexample, an object that appears

red subtracts green and blue (cyan) light;

green subtracts red and blue (magenta) light;

blue subtracts green and red (yellow) light;

magenta subtracts green light;

cyan subtracts red light; and

yellow subtracts blue light.

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Figure 12-2.–Color star.C303.74

This whole concept of color by subtraction mayseem confusing at first, but if you accept this concept, itwill suddenly become very clear. Color printing is builtaround color by subtraction.

COLOR STAR

To help understand color theory, draw a color starand use it through the color process (fig. 12-2). With acolor star, both additive and subtractive color effects canbe illustrated.

The color star shows how colors can be mixed. Anytwo primaries (colors) on opposing points of a giventriangle, when mixed, will produce the color betweenthem; for example,

green and red = yellow;

yellow and cyan = green; and

green and blue = cyan.

Just as important, the color star shows the colors thatwill neutralize each other. These colors are calledcomplementary colors and are located across from eachother; that is

yellow is complementary to blue; Corrective filters

magenta is complementary to green; and

cyan is complementary to red.

Thus yellow neutralizes blue, blue neutralizesyellow, red neutralizes cyan, cyan neutralizes red, andso forth.

When colors are neutralized, the results are grays orblacks. That is called neutral density. The neutral densitymay be either full or partial, depending on the relativestrengths and amounts of the neutralizing colors; forexample, equal amounts of blue and yellow produceneutral density. A weak blue and a strong yellow yieldsa grayish yellow.

The information on the color star can be applieddirectly to color printing and color filtration. The filtersused in color printing subtract colors from the lightsource of the enlarger before it reaches the color printingpaper; for example, to subtract green from the light, youuse a magenta filter, or to subtract blue, you use a yellowfilter or vice versa.

In color printing, filters are always used to subtracta particular color. You can determine which filtersubtracts a given color from the light source of theenlarger by finding its opposite or complementary coloron the color star. For example, you want to subtractgreen from the light. First, find green on the color star.Next, locate the complementary color of green bylooking across from it. You have located the color,magenta; therefore, to remove green from the lightsource, you must addmagenta filtration in the enlarger.

The basic overview of the principles of colorphotography applies directly to color printing. If youneed additional review of light and color principles,refer to chapter 1 of this training manual. The remainderof this chapter should help you get a betterunderstanding of color printing and provide theinformation you need to make good, professionalquality color prints.

COLOR ENLARGERS AND PRINTERS

Other than the basic exposure factors of intensityand time, there are other factors to consider in printingequipment. Some of these considerations are as follows:

Quality of the lens

Color temperature of the light source used forprinting

Accuracy of the enlarger timer

Stability of the power (voltage) supply

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Ease of operation in total darkness

A good quality enlarger is required to producehigh-quality color prints. Color enlargers used in Navyimaging facilities are diffusion type of enlargers. Likeall image-forming equipment, the lens is an integral partof the enlarging system. The lens used in a color enlargermust be free of chromatic aberration; that is, it must bea color-corrected lens.

COLOR TEMPERATURE

The color temperature of light used to expose thecolor material must match the spectral sensitivity of thecolor material. This is true when making the originalcamera exposure, and it is also true when you areprinting color materials. In color printing equipment,color temperature is usually regulated by adding filtersto balance the light source and by regulating the voltagesource supplying the lamp.

Corrective Filters

In color printing, three emulsion layers in theprinting material must be correctly exposed from thethree color images in the negative. The exposure of thesethree layers is manipulated by both exposure time andthe color quality of the exposing light reaching the paper.The color or quality of light is altered by placing colorfilters in the light beam of the enlarger. You can use colorprinting (CP), color compensating (CC), or dichroicfilters. CP and dichroic filters are placed between thelight source and the negative. Generally, dichroic filtershave replaced CP filters. Dichroic filters moreaccurately control the light, and unlike gelatin filters, donot fade over time. CC filters are placed between thelens and the light-sensitive paper.

The filters that control the exposing light are calledthe filter pack The basic filter pack differs among eachcharacteristic of color negative film; that is, film size,manufacturer, film type, and film speed. For example,the basic filter pack for 35mm Kodak Vericolor IIIdiffers from the basic filter pack of 120 Kodak VericolorIII. The basic filter pack for 35mm Scotchcolor differsfrom the basic filter pack of 35mm Fuji color. The basicfilter pack for Kodacolor Gold differs from KodakVericolor III. The basic filter pack for Kodacolor 100differs from the basic filter pack of Kodacolor 400.

In addition to CP, CC, and dichroic filters, a CP2Bor equivalent filter is usually built into the enlarger toabsorb ultraviolet radiation emitted by the light source.

Voltage Regulation

Fluctuations in line voltage are more common thanmost people realize. Power fluctuations affect both theintensity and color quality of a light source. As little asa 5-volt variation in the normal operating range(l00-125volts) can change the output of a lamp by about15 percent. This change in voltage results in a change inthe color quality of the light source. This variation isabout the equivalent of a CC10 filter.

To prevent voltage fluctuations, you must connectthe enlarger to a voltage regulator. Most voltageregulators provide a constant voltage between 95 to 120volts.

Two main types of color enlargers are in commonuse by the Navy. The two color enlargers differ in theway they control the exposing light. They are thesubtractive and additive printers.

SUBTRACTIVE PRINTERS

The subtractive type of color enlarger uses a dial-indichroic filtration system. This type of color enlarger hasthree filtration controls that move yellow, cyan, andmagenta filters into the path of the exposing light.Segments of the dichroic filters are moved in and out ofthe exposing light beam on calibrated cams. This typeof filtration system provides accurate and repeatablefilter pack combinations.

Most color enlargers use a tungsten-halogen lightsource. These light sources produce a great amount ofheat. When a tungsten-halogen light source is used, thecolor printer must have forced-air cooling fans inaddition to the heat-absorbing glass. An ultravioletabsorber, such as a Kodak Wratten Filter No. 2B(CP2B), must always be included in the light beam,preferably above the negative. The most common typeof subtractive printer used in the Navy is the ChromegaD dichroic enlarger.

NOTE: Never touch a tungsten-halogen bulb.Handle it only by the edges or reflector cone. Oil fromyour fingers can heat up and create a hot spot on the lightbulb, causing it to burn out. If you touch the bulb, cleanit with a soft cloth and isopropyl alcohol. Allow the bulbto dry thoroughly before energizing.

ADDITIVE PRINTERS

The additive type of color enlarger uses the additiveor primary colors of light (red, green, and blue) toexpose color printing paper. This type of enlarger uses

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PH2 Myer III302.260

Figure 12-3.–Bessler Model 45A color enlarger.

filters either above the negative (CP filters) or below thelens (CC filters) to control the color quality of theexposing light.

Bessler color enlargers (fig. 12-3) are used in manyNavy imaging facilities. The Bessler Model 45A usespulsed-xenon tubes to expose the color printing paper.The xenon tubes are mounted at the top of the head ofthe enlarger above red, green, and blue filters. Theamount of red, green, and blue light is controlled by thenumber of flashes through each color filter. By adjustingthe number or length of time that the filtered-lightsources flash, you can correct the color balance of theprint. The color head of the enlarger is normallyprogrammed to a color analyzer that is used to provideacceptable color prints.

PRINTING COLOR NEGATIVES

For many years color printing was difficult toachieve; however, through technical advances in

light-sensitive materials, chemicals, and printingequipment, color printing is as flexible and practical asblack-and-white printing. The primary interest to you,as a Navy Photographer's Mate, is to produce colorprints with an acceptable color reproduction of theoriginal scene.

Good color prints are not difficult to make. Anyonewho has normal color vision and can apply the principlesof color theory can quickly learn to make good colorprints.

NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE PROCESS

Like all negative materials, the images recorded oncolor negative films are completely reversed from theoriginal scene as follows:

Darker hues are recorded as lighter hues;

Red is recorded as cyan;

Green is recorded as magenta; and

Blue is recorded as yellow.

To record the image as it appeared in the originalscene, you must print the color negative onto a secondtripack material-the color printing paper. If you need torefresh your memory on the characteristics of colorprinting paper, refer to chapter 2.

The theory of color printing is simple when youthink through the stages of color reproduction. Since thecolors reproduced in the color negative arecomplementary to the original subject colors, a red caris cyan in the negative. Cyan is a combination of blueand green; therefore, the two emulsion layers in thepaper that are sensitive to blue and green are affectedwhen the negative is printed. Then during printprocessing, yellow dye forms in the exposed portion ofthe blue sensitive layer of the paper, and magenta dyeforms in the exposed portion of the green sensitive layerof the paper. Yellow and magenta in combinationproduce red; therefore, the red car is reproduced in itsoriginal color. All the other colors form in the same way.

CUSTOM COLOR PRINTING

In black-and-white printing, the controllingvariables are primarily density and contrast. In colorprinting, the variables include density and the color ofindividual objects in the scene as well as the overallcolor balance of the print. The mood of a color print canbe changed by altering the color balance. A winterlandscape may be printed on the blue side to intensify

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the feeling of coldness. Portraits, on the other hand, areusually warm with glowing flesh tones, reflecting healthand happiness. Because of tightly controlled andstandardized processing of color negatives, contrast isnot a major variable in color printing. There are severalcolor papers manufactured that provide higher thannormal contrast. Generally, these high contrast papersare used for illustrative purposes and not normalpictorial photography. Consult the Photo-Lab-Index formore information on color papers.

some neutral areas (ideally, a gray card). The subjectmatter of the negative should be typical of the printingjob or of those negatives that will be printed in the future.

It is unlikely that you will produce an acceptablecolor print on your first attempt. When you areconsidering the density and color balance of a test print,think in terms of the three dye layers and their individualexposures. When the paper is exposed through the colornegative, the cyan, magenta, and yellow dye imagescontrol the amounts of red, green, and blue light thatreach the emulsion layers of the paper. Increasing theexposure of the emulsion layers of the paper increasesthe dye density of that layer and vice versa.

The negative must be free from dust and placed inthe enlarger, with the emulsion side down toward thelens (base side up). The base side is facing you whenyou can read the manufacturer’s lettering on the edgesof the film. You must be sure that no stray light escapesfrom around the edges of the negative. Masks of blackpaper or black masking tape in the negative carrierprevent stray light from fogging the paper.

ENLARGER SETUP

It is helpful to think how the color quality of lightaffects the paper. Remember that the color negative andthe color paper produce negative images. The more redlight the paper receives, the more cyan dye produced.The more green light the paper receives, the moremagenta dye is produced in the green sensitive layer.The more blue light the paper receives, the more yellowdyes created in the paper.

Setting up the enlarger and cropping the image onthe easel is basically the same in color printing as inblack and white; however, when possible, remove thefilter pack and compose and focus under white light. Byremoving the filter pack, you can project a brighterimage on the easel, making composing and focusingeasier.

Color paper is balanced in manufacturing so acombination of magenta and yellow filters in the printerlight source color balances a print from properlyexposed negatives. Because of the variations in the colortemperature of light sources (both picture taking andprinter), processing, and light-sensitive emulsions, therequired combination of filters can change fromnegative to negative. You must evaluate the test print interms of density and color balance and determine whichfilter combination and exposure time accuratelyrepresents the original scene.

MAKING COLOR PRINTS

The procedures for setting up the enlarger andcomposing and cropping the image in color printing arebasically the same as black-and-white printing. Themajor difference is that custom color printing on anenlarger must be carried out in complete darkness.

THE COLOR NEGATIVE

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When making your first test print, you should use anegative that is properly exposed; it should also contain

Since enlarging equipment varies considerably, it isdifficult to specify exact exposure times and filtrationfor a properly exposed print. You should start with abasic filter pack that has already been established in yourimaging facility, or consult the data sheet packaged withthe color printing paper or use the Photo-Lab-Index asa reference to arrive at a starting exposure time and filterpack

JUDGING TEST PRINTS

When making color prints, you must always obtainthe proper print density before you evaluate the colorbalance. Several ways are used to judge test prints.Before test prints are viewed, however, there are somelighting factors to be considered.

Viewing Conditions

The color quality of the viewing light sourcestrongly influences the apparent color balance of theprint. Ideally, the light in the evaluation area should bethe same color quality and intensity as the light underwhich the final print is to be viewed. From a practicalstandpoint, some average conditions are used.

Several factors are important in specifying lightsources for viewing color prints. These are intensity,color temperature, and color rendering index. Theintensity of the light source influences the amount ofdetail that can be seen in a print. For good viewing, alight source should provide an illuminance of 1400 lux

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Figure 12-4.–Ring around.

±590 lux (130 footcandles ±55 footcandles). The colortemperature of the light source should be between3800 K and 5000 K. The most important characteristicof the light source is the color rendering index (CRI).The CRI is a scale from 0 to 100 and is used to describethe visual effect of a light source on eight standard pastelcolors. For good color rendering in the prints beingviewed, the CRI of the light source should be between85 and 100.

Fluorescent tubes, such as the Westinghouse LivingWhite or the Deluxe Cool White tubes (made by severalmanufacturers), have at least a CRI of 85 and a color

temperature near 4000 K. Satisfactory results also canbe obtained by using a mixture of incandescent andfluorescent light. For each pair of 40-watt Deluxe CoolWhite fluorescent tubes, a 75-watt frosted tungsten bulbshould be used.

Ring Around

Comparing the test print to a series of prints thatvary from a standard print (correct density and colorbalance) in known amounts is a simple method ofdetermining color and density correction (fig. 12-4).Comparing your test print to a ring around is particularly

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helpful when your test print is far from being correct.When using a ring around, you should match the testprint as closely as possible to one of the prints. Theamount and color of filtration you should add or subtractfrom the filter pack are the same as indicated on the ringaround.

When the test print is reasonably close to beingcorrect, you can predict the final exposure conditionsaccurately. Once again, remember how exposure affectsthe three dye layers of the paper. That will simplify thechoice of selecting the correct filtration.

Color Printing Viewing Filters

When a test print is reasonably close to the desiredcolor balance, viewing it through color printing viewingfilters helps to determine what color change is needed.Color printing viewing filters come in six filter colors:red, green, blue, cyan, magenta, and yellow. Each coloris represented in 10, 20, and 40 density values.

To use a filter, hold it several feet away from theprint and light source. Quickly flick the filter in and outof your line of vision to see the color correction the filtermakes. Since these filters tend to overcorrect thehighlights and undercorrect the shadows, you shouldview the lighter middle tones through the filters todetermine the desired color balance. Try several filtersof different values and colors when evaluating a testprint; for example, when the print looks “cold” to you,evaluate it through a series of red, magenta, and yellowfilters to determine whether the color in excess is cyan,green, or blue. Similarly, viewing a “warm” printthrough cyan, green, and blue filters will determinewhether the color in excess is red, magenta, or yellow.

Since the contrast of print materials is fairly high, afilter used in exposing a print tends to produce a greaterchange in color balance than the visual effect of viewinga print through a filter. In general, the filtration changeto the filter pack should be one half of the viewing filterthat makes the lighter middle tones of the test printappear correct; for example, you have determined thatwhen viewing a test print through a 20CC green filter,the color balance looks correct; therefore, you wouldmake a 10CC change to your filter pack

Suppose, again, that the test print is too blue; that is,not enough yellow dye was produced. The print willlook best through a 10CC yellow filter. Since blue lightcreates yellow dyes, we must increase the amount ofblue light reaching the paper by 05CC. You should dothis by subtracting 05CC of yellow filtration (forsubtractive printing) or subtracting 05CC of blue

filtration (for additive printing). When a 20M filter isbest for viewing, subtract 10CC G (additive printer) or10M (subtractive printer) from the pack to produce thedesired correction.

MODIFYING THE FILTER PACK

Remember, you must produce a test print withproper density before you change the filtration on yourenlarger or printer. Before modifying the filter pack inthe enlarger or printer, you must keep in mind what typeof printer you are using. Modifying the filter pack for asubtractive type printer is completely opposite from thefilter pack adjustment necessary on an additive printer.

Subtractive Printers or Enlargers

When you have determined what color dominatesthe test print, that filter or its complement must be addedor subtracted from the filter pack Whenever possible,you should subtract filtration.

Table 12-1 may be useful in determining what filteradjustment should be made.

The following rough guide may also be helpful:When a slight shift in color balance is needed, use an 05or 10 filter change; when a moderate shift is needed, usea 15 or 20 filter change; and when the shift required istoo large to estimate, try a 30 filter change.

The filter pack should not contain more than twocolors of the subtractive filters (yellow, magenta, orcyan). When all three colors are in the filter pack neutraldensity results. Neutral density only increases theexposure time required. Neutral density is eliminated byremoving the filter color of least density completely andthen removing the same amount of density from each ofthe other two colors. Thus, if you calculated the filterpack to be 30M + 20Y + 10C, you should remove 10CCs of each color (10C + 10M + 10Y) completely for afilter pack of 20M + 10Y + OC.

When you either add or subtract filtration from thefilter pack, the intensity of the light also changes. Whenfiltration is added to the filter pack, the intensity of thelight reaching the paper is less. When filtration issubtracted from the filter pack, more illuminationreaches the paper. Thus you must adjust the exposuretime when the filter pack is changed.

Fortunately, when dichroic filters are used, littleexposure compensation is needed. When these filters areused, no correction is required when the yellow filtrationis changed. Only a l-percent change to the exposuretime is required for each 01 unit of magenta or cyan

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Table 12-1.–Filter Pack Adjustments for Subtractive Printing

If the color in If possible,excess is: subtract these filters:

Yellow Magenta and Cyan (or Blue)

Magenta Cyan and Yellow (or Green)

Cyan Yellow and Magenta (or Red)

Blue Yellow

Green Magenta

Red Cyan

FILTER FACTOR FILTER FACTOR

05Y 1.1 05B 1.110Y 1.1 10B 1.320Y 1.1 20B 1.630Y 1.1 30B 2.040Y 1.1 40B 2.450Y 1.1 50B 2.9

05M 1.2 05G10M 1.3 10G20M 1.5 20G30M 1.7 30G40M 1.9 40G50M 2.1 50G

05C10C20C30C40C50C

1.1 05R1.2 10R1.3 20R1.4 30R1.5 40R1.6 50R

1.11.21.31.41.51.7

1.21.31.51.71.92.2

ORAdd these filters

Yellow

Magenta

Cyan

Magenta and Cyan (or Blue)

Cyan and Yellow (or Green)

Yellow and Magenta (or Red)

Table 12-2.–Exposure Factors for Kodak CC and CP Filters

change to the filter pack. Normally, cyan is not a for any filter added. When two or more color filters areconsideration because it is set at zero in subtractive changed from the filter pack, multiply the individualprinting, so neutral density is not created. factors together and use the product.

With experience, exposure adjustments can beestimated accurately when the test print is close to thedesired density and color balance. Table 12-2 providesmore detailed information on exposure compensationswhen CC or CP filter changes are made.

Additive Printers or Enlargers

To use table 12-2, you must first divide the oldexposure time by the factor for any filter removed fromthe pack Then multiply the resulting time by the factor

Additive printers operate completely opposite fromsubtractive printers. Color correcting may get confusingif you are operating both types of printers.

When making corrections to your filter pack on anadditive printer, you should make the corrections as you

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see them; for example, when your test print has too muchgreen, you “tell” the printer to subtract green from thefilter pack When your test print has too much magenta,you “tell” the printer to add green to the filter pack, andso on.

more acceptable than color prints with a slight color castto the “cold” side. This is particularly true when thesubject in the photograph involves people.

The principles of color in theory are the same insubtractive and additive printing. The difference is thatthe additive printer uses the primary colors of red, green,and blue. When you make corrections on an additiveprinter, the printer is actually controlling the time thatthe additive colors are allowed to expose the paperthrough either pulsed-xenon tubes or CC filters; forexample, when your test print has too much green andyou subtract green from your filter pack, the printer isactually allowing more green light to reach the paper,which produces more magenta dye in processing. Whenthe test print has too much magenta and you add greento your filter pack, the printer is actually reducing theamount of green light allowed to reach the paper, whichreduces the amount of magenta dyes produced inprocessing.

Incidentally, you should not discard the test prints.Instead, write on them the actual exposure conditionsand your predicted changes to the test print. Theserecords will help you to gain the greatest practical valuefrom past work and to develop the judgment needed foreasier color printing in the future.

Briefly defined, a standard negative is an averagecolor negative that has been properly exposed andprocessed and makes an excellent print. In other words,it has been printed previously, and an accurate record ofthe filter pack required and other printer settings for aparticular type of paper is available. A standard negativeis used as a reference for comparison purposes. Thestandard negative is useful in several ways:

Most additive printers automatically compensateand change the density when the filtration is changed;however, as in subtractive printing, you must achievethe correct density before making color corrections.

COLOR PROOF SHEETS

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Once the basic filter pack is determined for a typicalnegative, the same exposure conditions can be used onfuture prints, providing the same types of film and paperare used. A proof sheet can provide a convenient aid inprinting color negatives. The same technique used formaking black-and-white proof sheets on an enlarger isused for making color proof sheets. Except when youare making color proof sheets, the enlarger height andlens-to-easel distance should be kept constant. Whenyou are making an 8x10 enlargement from eachnegative, the same enlarger height that produces an 8x10print should be used. When you must change theenlarger height from the negative previously printed,adjust the lens opening to compensate for the differencein illumination.

The standard negative is typical of the majority ofnegatives to be printed. When most of your negativesare outdoor shots on Kodak Gold 35mm film, thestandard negative should obviously be an outdoor shoton Kodak Gold 35mm film. The standard negative mustbe normally exposed, normally processed through yourimaging facility, and a typical subject with typicallighting; that is, the lighting ratio and light directionshould be similar to most of your production negatives.

Assuming the exposure level for the contact printsis correct, exposures will be about the same when thenegatives are placed in the negative carrier and enlarged.Some minor adjustments may be needed, however, toprovide the highest quality print possible. Navy imagingfacilities strive for a color balance within 05CC-because the “perfect” color print is very subjective. Inmost color prints, a slight color to the “warm” side is

A gray card included in the image area of a standardnegative is extremely helpful. The gray card can be usedto determine whether the negative received the correctexposure; for example, a Kodak Vericolor III negativeis properly exposed when the gray card density in thenegative is between 0.65 and 0.85 when read through ared filter on the densitometer. For other types of film,consult the Photo-Lab-index to locate the proper densitymeasurements. When used in a standard negative, thegray card must receive the same exposure as the subject.

One good practice is to have a standard negative foreach general category of photographic assignmentsproduced by your imaging facility. These standardnegatives should be produced with the equipment,

THE STANDARD NEGATIVE

Comparing the printing characteristics withthose of other color negatives

Comparing different paper emulsions

Checking processing

Programming color analyzers and automatedprinters

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light-sensitive materials, and lighting conditionscommonly used in your facility; for example, whenawards presentations are commonly photographedusing syncro-sun techniques with a medium-formatcamera and Kodak VPS film, then your standardnegative should be taken under the same conditions. Thesame applies for studio portraits, indoor on-camera flashphotography, and so forth. A basic enlarger filter packshould be determined for each negative.

TRIAL-AND-ERROR PRINTING

Few characteristics are exactly the same in twocolor negatives. Even when the subject matter is similar,differences can be caused by normal manufacturingvariations from one emulsion to another, adverseconditions before exposure, illumination of differentcolor quality, variance in sensitivity with changes inillumination level and exposure time (reciprocityeffect), adverse storage conditions between exposureand processing (latent image loss), and nonstandardprocessing conditions.

Most color negatives of the same subject that areexposed under similar conditions print similarly, but notidentically. Differences may result from variations inlighting conditions (time of day, sky conditions, etc.),film emulsions, film processing, or other factors. Thesedifferences are normal and should be expected. Thestandard negative provides a good starting point forfuture printing requirements.

For example, you made an excellent 8x10 printfrom the standard negative with a filter pack of 40M +60Y and exposed the print for 10 seconds at f/5.6. Theenlarger settings should remain the same as a startingpoint for similar negatives, providing the same type ofpaper is used. For a particular production negative, youmay find it necessary to add a 10M filter to the pack andadjust the printing time to 11 seconds to compensate forthe differences between the new negative and thestandard negative. In other words, the new negative mayprint differently from the standard negative by a 10Mfilter and a 10-percent increase in printing time.

The amount and types of color equipment you usedepend on the volume of color production of theimaging facility where you work. A photo lab that makesoccasional color prints probably uses only a standardnegative and color printing viewing filters. Larger Navyimaging facilities that produce large quantities ofcustom color printing may use evaluation methodsinvolving instruments, such as color analyzers,densitometers, and other electronic devices.

COLOR ANALYZERS

Color analyzers operate by comparing a standardnegative to production negatives. For successfulnegative evaluation, the reference areas must have thesame subject matter in all the negatives; for example, agray card included in the picture, a flesh tone, thehighlighted area of an aircraft wing, or a neutral area ofa ship, all provide a suitable reference area. Inportraiture, a medium-flesh tone is often selected Inother fields of photography, you should either include agray card in the scene or expose an additional negativereplacing the subject with a gray card. In the latter case,the negative with the gray card is used only forevaluation purposes and is replaced by the subjectnegative when the print is made.

When a skin tone is used instead of a gray card inportrait negatives, the color analyzer tends to reproduceall skin tones the same as the standard negativeregardless of variations in skin color or lighting.Similarly, all images of a gray card tend to be printedalike regardless of the position of the card relative to themain light.

Color analyzers are used to reduce the waste that isproduced through the trial-and-error method of colorprinting. The standard negative is used as a referencewhen color analyzing instruments are used. There aretwo categories of color analyzers: off-easel and on-easel.

Off-Easel Analyzers

Off-easel color evaluation is performed bymeasuring or evaluating the color negative before it isplaced in the enlarger. Commonly in Navy imagingfacilities, off-easel evaluation is accomplished using adensitometer. The main advantage of using adensitometer is you can service a number of enlargers.That is especially useful when you cannot have on-easelanalyzers for each color enlarger. Another advantage,off-easel evaluation can be done under normal roomlighting conditions.

To set up an off-easel evaluation system, you mustfirst read the density of the reference patch from yourstandard negative on a transmission densitometer. Youread the reference patch through a red, green, and bluefilter. The densitometer provides you with direct densityreading of the cyan, magenta, and yellow dyes presentin the reference patch. The values that you read from thereference pack are then added to the known standardnegative filter pack of the enlarger. The production

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Figure 12-5.–On-easel color analyzer.302.261

negative to be printed is then read on the densitometerand these densities are subtracted from the total densityvalues of the standard negative (negative referencepatch and enlarger filter pack). This method ofevaluation does not indicate directly the requiredexposure for the production print, but the productionprint exposure can be estimated closely by using thestandard negative exposure and compensating for anychanges to the filter pack. An example on how thisoff-easel evaluation system operates is as follows:

Gray patch of standardnegative = 47C 51M 50Y

Established filter pack forstandard negative = 0C 47M 34Y

Sum: 47C 98M 84Y

Subtract gray patch ofproduction negative –44C 63M 49Y

Difference: 03R 35G 35Y

To illuminate neutral density – 03 03 03

Production negative filter pack 0C 32M 33Y

A reflection densitometer also can be very useful incolor print evaluation. A reflection densitometer can be

used to match an earlier printed print with the color printyou are currently printing. To use a reflectiondensitometer as an aid in color printing, you mustcompare or read a reference area on your test print. Thisis particularly useful when you are making a color printwith neutral areas. As you know, black, gray, and whitehave approximately equal portions of red, green, andblue. By taking a reflection densitometer readingdirectly from one of these neutral areas (such as a graycard, the side of a ship, or part of a gray aircraft), youcan determine what color and the amount of that colorin excess. To change your filter pack for printcorrections, you must take one half of the density valueas read from the densitometer and either add or subtractthat value from your filter pack; for example, you takea reflection densitometer reading from a gray patch onyour color test print. Your density readings are 50R,50G, and 70B. The densitometer indicates that your testprint is high by 20B (too much yellow dye). To adjustthe filter pack, you should add CC10Y to your filter packfor subtractive printing or add CC10B on an additiveprinter.

Another off-easel color evaluation system is a colorvideo analyzer. This system scans the color negative andis viewed directly on a color monitor. The image on themonitor can be manipulated until the proper colorbalance, density, and image size are achieved. The

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corrections are then sent through a translator device tothe printer. This system has essentially been replacedwith electronic darkrooms at Navy imaging facilities.

On-Easel Analyzers

An on-easel color analyzer (fig. 12-5) is anelectronic photometer used to measure the illuminationand three color primaries of light on the baseboard ofthe enlarger. These photometers take thesemeasurements through tricolor filters.

On-easel measurements are made conveniently byplacing a small probe on the reference area of theprojected image on the baseboard. This small probe isconnected to a fiber-optic light tube that carries the lightfrom the reference area to the body of the photometer.

Color analyzers are programmed using standardnegatives printed by the trial-and-error method of colorprinting. Once a good color print is made from thestandard negative, the image luminance of the masternegative is measured from the reference area. Thisreference area is read through red, green, and bluetricolor filtered sensors and finally without filters overthe photocell. The analyzer scale is then zeroed for eachcondition. You then insert the new production negativein the enlarger and place the photocell on the sameprojected reference area on the easel. The aperture anddichroic filters are then changed until the meter is zeroedout once again.

Most on-easel color analyzers have a number ofmemory channels so you can store programs fordifferent film or paper types.

The advantage of on-easel color analyzers is that,unlike off-easel evaluation, each measurementcompensates for filter fading, lamp aging, and differentimage magnifications. Exposure and filtration are givendirectly. A disadvantage is that the readings must bemade under the same conditions as color printing on anenlarger (complete darkness except for the illuminationof the projected image of the enlarger). Both on-easeland off-easel evaluation depend strongly on accuratereadings and placement and choice of a good referencearea.

Two methods of electronically aided colorevaluation are used. They are spot or small-areameasurements and large-area or integrated measure-ments. Small-area measurements made on the easel arethe most accurate; however, a small-reference area is notalways possible.

When small-reference areas are not provided,large-area measurements can be taken. Large-areameasurements are made usually from the wholenegative area. For off-easel evaluation using a

Courtesty of Kreonite Inc.302.262X

Figure 12-6.–Kreonite color processor, Model KCP-16.

densitometer, a large photocell is used to take suchreadings. For on-easel analyzers, the image is integratedby placing diffusion material between the negative andthe photocell. You then place the photocell and samplevarious areas of the projected image. These sample areasare then “‘integrated” to gray as though they were atypical subject. This type of evaluation does notcompensate for images that do not contain typical coloror tonal distributions; for example, when the subject ofa negative is predominantly red, an integrated readingovercompensates and a cyan print results. That is calledsubject anomaly or subject failure. This is the methodused by many automatic printers. Color prints, such asthese, must be color corrected manually.

COLOR PRINT PROCESSING

Color printing paper must be handled and processedin complete darkness because color paper is panchro-matic. Like color film, time and solution temperature ismuch more critical than in black-and-white processing.Because the processing of color paper must be veryconsistent, color prints are not processed in trays. Colorpaper is always processed in automatic color printprocessors (fig. 12-6) or rotary drum processors.

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The chemistry most commonly used in the Navy forcolor paper processing is Kodak Ektacolor RAChemicals for Process RA-4. The RA-4 process is awashless process that consists of color developer,bleach/fix, and stabilizer. The total processing time forthe RA-4 process is about 4 1/2 minutes.

Transparencies that are old or stored under adverseconditions are likely to fade to some degree. This fadingmay not have been equal overall. That can createproblems in printing. Generally, slide duplicates varywidely in quality and do not make high-quality colorprints.

MAKING TRANSPARENCIES FROMCOLOR NEGATIVES

You can make brilliant color transparencies fromcolor negatives as easily as you made color reflectionprints by using color printing materials on a transparentfilm base. These transparencies are of excellent quality.This allows you the option of making them larger,smaller, or the same size as the original negative.

There are several direct positive materials availablefor making color prints directly from color slides. KodakEktachrome 22 paper is a reversal color paper that, whenexposed to a slide, produces a positive color image ofthe slide. Kodak Ektachrome 22 paper is processed inKodak Ektachrome R-3000 chemicals. Consult thePhoto-Lab-Index for the most updated informationconcerning these processes.

Several materials are available for making colortransparencies from color negatives. Two of the mostcommon are Kodak Duratran RA and Kodak DuraclearRA display materials. These materials allow you tomake large-display transparencies from color negatives.

Another way to make full-color prints directly fromcolor transparencies is by the dye destruction colorprocess. At the time this training manual was written,Cibachrome products are the only direct positive colormaterials manufactured using this process.

The Kodak Duratran RA and the Duraclear RAtransparency materials can be printed using the samemethods, printing equipment, and processing chemicalsas Duraflex RA print paper. Both the transparencies andpaper are processed using Kodak Ektacolor RA-4chemicals; however, the transparency materials requirea longer processing time. The Kreonite Model KCP-16allows for this longer processing time. By flipping aswitch, you can slow down the processor, allowing fora longer processing time.

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Cibachrome silver-dye-bleach materials consist ofa white opaque support, coated with light-sensitiveemulsion layers on one side and a matte, anticurl gelatinon the opposite side. This white pigmented plastic filmbase has a similar appearance to paper but is actually afilm, much like color slide materials-the emulsionlayers are arranged in the same order as colortransparency (slide) materials (including the yellowfilter layer).

When printing color transparency materials, youmust use a black easel. Because these materials do nothave a paper backing, light is transmitted through thematerial and reflects back when a black easel is not used.All other printing steps are the same in printing colorpaper and color transparency materials. Consult thePhoto-Lab-Index for starting exposure and filter packsettings.

Unlike conventional color paper processes wheredyes are formed from color couplers during processing,dyes in Cibachrome materials are incorporated in theblue, green, and red light-sensitive layers duringmanufacturing. These cyan, magenta, and yellow dyesare designed to be destroyed when processed. Redexposure is intended to cause the destruction of cyandyes, green exposure leads to the destruction of magentadyes, and blue exposure sets up the destruction of yellowdyes.

COLOR PRINTS FROM COLORTRANSPARENCIES

Color prints can be made directly from colortransparencies (slides) without the time and expense ofmaking an internegative, but the quality of a print canonly be as good as the quality of the transparency fromwhich the print is made. Originals that are poorlyexposed or processed or are damaged or dusty do notprovide satisfactory prints.

The processing of Cibachrome materials involvesfour chemical steps: black-and-white developer,bleach, fixer, and stabilizer. In the black-and-whitedeveloper, the exposed silver halide crystals are reducedto metallic silver. When the silver halides in theemulsion layers are converted to metallic silver, the dyespresent in the emulsions are fragmented. In the bleach,the silver image is converted back to silver salts(halides), and the dye fragments are made eithercolorless or water soluble. The unwanted silver salts(halides) are then removed in the fixer. The stabilizerkeeps the remaining color dyes more permanent.

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The principles of making color positive prints fromcolor transparencies are the same whether couplerdevelopment or dye destruction materials are used.Colored filters are used to alter the printing light toobtain proper color balance, much the same as is donein printing color negatives.

You must keep in mind, however, that you areworking with color positive materials, and not negativematerials. The borders of these positive materials areblack when unexposed. Dust particles and scratches alsoappear black. To make a test print lighter, you mustincrease the exposure. Dodging darkens selective areasof a print, and burning in lightens selective areas of aprint. Color corrections are performed the same as thevisual appearance requires.

AUTOMATED PRINTERS

Many Navy imaging facilities have automatedprinters that print photographic negatives. Most can beused to print both black and white and color. Whenhigh-volume production is routine in an imagingfacility, automated printers are an invaluable piece ofequipment.

There are many types of automated printersthroughout the fleet. Some types hold long rolls ofphotographic paper that must be taken out and processedthrough a processor. Other more sophisticated typesanalyze, expose, cut, process, and dry the paper auto-matically.

ROLL PAPER PRINTERS

The roll paper printer is very popular on larger shipsand shore stations that produce a large volume of colorprints. The advantages of roll paper printers are they areoperated under normal room lighting conditions, andthey are very useful when a large number of the samesize prints are needed from a single negative. Whenthese printers are used, the correct density and color isaccomplished by making test prints. Once thecorrections and number of prints required are keyed intothe printer, the printer makes each exposure andadvances the paper automatically. When the printing iscompleted, the exposed roll of paper is removed andprocessed. After processing, the prints are then cut fromthe roll with a paper cutter.

Roll paper printers have built-in analyzers. Theseanalyzers are calibrated using standard negatives. Whena production negative is printed, the machine refers tothe memory and produces a print using the informationstored from the standard negative. Generally, thatproduces a print that closely represents the original

PH1 Slaughenhaupt

302.263Figure 12-7A.–Front view of Pako BC 24 roll paper printer.

scene; however, test prints are still made to produce thehighest quality prints possible. The most popular rollpaper printer used in Navy imaging facilities is the PakoBC 24 (fig. 12-7A and fig. 12-7B).

MINILAB SYSTEMS

Minilab systems (fig. 12-8) have become verypopular in Navy imaging shore facilities and aircraftcarriers. These types of printers are fast and can be usedto rush production. In these systems, the printer andprocessor are combined into one unit. The printer cutsthe paper to size, exposes it, and automatically feeds itthrough the processor. Minilabs (as they are called) areused in all of the “One Hour” photo-finishing shops thatyou see today.

The operation of a minilab is very easy once youbecome familiar with the system. Minilabs can beoperated under normal room lighting conditions. Theprinter is controlled by a keyboard (fig. 12-9). Somesystems have zoom enlarging lenses to alter the imagesize. The negative can be aligned and composed byadjusting the negative carrier. These adjustments to theimage size and cropping can be seen on a viewingscreen.

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PH1 Shughenhaupt302.264

Figure 12-7B.–Top view of Pako BC 24 roll paper printer.

302.265X

Figure 12-8.–Noritsu QSS-1201 minilab system.

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Figure 12-9.–Keyboard of a Noritsu Model 1001 print processor.

Minilabs have a microprocessor that storesinformation put in by a programmer. The information isretrieved through channels. The channels areprogrammed for different film manufacturers, ISOs,negative sizes, print sizes, and paper combinations. Thevarious information combinations that are stored inthese channels are used to print production negatives;for example, a 35mm Kodacolor negative to a 4x5 printis printed on one channel, and 35mm Fujicolor negativeto a 5x7 print is printed on another. By programmingdifferent negative and print combinations into separatechannels, you are able to produce production printswhich have good density and color balance from theautomatic printer. You can also fine-tune the density andcolor by using the keyboard.

Color correcting on a minilab is less complicatedthan on an enlarger. The keyboard of the printer containsyellow, cyan, magenta, and density keys. These keysrange in value so you can make minor or majoradjustments. When the density of the print is off, densitycan be either added or subtracted. When a productionprint has too much cyan, yellow, or magenta, thesecolors are subtracted. When the print has too much red,green, or blue, the complement of these colors is added.

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After the prints are exposed, the paper is fedautomatically into the processing section of the minilab.The processing section contains chemical tanks and adryer section. Each tank has a roller assembly rack thattransports the print through the processor. Minilabsrequire no plumbing or drains because they use awashless process, such as KodakRA-4 chemistry. WhenKodak RA-4 chemistry is used, the total processing timeis completed in about 4 1/2 minutes.

The setting up and programming of automatedprinters can be complicated. You are expected to be aprinter operator only. Programming the channels,density, and color balance of automated printers shouldbe left to the more experienced imaging facilitypersonnel.

While automated printers are very useful incontrolling a high influx of production, there aredisadvantages in their use. Not all imaging facilitieshave the space required to support automated printers.Cropping is very restricted, and dodging and burningcannot be performed. Like all machines, automatedprinters require maintenance. They also must beprogrammed accurately to function the way they aredesigned. Without the support and expertise ofknowledgeable personnel, normal projection printingmay be preferred.

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CHAPTER 13

MOTION MEDIA

Motion media has gone through many technicaladvances in the past several years. Portable motion-video cameras have changed from cumbersomecameras and recording packs to small hand-heldcameras. Reduced size, improved quality, and easieroperation has, and is continuing to improve andexpand motion video in all areas of the Department ofDefense. Most Navy ships have closed circuittelevision systems for information, entertainment,and educational purposes. Motion media is distributedeasily and dominates all other sources ofcommunication in today’s society. Because of this, theNavy uses this form of communication extensively torelay information.

The most common form of motion-media photog-raphy is video. Since the motion picture is the grand-father to the technology of motion media as we knowit today, it is discussed briefly in this chapter.

MOTION PICTURE

The first fact regarding motion pictures is they donot move. Each image or frame of motion picture filmis a separate, still photograph. These individualimages or frames are normally recorded at a rate of 24separate pictures per second. This rate can be variedto achieve certain effects. Since so little time passesbetween exposing one frame and the next, there isrelatively little difference between pictures, evenwhen the subject moves rapidly.

The illusion of motion in motion-picture photog-raphy is due to the natural characteristic of humanvision. This characteristic of human vision is calledpersistence of vision. Persistence of vision wasdiscovered by Peter Mark Roget, the author of thefamous Thesaurus. The retina of the eye continues toperceive an image for a short period of time after thelight stimulus representing the image has beenremoved. Usually, this “after image” lasts about 1/50second, depending on the brightness of the image.

In viewing a motion picture, the eye continues toperceive the fading image projected from one frameas it is replaced by the next frame, and so on. In effect,

the images are momentarily superimposed in ourvision, so any differences between them, howeverslight, are mentally noted. If these differencessuggest any relative change in subject position, theapparent difference is mentally interpreted asmotion. The mind translates this information intothe logical deduction that whatever we are seeingon the movie screen must be moving.

CAMERAS

Since motion pictures are a series of still pictures,the motion-picture camera is basically the same as thestill-picture camera. The primary difference is that ithas a mechanism for taking a series of manyphotographs in rapid succession and at regularintervals on a ribbon of film. All cameras have thefollowing four basic parts: a lighttight compartment,a lens or lenses, a shutter, and a film plane or pressureplate.

The motion-picture camera has two additionalbasic features; the film drive and intermittent action.The film drive mechanism transports the filmcontinually from a supply spool of unexposed film toa take-up spool of exposed film. This transport takesplace by means of toothed, drive sprockets. The teethof the drive sprockets engage the perforations alongthe edge of the film and move the film through thecamera.

The intermittent action in a motion-picturecamera is caused by a pulldown claw that advancedthe film one frame at a time at the film gate.

During one cycle of operation of a motion-picturecamera, the following action takes place. The film isadvanced by the sprocket drive mechanism. Thepulldown claw or shuttle then advances the film oneframe. The film is stopped momentarily and theshutter revolves once, thereby making the exposure.The pulldown claw then moves the film to the nextframe for exposure. Because the film moves in anintermittent or stop-and-go manner, it becomesnecessary to have a surplus or loops of film beforeand after the pulldown claw to help take up the

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Figure 13-1.–Basic components of a motion-picture camera.

Figure 13-2.–Rotary shutter.

shock and prevent the film from breaking (fig.13-1).

The shutter in most motion-picture cameras is afocal plane type and is called a rotary disk shutter. Arotary disk shutter is a disk that has a segment cut out,causing the shutter to have a light and dark cycle as itrotates. Exposure is made when the cutout segment ofthe shutter passes in front of the film. The film isadvanced during the dark cycle (fig. 13-2).

A motion-picture camera is used to photographaction in a rapid succession of still pictures on a longstrip of film. Each picture area on a motion-picture filmis called a frame, and the speed that the camera isoperated is called frames per second (fps). The standardoperating speed for 16mm cameras is 24 fps. When thecamera operating speed and the rate of projection are thesame, the action looks normal; therefore, the standardprojection speed is also 24 fps. However, it is possible,and sometimes desirable, to make motion pictures at aslower or faster rate than 24 fps. You may do this toeither slow down or speed up the action on the screen.To portray a subject in slow motion, you operate the

camera at a speed faster than the standard 24 fps, butkeep the projector at the standard speed. To portray asubject in fast motion, you operate the camera at a speedslower than 24 fps, and the film is projected at 24 fps.All changes to the portrayal of normal subject motionshould be done by adjusting the camera speed, not themovie projector.

Camera speeds in the thousands of frames persecond are used in scientific and experimental researchto measure and observe such things as the fall of liquids,the speed of objects in flight, and the burstingcharacteristics of objects. When films shot at very fastfps rates are projected at 24 fps, the illusion of subjectmotion on the screen is slowed down considerably. Atthese speeds the viewer can study details of the subjectmatter and obtain research data.

Motion-picture cameras are classified according tothe size (width) of the film they use. The most commonmotion-picture film sizes are as follows: 8mm, super 8,16mm, and 35mm. In the Navy today, motion-picturefilm has almost been completely replaced with videofilm; however, Hollywood productions still usemotion-picture film as large as 70mm.

Lenses used in motion pictures are basically thesame as lenses for still photography; therefore, theinformation on optics presented in chapter 1 also appliesto motion-picture camera lenses. The standard or normalfocal length lens for a 16mm camera is 1 inch (25mm).Longer or shorter focal length lenses should beconsidered as long focal length (telephoto) orwide-angle lenses, respectively, depending on what sizefilm is used. A long focal length lens for 16mm film is38mm or longer. A wide-angle focal length lens for thiscamera is 13mm-17mm. Table 13-1 illustrates sometypical camera and lens combinations.

FILTERS

With one exception, the use of filters for motionpictures is the same as for still photography. The effectsthat filters produce on motion-picture film emulsions arethe same as the effects they produce on stillphotographic film emulsions. The one exception is theuse of a polarizing filter. Camera panning should beavoided because variable darkening of the image results.The information on filters presented in chapter 3 appliesto motion-picture photography as well as stillphotography.

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Figure 13-1.–Camera Sizes and Lens F-1 Lengths

8mm 16mm 35mm

Normal 12mm 25mm 50mm

Wide Angle

Telephoto

6 to 9mm

25mm and above

13 to 17mm

38mm and above

35mm or less

100mm and above

EXPOSURE CALCULATION NOTE: 360 is a constant factor (number of degreesAND CONTROL in a circle).

Exposure meters for measuring incident light can beused directly to help determine lighting ratios. A graycard is used to get an accurate exposure readingwhenever reflected light meter readings are taken.

Incident light exposure meters are very useful formotion pictures because they can be used at a scene tocalculate exposure before the subject arrives. They alsocan be carried throughout the scene, thereby indicatinguneven lighting or “hot spots,” thus indicating whetherthe lighting should be altered.

With a motion-picture camera, the final exposureadjustment is usually made only with the aperturebecause fps rate of the camera determines the shutterspeed. The goal of exposure control for motion picturesis to produce consistent and uniform image densitiesand tones from one scene to the next.

Accurate and correct exposure control can beachieved only through the proper use of a good exposuremeter. The exposure time for a movie camera is a resultof the rate at which the camera is operated (usually 24fps) and the shutter degree opening (the degree of theopen segment of the shutter). The shutter degree openingfor a particular camera is provided by the cameramanufacturer. Given the shutter degree opening, youcan determine exposure time by use of the followingformula:Shutter Degree Opening

360 x fps = Exposure Time in Seconds

For example, suppose you have a camera with ashutter degree opening of 175 degrees and you intend tobe filming at the standard rate of 24 fps. Determine theshutter speed as follows:Shutter Degree Opening 175 175 1

360 x fps=

360 x 24=

8640 = 49

or 1/50 second

The information on exposure provided in chapter 4applies equally well to motion-picture photography as itdoes to still photography.

Neutral density filters (ND) are often used inmotion-picture work to help control exposure becauseof the limited f/stop and shutter speed combinationsavailable on motion-picture cameras. When you areshooting a movie, the fps and the shutter degree openingare fixed. You may not be able to open up the apertureto get the correct exposure control and depth of field;therefore, you would use an ND filter to reduce theamount of light reaching the film. Remember, becauseof the fps rate, you are restricted to a given shutter speed,and stopping the lens down would destroy yourdepth-of-field effect.

MOTION VIDEO

Videotape recording has basically replacedmotion-picture film making. Motion video has a numberof advantages compared to motion-picture coverage.Some of these advantages are as follows:

A videotape camera can record black and whiteas well as color.

No time-consuming film processing is requiredand recordings can be played back immediately.

When necessary videotape may be partially orcompletely erased and used again for severalmore recordings. It can be played back numeroustimes and may be stored indefinitely.

Videotape is edited or assembled more quicklythan film.

Videotapes are duplicated and distributed easilyto other Navy activities.

A video camera is optically similar to a moviecamera, except it does not use film. Considering the

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technical complexity of a video camera, it isfundamentally simple. To understand clearly motionvideo, you must be familiar with some key terms. Theseterms will be seen commonly in all publicationspertaining to video.

KEY TERMS

AGC-Automatic gain control. Regulates thevolume of the audio or video light levels automaticallywithin a camcorder.

Analog-An analog signal that fluctuates exactlylike the original stimulus (examples, sweep second-hand clock, phonograph player).

Ambient Sound-Background sound or “wild”sound. Sound that surrounds the scene or location,received by the microphone and recorded onto magnetictape.

Aspect Ratio-The ratio of the height to the widthof the film or television frame. Three units high to fourunits wide (3:4).

Audio Track-The area of a videotape that is usedfor recording audio information.

Beam Splitter-An optical device within a colorcamera that splits the white light into three primarycolors: red, green, and blue.

Camcorder-A portable video camera withvideotape recorder (VTR) and a microphone attached toform a single unit.

Capstan -An electrically driven roller that rotatesand transports the videotape past the recorder heads atprecise and fixed speeds.

CCD-Charged-coupled device, also called a chip.A small, solid state (silicon resin) imaging device usedin a video camera instead of camera pickup tubes. Insidethe chip, image sensing elements translate the opticalimage into a video signal.

Character Generator-An electronic device usedto create words or graphics that may be electronicallyinserted or “keyed” over the video picture.

Color Bars-A color standard used by the televisionindustry for the alignment of cameras and videotaperecordings.

Component-The processing of RGB (red, green,blue) channels as three separate channels.

Composite Signal (Y/C)-(Also called NTSCsignal) The video signal in which luminance “Y” (black

and white) and chrominance (red, green, blue) and syncinformation are encoded into a single signal.

Control Track-The area of the videotape used forrecording the information necessary to synchronize theall elements during playback.

Digital VTR-A videotape recorder that translatesand records the analog video signal in digital form.

Dub-Duplication of an electronic recording. Dub isalways one generation away from the original recording.

Dropout-A loss of part of the video signal, whichappears as white glitches. Caused by dirty VTR headsor poor quality videotape.

Field-Scanning lines in one-half of one video ortelevision frame. There are two fields (one odd and oneeven) in a frame. One field equals 262.5 scanning lines,which create a total of 525 standard television lines orone frame. Also known as the NTSC signal (U.S. TVsystem).

Frame-The smallest unit in television or film, asingle picture. A complete scanning cycle of the twofields occurs every 1/30 second. A frame equals 525scan lines.

Gain-The level of amplification for a video oraudio signals. Increasing the video gain increases thepicture contrast.

Generation-The number of dubs or copies awayfrom the original recording. The greater the number ofgenerations, the greater the loss of picture quality.

Heads-A small assemble within an audio or videorecording system, which can erase, record or playbackthe signal in electromagnetic impulses.

Helical Scan, or Helical VTR-(Also called slanttrack). A videotape recording or a videotape recorder inwhich the video signal is put on tape in a slanted,diagonal way. Because the tape wraps around the headdrum in a spiral-like configuration, it is called helical.

Noise-Unwanted sounds or electrical interferencein a audio or video signal. In the audio track, there is ahiss or humming sound. In the video picture theinterference appears as “snow.”

NTSC-National Television Standards Committee.U.S. standards for television or video signal broad-casting. Also known as the composite signal (Y/C).

Pickup Tube-The imaging device in a videocamera that converts light into electrical energy (videosignal).

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Pixel-The smallest single picture element withwhich an image is constructed. The light-sensitiveelements in a CCD (chip) camera.

Preroll-To start a videotape and let it roll for a fewseconds before it is put in the playback or record modeso that the electronic system has time to stabilize.

RGB-The separate red, green, and blue color(chrominance), or “C,” video signals.

Slant Track-Same as helical scan.

Time Base Corrector (TBC)-An electronicaccessory to a videotape recorder that helps makeplaybacks or transfers electronically stable. A TBChelps to maintain picture stability even in dubbing-upoperations.

Video Cassette-A plastic container in which avideotape moves from a supply reel to a take-up reel.Used in all but the 1-inch VTRs.

VTR-Videotape recorder or recording. Includesvideo cassette recorders.

Y/C-The separate processing of the luminance (Y)and chrominance (C) signals.

VIDEOTAPE RECORDERS

RECORDING SYSTEMS

Analog and Digital Systems

Both analog and digital systems are used in navalimaging facilities. The analog system is easier tounderstand if you think of it in the same terms as a recordand a phonograph. Analog systems record thecontinually fluctuating video signal that is created andprocessed by a video source (camera) on videotape.

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Videotaping is similar to audiotape recording. Theelectronic impulses of television pictures (video signal)and sound (audio signal) are recorded on the videotapeby magnetizing the iron oxide coating on the videotape.During playback, the recorded video and audio signalsare converted again by the television set into televisionpictures and sounds. However, the amount of electronicinformation is many times greater for video than foraudio recording.

There are many different systems of treating andrecording the video signals. Videotape recordingsystems can be divided roughly into three subsections:analog and digital; composite (Y/C), and component;and tape formats.

In a true component system, the R, G, B channelsare kept separate and treated as separate red, green, andblue video signals throughout the entire recordingprocess. Each of the three signals remains separate evenwhen laid down on the videotape. The componentsystem requires three wires to transport a video signal.This means that all equipment used in the componentsystem requires three wires to handle the video signalthat is incompatible with the NTSC system.

When the video is going to be televised, the signalsof the Y/C and component systems must be combinedinto a single NTSC composite signal before it can bebroadcast.

During playback, the recorded information is retrievedas an identical, continually fluctuating signal from thevideotape.

Digital-video systems work on the same principleas compact disks (CD) used in your home stereo oroffice computer. Digital-video systems convert theanalog video signals by sampling (selecting parts of) thescanned image. It then translates the scanned image intomillions of independent, fixed, values called pixels. Apixel is the smallest single picture element from whichimages are constructed. Each pixel has its own color(hue and saturation) and luminance values. These valuesare expressed as binary numbers (series of zeros andones). The binary numbers are then stored on, andretrieved from, videotape or other storage mediums,such as large-capacity disks.

Composite (Y/C) and Component

Composite (Y/C) and component all refer to the waythe video signal is treated in the videotape recorder. Acomposite video signal means that the luminanceinformation (“Y” signal), chrominance information(“C” signal), and the sync information are combinedinto a single signal (Y+C+sync). Standard televisioninformation is designed to operate with composite videosignals. Only one wire is required to transport acomposite video signal. This composite signal is usuallycalled NTSC, because the electronic specifications fora composite video signal were adopted by the NationalTelevision Standards Committee.

The major disadvantage of a composite signal is thatslight interference exists between the chrominace andluminance information. This interference becomesmore noticeable through each videotape generation.

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Figure 13-3.–Basic principles of a motion-video camera.

Tape Format Systems

The classification of a videotape recorder VTR bytape width was particularly important in the earlier dayswhen the quality of the videotape recording was directlyrelated to the tape format. The old standard used to be,the wider the tape, the higher the quality of therecording. Anything smaller than the l-inch videotapewas considered small format and inferior in quality.Today, 1/2-inch Betacam SP can provide equal orsuperior quality compared to the large-format, l-inchmachines. The Hi8 video camera (8mm) is superior tothe 1/2-inch VHS cameras. Today, “small format” isused mainly to describe small, highly portable televisionequipment, such as small camcorders. Like allstate-of-the-art electronic equipment, smaller no longerimplies inferior quality.

The quality of the tape itself has much to do withthe quality of the picture. No matter how sophisticatedthe video hardware, the resulting picture is only as goodas the videotape being used.

Videotape is a ribbon of polyester film base coatedwith magnetic iron-oxide particles. The surface of thetape, or emulsion side, that faces the video recorderheads is highly polished to maximize tape-to-headcontact and to minimize wear on the heads.

Head clogging results when oxide comes off thetape and gets caught in the head gaps of the recorder. Ifthe tape clogs the video recording heads, you cannotplay back or record. Normally, the heads will clog afterrecording or playing back half a dozen or so tapes. Youshould have the heads cleaned according to themanufacturer’s recommendations or according toPlanned Maintenance System (PMS) requirements.

Videotape dropout occurs when a piece of magneticoxide or coating on the tape flakes off or is rough,causing a “hole” or line of missing information in thepicture when it is viewed on the monitor. Dropout

appears on the TV screen as little black or white lines,darting across the picture. The main causes of dropoutare dirty heads or imperfections in the tape. Oncedropout occurs, it cannot be replaced or corrected on thetape.

There are no black-and-white or color videotapes.Any videotape will record either black and white orcolor. Black and white or color depends solely onwhether the camera and monitor are black and white orcolor.

THE VIDEO CAMERA

Refer to figure 13-3 to help clarify how a videocamera operates. In the video camera, an image (a) isgathered by the camera lens (b), and focused on the faceof the camera pickup tube (photocathode) or asolid-state imaging device (c). The face or screen of thephotocathode is covered with thousands of lightsensitive dots. As light from a particular part of the scenefalls on each dot, the dot becomes electrically charged.A charge pattern is built up proportionally to thebrightness of the scene. An electron beam in the pickuptube emits a steady beam of electron particles. Thiselectron beam scans the charged pattern on thephotocathode and reads over it in a series of lines. Thescanning beam neutralizes each picture element or dotand produces varying electrical currents (the videosignal). These currents are proportional to the chargepattern which are proportional to the light transmittedthrough the lens.

The current or video signal (picture) is amplified (d)and then recorded on tape by rotating heads (e) and thenconverted back to visible screen images in theviewfinder (f).

As each dot on the tube screen is scanned, the dotgives up its information and is wiped clean so the tubescreen can respond to any new light it receives.

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Figure 13-4.–Video scanning.

Figure 13-4 illustrates how this scanning process takesplace. The electron beam first scans all odd-numberedlines, from left to right (a). When all odd-numbered lineshave been scanned, it makes up a field. One fieldconsists of 262.5 lines. After the odd-numbered ones arescanned, the beam jumps back to the top of the screen.At this point, the beam is so weak that it does not affectthe screen. Back at the top of the screen the beam startsscanning the even-numbered lines (b). When alleven-numbered lines are scanned a second field isformed. The two fields make up a frame (c) or onecomplete television picture. A frame consists of525 lines. After completing a frame, the beam returns tothe top to start with another first field.

This charge-forming-and-scanning is a fast,continuous process. The complete camera tube screen(frame) is scanned 30 times per second.

The motion-video camera picks up reflections oflight from the scene while the microphone picks upsound. At the same time, the camera changes the lightreflections into electrical impulses, and the microphonechanges the sound into electrical impulses.

This is basically the way a black-and-white videocamera works. A color video camera works on the sameprinciple; however, a color video camera has threetubes. Through the use of a beam splitting device andfilters, one tube forms a red image, a second tube formsa green image, and the third tube forms a blue image.The three tubes have identical scanning patterns, so thepicture signals they produce are identical, except theydiffer in color.

During a video recording, the videotape moves pasta rotating head that “writes” the video and audio signalson the videotape. During playback, the rotating head“reads” the magnetically stored information off the tapeSome VTRs use two or four heads for their record/play(write/read) functions. Digital VTRs have even more

Figure 13-5.–Helical scanning system.

read/write heads. For explanation purposes a VTR withtwo record/play heads is discussed in this chapter.

Helical, or Slant-Track, System

The two heads are mounted opposite each other,either on a rapidly spinning head drum or on a bar thatspins inside a stationary head drum. When the bar spinsinside a stationary head drum, the heads contact the tapethrough a slot in the head drum. The tape is woundaround the head drum in a slanted, spiral-like manner.This permits more tape area to contact the head,allowing the transfer of large amounts of videoinformation (fig. 13-5). If the head contacted only thewidth of the tape, extreme tape or drum speed would benecessary. Because the Greek word for spiral is helix,this tape wrap, and often the whole video-recordingsystem, is called the helical scan, or slant track

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Figure 13-6.–Basic videotape track system.

Most videotape recorders put at least four separatetracks on the tape: the video track that contains thepicture information, two audio tracks that contain allsound information, and a control track that controls thevideotape and rotation speed of the video heads(fig. 13-6).

VIDEO TRACK.-When video signals arerecorded in the normal NTSC composite configuration,one pass of the head records a complete field of videoinformation (Y+C). The next pass of the head, (or, if youhave a two-head machine, the second head) lays downthe second field right next to it, completing a singlevideo frame. Two fields make up a single frame. Thetwo heads must “‘write” sixty tracks (thirty frames) foreach second of NTSC video. In the four-head VTR, onepair of heads records at normal tape speed and the otherpair records at a slower speed.

AUDIO TRACK.-The audio tracks record theaudio signal. They are usually recorded by fixedrecording heads that are near the edge of the tape andrun along the length of the videotape. Because of thedemand for stereo audio and for keeping certain soundsseparate even in monophonic sound, all VTR systemsprovide at least two audio tracks.

CONTROL TRACK.-The control track containsevenly spaced blips or spikes, called the sync pulse, thatmark each complete television frame. These pulsessynchronize the tape speed and the rotation speed of therecording heads. This allows the tape to be played on asimilar machine without picture breakups. Because thecontrol track marks each frame of recorded video, it alsoaids in videotape editing.

Hi8 Track System

Because space is so limited in 8mm videotape, thesesystems squeeze the automatically generated time codeand other data between the video and audio portion of asingle-slanted track The time code has been developedto provide a precise editing reference by recording the

exact frame address onto the tape. The 8mm time codeis digitally recorded by units of hour, minute, second,and frame by the video heads. The 8mm time code isused only for 8mm format and is not compatible withother recording formats.

The Hi8 VTR splits each slanted track into audiofrequency modulation (AFM) and video information. Italso uses a pulse code modulation (PCM) audio trackThe audio technology used in an Hi8 VTR is superior tovideo home system (VHS). The video/AFM audio trackand the PCM audio track are separated by the time-codedata (fig. 13-7).

VIDEO MONITOR

For viewing purposes, you must playback therecording either to the transmitter or directly to areceiver (TV set or monitor). At the receiver, the videoand audio signals are separated and processed byseparate circuitry. This circuitry changes the video andaudio signals back to sound that you can hear andpictures that you can see. The sound is reproduced at theloudspeaker, and the picture is reproduced on the faceof the cathode-ray picture tube.

A primary part of the monitor system is thecathode-ray tube. A type of cathode-ray tube is used in

Figure 13-7.–Hi8 VTR tracks.

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302.291XFigure 13-8.–Hi8 video camera.

the camera to convert light rays into electrical impulses.The cathode-ray tube converts the electrical impulsesback into light in the receiver (monitor).

CAMCORDERS

As a nonspecialized Photographer's Mate without amotion-media NEC 8143, you will be concerned mostlywith recording motion-video images using a singlecamcorder. A camcorder has a single VTR directlyattached to the camera to form a camera and recorderunit.

Each camcorder comes with manufacturer’sinstructions on how to use the equipment. Because thereare a great variety of camcorders in the Navy, you mustconsult the instruction manual supplied with yourmachine for best results. One common motion-videocamera used in the Navy is the Hi8 video camera(fig. 13-8).

The Hi8 camcorder is a small camera-VTR unit thatrecords amazingly high-quality pictures and soundcompared to a video home system (VHS) camcorder. Ituses a special 8mm (about 1/3 inch) cassette withmetal-oxide coated tape. These tapes are similar in sizeto an audio cassette tape.

A tempting practice while operating a camcorder isto shoot all videotape in the automatic mode. On theSony Hi8 camcorder, when the AUTO LOCK switch isset, the iris, focus, white balance, sensitivity, and shutterspeed (1/60) are set and adjusted automatically. If leftunnoticed, there are several circumstances under whichthe AUTO LOCK mode will produce poor orundesirable results. You, as the camera operator, mustpay attention to the subject and the surrounding

situations to produce quality motion-video coverage; inparticular, brightness levels, focusing, color tempera-ture of the light source, and subject movement.

Brightness Levels

The single greatest influence on picture quality isthe brightness level. When the brightness level is toolow, the recorded image looks grainy and flat. Byfamiliarizing yourself with the brightness level of thesubject, you can improve your recordings tremendously.In situations where the light level exceeds 100,000 lux,such as snow-covered scenes or a beach scene on a clearsummer day, an ND filter is required. Under otherdaylight and bright, indoor conditions, the automatic irisis capable of adjusting to provide excellent results;however, in a low-light situation, such as spaces onboardship, auxiliary lighting may be required to provide clear,sharp images. Another alternative, when available onyour camcorder, is to increase gain. By increasing thegain, you increase the level of amplification of the videosignal. This increases the contrast and provides ahigher-quality recorded image.

In some situations, such as high-contrast scenes orbacklit subjects, you must adjust the iris manually. Justlike the aperture on a still camera, when the subject isbacklit, open up the iris. When the subject is too bright,you must close down the iris.

Manual Focusing

There are situations when you must manually focusthe camcorder to obtain sharp images. In theautofocusing mode, the system uses a sensor at thecenter of the viewfinder screen to adjust the focusautomatically; therefore, in situations where there isinsufficient light, the subject is strongly backlit, or withsubjects consisting of flat colors or little contrast (suchas bulkheads or the sky), the autofocusing mode maynot function accurately.

Other situations in which you should use manualfocusing are as follows:

When the subject has finely detailed repetitivepatterns

When one subject is close to the camera andanother is far away

When the subjects are located behind screens,nets, or frosted glass

When objects pass between the camera and theprimary or intended subject

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When using lenses or filters to create specialeffects

You may also want to use manual focusing toconserve battery power.

CAUTION

NEVER attempt to force or manually focusthe focus ring when the camera is set in theautofocusing mode. This may damage thecamera.

White Balance

Usually the auto white balance function of a videocamera operates sufficiently in the automatic position;however, there are situations when the automatic lightbalance may not work correctly. Some of these cases areas follows:

When the light reflecting from the subject isdifferent from the light that is illuminating thecamcorder

When shooting a monochromatic subject or thesubject is against a monochromatic background

When recording under a sodium lamp, mercurylamp, or a white fluorescent lamp

When recording outdoors under neon lights orfireworks

When shooting scenes just before sunrise or rightafter sunset

To white balance a motion-video camera manually,you can follow a simple procedure. Normally a whitelens cap, made of a diffuse plastic material, is suppliedwith the camera. You also can use any white object towhite balance the camera, providing the white object isilluminated under the same conditions that you will beshooting. To white balance, you simply place the whitelens cap over the lens, point the camera at the lightsource, and press the white balance button. Remember,when in the manual white-balance mode, if the colortemperature of the light changes, you must reset thewhite balance.

To create special effects, there may be times whenyou want to “lie” to the white balance sensor; forexample, you may want to produce motion video thathas a warm color balance, such as that which occurs atsunrise or sunset. To produce video coverage with warmcharacteristics, you can "white balance" the video

camera on a blue object or any of the complimentarycolors. When you record the scene, an overall yellowcast is produced. You can also use filters to createvarious effects.

Shutter Speed

When the Hi8 camera is set in the AUTO LOCKposition, the shutter speed is set at the normal speed of1/60 second. When fast-moving subjects are recorded atthe normal shutter speed, the pictures are not recordedclearly. You can improve the image quality by increasingthe shutter speed.

Because more light is required when shooting athigher shutter speeds, you should not try to shoot fastobjects under poor or low-lighting conditions. Outdoorson clear days, you can record fast-moving subjects atshutter speeds of 1/2000 to 1/10000. On overcast days,shutter speeds of 1/250 to 1/1000 are recommended.While handholding the camera indoors, you may wantto provide a more stable image. In this case, a shutterspeed of 1/100 is recommended. Do not use a shutterspeed of 1/250 or higher indoors unless you useadditional artificial lighting.

CAMERA-HANDLING TECHNIQUES

In handling a motion-media camera, two words youmust keep in mind are STEADINESS andSMOOTHNESS. When you are shooting motion media,the camera must be held steady, and deliberate cameramovements (such as tilts, pans, dollys, zooming, and soon) must be made smoothly. When viewed, the imagesundergo a high degree of enlargement. Image movementcaused by camera unsteadiness is distracting to theaudience.

HANDHOLDING THE CAMERA

Very few division officers or chiefs in an imagingfacility expect a cameraperson to shoot every scene froma tripod. Tripods cut down on maneuverability. Whenyou are shooting uncontrolled action, “shooting fromthe hip” is common practice. During a fast-breakingevent, it is usually the only way you can get the requiredcoverage. When there is plenty of action in the scene,people do not notice the effects of excessive cameramovement by the cameraman.

There are many occasions when freedom ofmovement and mobility in handholding the camera areessential. You can still produce acceptable motion-videocoverage if you use your body as a camera support and

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shock absorber. When handholding a camera, keep yourarms in close to your body and your legs and feet spreadabout a shoulder width apart. Bend your knees slightly,keeping your weight on the balls of your feet. Lean yourbody backslightly for better balance. The camera shouldbe over your knees for greatest stability. Hold the camerafirmly against your face and place your hand in thecamera strap.

Control your breathing while shooting. Each breathyou take causes the camera to rise and fall slightly. Thetechnique of taking a deep breath, exhaling a little, andholding the rest while you shoot is an effective way tohelp eliminate camera unsteadiness. When shooting along scene, breathe as evenly and slowly as possible.

For added steadiness when handholding a camera,you can lean against something, such as a tree or a wall.Another method for handholding a video camera is tokneel on one leg and rest your elbow on the raised knee.When you must pan the camera, keep your elbow freeand pivot your body at the waist.

When handholding a video camera, keep thefollowing facts in mind to reduce the shakiness problem:

Concentrate on handholding the camera steadywhile using a wide-angle lens. Your shakiness will bereduced considerably. When using a wide-angle lens,you must get as close to the subject as possible to providean acceptable image size.

TRIPODS

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Shakiness is directly proportional to the focallength of the lens. Slight shakiness may be almostunnoticeable with a wide lens. With a long lens, the sameamount of shakiness destroys the entire scene. (See table13-1.)

Give yourself a steady platform. Before yousqueeze the record button, inhale, then partially exhale.Now, squeeze. Do not pull or jerk the record button.Lean against a building, a tree, or the side of a car. Anysupport of this nature may provide more steadiness thanfree standing.

A tripod can literally be considered the “basis” formost good motion-media products. To help you realizejust how important a tripod is for shooting motionmedia, consider handholding a movie projector. Youcannot hold the projector steady for any period of time.The picture weaves around on the screen and is verydistracting to the viewers. ‘The same result is createdwhen a motion-video camera is handheld, but in thiscase, images within the picture area appear to weave

around because of camera movement. The image yousee in the camera viewfinder is so small that you maynot notice the camera movement. It is easy to think youare holding the camera steady. Bear in mind that theslightest amount of camera movement is magnifiedmany times when the image is played back

While not all situations permit the use of a tripod,the use of a folded tripod as a unipod is preferable toshooting without camera support. Even the lightestweight, so-called “handheld” video camera producesmuch better results when supported adequately.

Camera steadiness is only one advantage of using atripod. When using a tripod, you automatically takemore time to compose and check scenes beforerecording them.

RECORDING FROM A MOVING VEHICLE

Sometimes you may have to record from a movingvehicle, such as a truck or a boat. For this type ofassignment, the problem of holding the camera steadybecomes even more difficult. In this situation you shouldhandhold the camera, because a tripod transmitsvibrations and movements from the vehicle to thecamera. Keep your weight on the balls of your feet, andkeep your knees flexed so you can sway and bend as thevehicle rolls, pitches, or bounces. Watch the horizon inthe viewfinder. A tilted or wobbly horizon is verydetracting when being viewed. When shooting frommoving vehicles you should use a short focal-length lensand a fast shutter speed.

CAUTION

When shooting from a moving vehicle, youmust follow all safety precautions. Usecommon sense, you do not want to jeopardizeyourself or the video equipment.

PANNING

One of the most commonly abused motion-mediatechniques is panning. Panning is moving the camerafrom left to right or right to left. Moving it up or downis called tilting.

Only a few subjects require panning while you areactually taping. The use of panning can keep a movingprocession, such as a marching unit in view, show asweep of landscape, or show the relationship betweenobjects or subjects.

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There are definite and clear-cut rules and methodsfor panning. The very first is PAN ONLY WHENPANNING IS NECESSARY. Panning a camera withouta valid reason produces images that only irritate theviewer.

Making Pans

Making professional-quality pans takes practiceand experience; however, you can easily gain this skill.One of the first and most important points to rememberis to pan slowly and smoothly. Panning appears fasteron the screen than it actually is; therefore, camera pansmust be slow and consistent while maintaining asmooth, steady panning motion. When panning amoving object, you must keep pace with the object andallow for subject lead room. Panning too fast may makethe viewer dizzy; therefore, it is advisable not to positionthe camera too close to the subject. The farther thesubject is from the camera, the slower the pan requiredto follow the subject at a given speed.

Throughout the entire pan, the camera must be levelwithout up and down wobbling. Whenever possible,rehearse the pan before you actually shoot. Knowexactly where and when you want to start and end thepan. Practice the pan several times without recording ontape. Make the pan shot only after you can do it smoothlyand accurately. The smoothest and best pans are madewith the use of a tripod or other suitable camera support.Good handheld pans are always difficult to achieve.

Before you pan with a tripod, be sure the camera isabsolutely level. Check the camera for level throughoutthe entire arc of the pan with a spirit bubble level locatedon top of the tripod head.

To produce better pan shots, position yourselfcomfortably for the end of the pan. Then, keeping yourfeet in this position, “wind” yourself around to the startpan position. As the pan progresses, "unwind" into themost comfortable position for a smooth stop. Whenusing a tripod, be careful not to bump into the tripod asyou are shooting.

Tilting the Camera

Moving a camera up and down vertically is calledtilting. Tilting is useful when you want to photographtall structures in one shot or to follow action, such as aparachute jumper.

Most of the rules that apply to horizontal panningapply equally well to tilting. As with horizontal panning,

tilting should be used only when stationary shots cannotaccomplish the desired effect.

A tilt should be made slowly and smoothly. Knowwhere and when you want to start and end the tilt.Usually, you start and end a tilt with a stationary shot.

To photograph a tall building or object, you shouldnormally start the tilt at the bottom and move up. Thisis the way people naturally look at tall objects. Theremay be times, however, when you may start a tilt at thetop and move down; for example, you might showflames coming out from the top-floor windows of askyscraper, then tilt down to show the fire trucksarriving. When you are following action with a tilt, thetype of action determines the direction of tilt. Also, aswith a horizontal pan, you should show enough of thesurrounding area so the audience can associate thesubject with its location.

SHOT VARIETY

One of the great advantages of motion media is thatit involves the viewers in the action. Viewers feel thatthey are there and participating in whatever is happeningon the screen. They can be made to feel that they aremoving along with the action as it develops, theybecome even more involved. Changes in the cameraangle permit the viewers to see the same subject fromseveral different positions, as though they were movingwithin the scene. This adds variety and makes theimages they see more interesting because something isa little different about each one. However, be careful tokeep these camera-angle changes from confusing theviewers. If the changes are so different that they seemto be in other locations, the viewers lose theirorientation. When choosing the camera angle, be sureyou present the subject from the best possible vantagepoint and create the proper psychological effect.

MOVEMENT

When you can control the angle at which the actionpasses across the camera lens axis, your shots will showthe apparent speeding up or slowing down action.Objects moving at right angles to the lens (across thelens axis) appear to be moving faster than objectsapproaching the lens directly or going straight awayfrom it. You can vary the apparent speed of objects byselecting various camera angles.

Good motion-media footage needs movement.Movement can take place in front of the camera, of thecamera itself, and of course in the picture itself. The

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movements necessary for good motion video aredivided into three categories:

Primary movement (movement of the subject)

Secondary movement (movement of the camera)

Tertiary movement (movement produced bysuccessive shots from different cameras)

Primary Movement

Movement in front of the camera, usually that of thesubject, is called primary movement. Primarymovement toward or away from the camera is strongerthan lateral movement. More emphasis is created byhaving the subject move toward or away from thecamera. Exits and entrances are more impressive whenthey occur toward or away from the camera. Lateralmovement of a subject should always be lead with thecamera The viewer wants to know where the subject isgoing, not where it has been.

Secondary Movement

Secondary or camera movement is normally donein television studios. Secondary movements include:pans, tilts, dollys, zooms, trucks, and pedestalmovements. Secondary movements are used to followprimary movement, to change or adjust picturecomposition, or to emphasize or dramatize something.Secondary movements must have a valid purpose. Donot make them just for something to do.

DOLLY.-A dolly is a piece of equipment thatnormally requires a small crew to operate. You candolly-in to increase the size of an object gradually on thescreen or dolly-out to decrease the size of the object onthe screen. Likewise, dollying decreases or increases thefield of view. A zoom lens can be used for the samepurpose as a dolly. During a zoom, the camera does notmove; therefore, perspective does not change as it doesduring a dolly.

TRUCK.-A truck is a piece of equipment that isbasically a tripod with wheels. The camera is used tofollow lateral subject movement or you could truck thecamera along the objects. In either case,camera-to-subject distance does not change.

PEDESTAL.-A pedestal is used to either raise orlower the camera. Pedestalling can provide the audiencewith a view looking down on the subject or up at thesubject. A pedestal may also be used to compensate fortall or short camerapersons or subjects.

Tertiary Movement

Tertiary movement results from a sequence of shotsfrom two or more cameras. When two or morecameras are used, you can select from a variety ofpictures and determine which picture is to be recordedand when. When more than one camera is used, youcan easily emphasize, de-emphasize, show action andreaction in rapid or slow succession. The effect oftertiary movement is accomplished through videotapeediting.

COMPOSITION

Video images, like still photographs, are subject tothe aesthetic rules of picture composition. There are,however, factors peculiar to video that more or lessinfluence television composition. These factors are asfollows:

The small monitor requires objects to be shownrelatively large so they can be seen clearly on asmall screen. You must shoot more extremeclose-ups (ECU), close-ups (CU), medium shots(MS), few long shots (LS), and very few extremelong shots (ELS).

The 3:4 aspect ratio of the picture cannot bechanged so all picture elements must becomposed to fit it. The aspect ratio is the ratio ofpicture height to width. There is no verticalformat in television. You must always thinkhorizontal format.

The video camera is the eyes of the viewer.Therefore, camera movement, as well as thestatic arrangement of elements within the frame,must be considered.

When shooting uncontrolled action, you may notbe able to predetermine composition. Sometimesall you can do is correct certain compositionalerrors.

In motion media, the picture on the screen is referredto as a shot. A shot is one continuous camera run fromthe time the recording starts to the time the recordingstops. A shot may last a few seconds, several minutes,or the entire program. A motion-video camerapersonmust always think in terms of shots.

Most rules of composition in still photographyapply equally well to composition in motion media.Composition was covered earlier in chapter 5. The

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Figure 13-9.–TV framing.

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302.210Figure 13-10.–Long shot, medium shot, and closeup shot progression.

simple line drawing examples of TV framing (fig. 13-9)indicates how to stage and show elements within theconfines of the small 3:4 fixed aspect ratio of a televisionpicture.

Use high- and low-camera angles with caution.High angles tend to shorten the legs of a person. Lowangles may distort the body and face of the subject. Ofcourse, watch for objects that seem to be growing out ofor are balanced on a person's head.

Area of Talent Included

Most motion-media assignments involve people.You may find it convenient to identify people shots bythe section of the body that is included in the frame. Theperson's head is usually in the top of the picture;therefore, shots vary according to the lowest part of thetalent shown at the bottom of the screen. Thus the termsused to describe various people shots are as follows: fullfigure shot, knee shot, thigh shot, waist shot, bust shot,head shot, tight head shot.

Number of People Included

The shot designations that are easiest to rememberare the ones that refer to the number of people includedin the picture. When only one person is to be shot, it isa one-shot. Obviously, a shot that shows two people isa two-shot, three people make a three-shot, and so on;however, when five or six people are pictured it is called

a group-shot. A crowd-shot is when a large group of 20or more people is being framed.

BASIC SEQUENCE

During motion-media recording, you can changethe image size by changing the camera-to-subjectdistance or by using a zoom lens (which also changesthe field of view).

When recording an event on motion media, there arethree basic shots or sequences you must use: long shots(LS), medium shots (MS), and closeup shots (CU)(fig. 13-10). The type of shot being used can limit orincrease the amount of visual information presented tothe viewer. Long shots generally establish a location. Amedium shot is used primarily as a transition between along shot and closeup shot. Closeup shots create impactand provide more detail and less visual informationpertaining to the subject's surroundings.

Shot classifications can be broken down into fivecategories: extreme long shots, long shots, mediumshots, closeup shots, and extreme closeup shots.

Extreme Long Shots

An extreme long shot (ELS) is used to portray a vastarea from an apparently very long distance. An ELS isused to impress the viewer with the immense scope ofthe setting or scene. An ELS is best usually when madewith a stationary camera. Camera panning for an ELS

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should be avoided unless panning is needed to showmore of the setting or to help increase audience interestin the film. An extreme long shot can be used to give theaudience an overall view of the setting before the mainaction is introduced The use of an ELS is an effectiveway to capture audience interest from the start. Extremelong shots should normally be taken from a high vantagepoint, such as from a tall building, a hilltop, or anaircraft. Extreme long shots are used primarily in filmsand are seldom used in video productions.

Long Shots

A long shot (LS) shows the entire scene area wherethe action is to take place. The setting, the actors, andthe props are shown with an LS to acquaint the audiencewith their overall appearance and location within thescene. An LS is used to establish all elements within thescene so the audience knows who and what is involvedand where they are located An LS, therefore, tellswhere. It establishes where the action is taking place.

The subject's entrances, exits, and movementswithin a scene should normally be shown with an LSwhen their locations in the scene are significant.Following actors from location to location within ascene area with closeup shots confuses the viewer aboutthe location of the subject within the scene.

The composition for an LS is usually ‘loose,” givingroom for the subject to move about. While this maymake identification of actors somewhat difficult, an LSis usually short and the subjects will be identifiable incloser shots.

Medium Shots

A medium shot (MS) is usually used between a longshot and a closeup shot. After the scene location has beenestablished with an LS, the camera is moved closer tothe main subject or a longer focal-length lens is used tobring the main element of the scene into full frame ornear full-frame size. A medium shot tends to narrow thecenter of interest for the audience and answers thequestion “what.”

In an MS, actors are usually photographed to showthem from the waist up. An MS is normally sufficient toshow clearly the facial expressions, gestures, ormovements of a single actor or a small group of actors.

With an MS, movement of the subject can befollowed with a pan or other camera movement whilestill showing enough of the surroundings so the audiencedoes not become disoriented. Motion-media coverageshould normally progress from a long shot, to a mediumshot, to a close-up, then back to a medium shot. This

reestablishes the scene location or the actors within thescene.

Closeup Shots

The closeup shot (CU) fills a frame with the mostimportant part of a scene. The CU should include onlyaction of primary interest The portion selected of anoverall scene, such as a face, a small object, or a smallpart of the action, may be filmed with a closeup shot.Close-ups give the audience a detailed view of the mostimportant part or action within a scene. Close-ups alsohelp to build audience interest in the film. The CU shotcan be used to “move” the audience into the scene,eliminate nonessentials, or isolate a significant incident.

As a motion-media cameraperson, one of thestrongest storytelling devices you have are close-ups.Closeup shots should be reserved for important parts ofthe story so they deliver impact to the audience.

Extreme Closeup Shots

Very small objects or areas or small portions of largeobjects can be photographed with an extreme closeupshot (ECU), so their images are magnified on the screen.Small machine parts, such as calibrations on a ruler ora match at the end of a cigarette, can be very effectivewhen shown on a full screen in an ECU.

Do not forget, you must change camera anglesbetween shots within a shot sequence.

CONTINUITY

Motion media should present an event in acontinuous, smooth, logical and coherent manner. Whenthis goal is reached, the film has good continuity.Continuity plays a major role in the success or failure ofa project. Without good continuity, a motion videowould be nothing more than a jumbled mass of unrelatedstill-pictures. On the other hand, good continuity in afilm encourages the audience to become absorbed in thefilm. Continuity then is the smooth flow of action orevents from one shot or sequence to the next. Continuityis the correlation of details such as props, lighting, soundlevel, image placement, and direction of movementacross the screen between successive shots of the samepiece of action.

The shooting of all motion media should be basedon a shooting plan. This plan may be as simple as a fewscribbled notes, or it can be an elaborate script. Thebetter the shooting plan, the better your chances ofsuccess in achieving good continuity. Another way youcan learn to create good continuity is to watch and

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analyze “Hollywood” movies. The next time you see aHollywood production, notice how the action flowssmoothly from shot to shot and from scene to scene. Tryto visualize the techniques and camera angles that wereused. Then, on your next assignment, plan them first,then use some of these professional techniques toachieve good continuity.

The first step toward good continuity in your filmsis the planning beforehand. You should plan yourcontinuity and put your ideas on paper. Do not get theidea that all your shots have to follow a written script.News events, and other uncontrolled action, are usuallyshot without a script; nevertheless, you should be ableto anticipate action and prepare a mental script. Theinformation you must know before starting to shoot iswhat scenes and actions are needed to satisfy therequestor.

SCREEN DIRECTION

In motion-media photography, the direction aperson or object either looks or moves can causecontinuity problems. The direction a person or objectlooks or moves is called screen direction. When a lookor move in a particular direction is unaccountablychanged from one shot or scene to another, thecontinuity of the film is disrupted. Any change in screendirection must be explained or the subject may suddenlychange screen direction and appear to be going thewrong way.

How the camera “sees” the action-not how theaction actually appears-is important. In other words, theaudience judges the action by its screen appearance, notby the way it actually appeared during filming.

There are four types of screen direction. They are asfollows: neutral, constant, contrasting, and static.

Neutral Screen Direction

Neutral screen direction movement shows subjectsmoving toward or away from the camera. Becauseneutral screen direction movement is nondirectional, itmay be used or intercut with scenes that show movementin either right or left directions. The following areneutral screen direction movements.

Head-on and tail-away shots show the subjectmoving directly toward or away from the camera. Foran absolutely neutral shot, only the front or back of thesubject should be shown. When one side of the subjectis shown, the shot will show some direction and not beabsolutely neutral. Entrance and exit shots also showdirection and therefore are not neutral.

Figure 13-11.–Showing a change in screen direction.

A shot can start as a neutral shot and transition intoa directional shot, or vice versa; for example, start witha head-on shot of a car and continue filming as the carturns to the right and exits the frame, or start with adirection showing a shot of the car entering the framefrom the left, and continue filming as the car turns leftto a tail-away neutral shot (fig. 13-11). These types of

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302.214Figure 13-12.–Showing change of screen direction.

shots can be used to change screen direction bytemporarily showing a neutral condition between twoshots when the subject moves in opposite directions.

Tracking shots are accomplished by moving thecamera directly ahead or behind the subject, eitherleading or following the subject, respectively.

As with head-on or tail-away shots, tracking shotsare neutral only when the subject is not shown enteringor leaving the frame and when only the front or back ofthe subject is shown.

High-or-low camera angle shots-The subjectmoves directly toward and under or over the camera so,the subject exits at either the bottom or the top of theframe. Examples: a train, shot from a high-cameraangle, may move directly under the camera and exit atthe bottom of the frame, or an aircraft may take off andmove over a low-angled camera and exit at the top ofthe frame.

Subjects traveling abreast shots-Two or moresubjects move directly toward the camera and split upto exit the frame on both sides of the camera, or enterthe frame on both sides of the camera and join up,moving directly away from the camera.

A neutral shot inserted between two shots of asubject moving in opposite cross-screen directionsdistracts the audience momentarily to allow for thechange in direction.

To open a sequence, you can use a head-on shot tobring a moving subject from a distant point toward theaudience. To close a sequence, you can use a tail-awayshot of a subject moving away from the camera. Shots,such as these, present moving images that increase or

decrease in size and have more of an effect on apparentdepth than do cross-screen movements.

Head-on and tail-away tracking shots add variety byoffering a change from the usual three-quarter sideshots. Head-on shots tend to produce greater audienceimpact because the audience is “placed” dead centerwith the action advancing toward them.

Constant Screen Direction

Constant screen direction shows subjects moving inone direction only. When one subject moves in the samedirection through a series of shots, progression isrepresented.

Once screen direction has been established, itshould be maintained until a change in direction can beexplained. When a shot suddenly shows a subjecttraveling in the opposite direction to the previous shot,the audience will get the impression that the subject hasturned around and is heading back to the starting point.Any change in screen direction must be explained.

One way to change screen direction (for example, ahead-on to a tail-away) and explain the change to theviewers is to film the subject in the following sequence.First, record a head-on shot. Secondly, cut the shot to athree-quarter angle of the subject moving left to right.Next, cut the three-quarter angle to a view of the subjectcrossing the screen, then to a rear three-quarter angle ofthe subject. Finally, cut from the rear three-quarter angleto a tail-away shot (fig. 13-12).

A way to maintain constant screen direction is to usethe action-axis technique. An action axis is nothing morethan an imaginary line created by subject movement.

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Figure 13-13.–Subject crossing the action axis.

When the camera is positioned on the same side ofthe action axis each time it is moved for a series of shots,the screen direction remains the same throughout theseries. The relationship between the camera and subjectmovement or action axis remains the same if the cameradoes not cross the action axis. Once established, screendirection can be maintained by keeping the camera onthe same side of the action axis.

When constant screen direction cannot bemaintained, any change in direction MUST be visuallyexplained to the audience. Constant screen directionchanges can be explained in the following ways:

Show the moving subject actually changingdirection. This is the most effective way to changescreen direction because the audience sees the subjectchange direction and there is no doubt in their mindshow it took place.

Film the moving subject crossing the action axison a corner or curve. This permits the subject to exit the

frame on the “wrong side,” thus changing screendirection (fig. 13-13).

Use a reaction closeup shot of an observerviewing the movement in the new direction. A reactionclose-up serves as a neutral shot and distracts theaudience, so the change in screen direction can takeplace. A reaction close-up, in this situation, could be aclose-up of an observer’s head turning to follow themovement of the previous scene. The head of theobserver should turn as though the action is taking placebehind the camera, thus putting the camera between theaction and the observer.

Contrasting Screen Direction

Contrasting screen direction is used to show subjectmovement in opposite directions. This can be shownby a subject moving toward a distant destination andthen returning to the starting place. An example wouldbe a sailor who leaves the ship and walks in a left toright screen direction to town. Therefore, theship-to-town direction is established as left to right.Movement of the sailor to the right is toward the townand movement to the left is toward the ship. Theviewer will associate the sailor’s walking in a right toleft screen direction as returning to the ship. Once thedirection of travel is established, you must maintainit.

Contrasting screen direction is also used to showopposing subjects moving toward each other. Anexample would be two warships that are headed intobattle. The first ship is shown steaming from left to right,and the second ship is shown steaming from right to left.This pattern gives viewers the impression that the shipsare closing the distance between them and will soonmeet.

Static Screen Direction

Static screen direction refers to the direction thatsubjects look or face. Screen direction must beestablished and maintained even when the subject doesnot move about within the scene. The direction in whichthe subject looks should match throughout a series ofconsecutive shots. The direction the subject faces can bedifferent from the direction that the subject looks;therefore, the static screen direction is the direction inwhich the subject is looking. To maintain static screen

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302.215Figure 13-14.–To maintain static screen direction, do not cross the action axis with a camera.

direction, the camera operator must remain on one sideof the action axis (fig. 13-14).

CUT-IN AND CUTAWAY SHOTS

In filming uncontrolled action, it is almostimpossible at times to film overlapping action. This iswhere cut shots come into play. Cut shots are extremelyvaluable because they provide a form of audiencedistraction In addition, the cutaway can account forlapses of time and stimulate audience interest; therefore,if you shoot plenty of cutaways and cut-ins, you havepassed a major stumbling block in shooting uncontrolledaction. Shooting a football game is a good example ofuncontrolled action; but can you imagine how boring itwould be if there were no cutaways or cut-ins? Anaudience would soon get tired of seeing nothing butfootball plays. By using different scenes, you can show

just the highlights of the game and the audience will goaway satisfied, feeling that they have seen the entiregame.

Cut-ins and cutaways are related to the primarysubject or action. They show something that may or maynot have occurred simultaneously with the primaryaction. Both cut-ins and cutaways fill gaps betweenscenes where the action does not match. The use ofcut-ins and cutaways can account for a lapse of time orthey are used to create or enhance the mood of a film.

Cutaway shots are scenes that “cut” away from theaction. Crowds, cheering fans, cheerleaders, and side-line action are all examples of cutaway shots. Ideally,cutaways should smooth out the continuity of the film,so the audience does not realize that some of the actionthat took place on the field has been removed from thefilm.

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A cutaway also can be used when you want tocondense an extended flow of action; for example, if youstart a sequence with a closeup shot of the time clockindicating 12 minutes left in the quarter, then cut to theprimary action on the field for about 10 seconds, thencut back to the clock indicating 3 minutes left-theelapsed time of 9 minutes would be indicated to theaudience.

An example of a cut-in is a close-up of one player'sfoot as he kicks the ball. This close-up could have beenshot at any time; however, by inserting the cut-in intothe film during editing, the audience feels that the kickactually happened during the game.

The difference between a cut-in and a cutaway issimple. When filming the football game, the cameraoperator “went in” and took a close-up of the kicker'sfoot as he kicked the ball. The operator of the cameracut-in to the action. However, when the camera operatorshoots a close-up of a fan's foot kicking another fan whohad been rooting for the wrong team, that is a cutaway,because it cut away from the primary action of the game.Cutaway shots represent secondary action. Cut-in shotsrepresent primary action.

CONTROLLED ACTION

As the name implies, in controlled action you cancontrol all aspects of a production. This includes actors,their actions, the set lighting, and sound recording, ifany. You usually work from a well-developed script thatincludes all the details. If the actors speak, the dialogueis in the script. If the action is described by a narrator,the narration is in the script. If the film is silent, the titlesappear in the script. Examples of controlled-action filmsinclude training films, some documentaries andhistorical records, and many publicity or recruitingfilms. Controlled action, motion-media productions areproduced only by personnel with specialized “C” schoolor university training. As a nonspecializedPhotographer's Mate, you will be faced withuncontrolled or semicontrolled action elements of aproduction or film.

UNCONTROLLED ACTION

In a controlled-action situation, everything isnormally written in the form of a detailed shootingscript. Predictable filming is performed and there arefew crises, except the occasional human oversights andmechanical malfunctions.

The other world of motion-video recording(uncontrolled action) is full of crises and surprises.

Success primarily is due to good reflexes, accurateguesswork, and quick thinking. Careful planning is notthe most significant factor. Most of your motion-mediaassignments will be uncontrolled or semicontrolledaction.

Your success as a maker of uncontrolled-actionfilms depends on your knowledge of the capabilities andoperation of video equipment. You must also possess ahigh level of technical skill. There is neither time noropportunity for research or practice while doing thiskind of assignment. You must be prepared in advance.News, sports, special events, and on site-coverage ofongoing activities make up the bulk of this type ofassignment. Another class of uncontrolled action is thedocumentation of events that follow a known course orpattern, such as parades and ceremonies. These arecalled semicontrolled, because you know in advanceapproximately what is going to happen, even though youcannot influence it for recording purposes. Both typesof assignments are challenging, exciting, and usuallywelcomed by confident camerapersons. But, they can be“unfortunate experiences" for those not properlyprepared to cope with them.

PREPARATION FOR FILMINGUNCONTROLLED ANDSEMICONTROLLED ACTIONS

Obviously you cannot develop a specific, detailedplan for shooting uncontrolled or semicontrolled action.You must get as much information about the assignmentas possible and in as far in advance as possible. Thisinformation helps to provide an estimate ofrequirements for equipment, supplies, scheduling ofpersonnel, transportation, camera positions, lighting,and other technical details.

Whenever you are assigned to cover VIP arrivals,award presentations, or special events, you shouldimmediately contact the person or agency in charge ofthe project. This person is usually the public affairsofficer (PAO). The PAO can furnish you the full scopeof your assignment and provide the following basicinformation:

Name and rank or title of the person(s) involved

Place and time of arrival

Complete schedule of activities

When possible, you should personally inspect thelocation and route of the proposed action (site survey).If this cannot be done, try to get drawings, maps, plans,or photographs of the area. Eyewitness descriptions or

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pictures of similar events also may be helpful. Askquestions about the location of the subject, the type anddirection of movement, and the sequence of actions tobe recorded.

With this information, you can draft a rough plan.By working closely with the project officer, you shouldbe kept reasonably well informed and can arrange yourshooting in a logical order. Be careful, however, not to“plan yourself into a trap.” Expect last minute changesin your plan, and, therefore, keep alternative plans inmind and ways they can be put into effect quickly.

Next, determine shooting requirements and thenumber of cameras and people you need. Checkprobable camera locations for the long, medium, andcloseup shots. Determine the amount of tape yourequire, and consider the possibility of some unplannedrequirements. Determine whether you will needtransportation and additional equipment.

A hypothetical assignment: The lab has receivedthe following orders: “The Chief of Naval Operationsand his party are expected to arrive aboard your shiptomorrow. The flag requires complete photographiccoverage of all official activities of the CNO and hisparty while on the ship.” The division chief has assignedyou to cover the motion media.

After you check with the officer in charge of theevent, you find that the CNO and his party are expectedto arrive by aircraft at 1300 hours. The party consists ofthe Chief of Naval Operations and three aides. Thepurpose of this visit is to inspect the ship and to presentseveral awards. The CNO and his party plan to depart at1700 the same day.

With this information you can now plan yourshooting outline. In an event of this kind, you cannotexpect to stage or control many shots.

The following shooting outline is an example ofwhat you might come up with:

Scene 1:

Scene 2:

Scene 3:

Scene 4:

Scene 5:

Scene 6:

Scene 7:

Aircraft (A/C) with CNO landing.

Side boys, flag officer, and CO ondeck in front of island.

A/C taxies to island.

CNO’s party disembarks A/C.

Flag officer and CO greet CNO.

CNO inspects side boys.

LS, MS, and CU of CNO presentingawards.

Scene 8: CNO makes speech

Scene 9: CNO and party tour ship.

Scene 10: CNO and party return to A/C.

Scene 11: A/C taxies to fantail for deck launch.

Scene 12: A/C takes off.

Now, how do you get the coverage?

In scene 1, you could be in a high position for anestablishing shot showing the flight deck with the A/Clanding. After the A/C lands, you move down to theflight deck and shoot scene 2, MS, of the side boys, theflag officer, and the CO taking their positions on deckto greet the CNO. Scene 3 is an LS showing the A/Ctaxiing to the island. For scene 4, shoot an MS of theCNO and his party leaving the A/C. Scene 5 is a CU ofthe flag officer and CO greeting the CNO. Scene 6 startswith an LS of the CNO inspecting the side boys.Circumstances permitting, move in for an MS and CUof the inspection. Scenes 7 and 8 should be easy to shootbecause of the time it takes to read citations, makeawards, and give a speech. This should allow plenty oftime for you to move about and get long shots, mediumshots, close-ups, and cut shots. Follow your judgmentand intuition for shooting scenes 9, 10, and 11. Scene 12is your closing shot. Again, shoot from a high positionto show the flight deck. Pan the A/C and follow it untilit is out of sight.

The shooting outline not only serves as a “program”for planning the sequence of coverage, but it alsoprovides a basis for determining camera placement,movement, and shot framing.

RECORDING GRAPHICS

Graphics have many applications, such as titlecards, cast lists, maps, tables, charts, photographs, andinserts. Graphics should not be treated casually. Withoutprecautions, graphics can become unsharp, confusing,tilted, distorted, and incomplete. Much of the graphicsand text used in motion-video productions are createdon a character generator. A character generator is anelectronic device used to create words or graphics andelectronically inserts them over a video picture. When acharacter generator is not available, graphics must berecorded by a camera

When you are shooting graphics that will be viewedon a monitor, the camera lens must be centered andparallel the graphic. The graphic and camera must belevel. Your framing must be correct.

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Figure 13-15.–The 3:4 ratio used for a video graphic.

Get in close enough with the video camera to showclearly all detail, but not so close that some of theinformation area is lost. Avoid using a wide-angle lens.Besides the possibility of camera shadows falling on thegraphic, distortion is likely to occur and will be mostnoticeable when panning over the graphic. A longerfocal-length lens overcomes the distortion problem, butis less smoothly panned.

LIGHTING

Because light reflections can obscure detail on ashiny graphic, the experienced graphic artist andphotographer will avoid glossy materials and glossyphotographs. However, when it is causing objectionablereflections, the graphic can sometimes be tilted slightlyto help clear them; otherwise, relighting or surfacedulling may become necessary. The lighting for a TVgraphic is similar to lighting reflection originals in copy

work. Graphics must be flat. Unmounted, warped, orcurved surfaces easily show unwanted reflections.

SAFE TITLE AREA

In the production of slides for use as televisiongraphics, important picture information must beconfined within the area of the TV monitor.

Figure 13-15 is drawn in proportion to a 35mm filmframe and shows the safe title area, maximumtransmitted area, and film frame.

IDENTIFYING RECORDED IMAGECONTENT

If you were notified that you won a brand newJaguar or Lamborgini, you would probably be ecstatic.If you were presented with a truckload of unidentified,assorted parts and told that you now had everything

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Figure 13-16.–The slate.

required to put the new car together, you probably wouldnot be entirely grateful. Maybe you could assemble it (ifyou were an experienced mechanic), but you know thatmore information would save you time, frustration,duplication of effort, and help tremendously toward asuccessful outcome. On the other hand, if every partwere clearly identified and the exact relationship toevery other part was unmistakably described, you wouldcertainly appreciate the gift much more. Being facedwith several thousand feet of unidentified videotape isvery much the same kind of situation.

SLATING

The slate you use to identify video scenes may takeseveral forms. In emergencies you may even write sceneidentification on a scrap of paper and film it beforeshooting the scene; however, in most instances, yourslate is more formal. Your regular slate is made to showwhatever information is necessary. Generally, thisincludes the command or unit, title or subject, name ofthe cameraperson (identifies who is responsible forfilming or videotaping the good or bad footage), date,location, and camera serial number (fig. 13-16). If youare part of a large organization that has several crews,then also include the unit number. In short, the slateshould contain information needed for properidentification of each scene on your film.

The biggest problem encountered by imagingpersonnel in the Department of Defense duringOperation Desert Storm was the lack of identification ofexposed imagery. There were literally boxes of film andvideotape lining the passageways in the Pentagon. Mostof this imagery was of little value because it was notidentified, or it was labeled inaccurately.

Accurate records are almost as important as goodvideo coverage in achieving a professional product.Imaging products must be labeled, so the subject matterand subject location are easily identifiable on the tape.Often, there is no opportunity for personal contactbetween the cameraperson and editor; therefore, recordsidentifying the filmed image content are the onlyinformation available. Logically, the better the records,the more useful the videotape. The opposite rule is alsotrue. Inaccurate records can make the video coverageuseless. Do not let that happen to your work.

The slate may actually be a piece of slate with thedata written or lettered on it in white chalk. Quite oftenthe “slate” is white with an acetate surface, and the datais written on it with a black grease pencil. When youslate a scene, hold the slate in front of the camera lensand record it for about 10 seconds for videotape or 3 feetfor motion-picture film.

Of the information you place on your slate shouldbe clearly printed in large, block letters. Film your slateso it fills the complete frame. If your slate is not fullframe, the lettering may be too small to read when thetape is viewed.

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Figure 13-17.–Video/Film Data Sheet.

on the tape. When recording without a script, you haveno scene numbers to slate for each scene; therefore, foridentification purposes, you slate only at the beginningof each tape. If for some reason you cannot slate at thebeginning, tail slating applies.

Although you, the camera operator, do not deriveany particular value from the slate, the person editingyour film becomes frustrated, if not completely lost,when slates are not included. This is particularly truewhen your scenes are not shot in the same order as thescript is written. The task of locating individual shots isalmost impossible unless each scene is slated when it isoriginally filmed. You can understand now why youmust slate each scene when shooting from a script.

VIDEO/FILM DATA SHEET

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Video/film data sheets are valuable to you (fig.13-17). By looking at them you can tell the scenes thathave been shot and those that still need to be done. Theirmain value, however, is to the editor. Without datasheets, the editor does not know the order in which thescenes were shot. Notice how the slate and data sheetswork hand in hand. For a large project, the editor cancheck the data sheets and find a particular tape or sceneeasily. By screening just one videotape, the editor canspot the scene by checking the slate images. Imaginelooking for a particular scene, at random, when it couldbe anywhere in a dozen or more tapes. Many hours arewasted when your data sheets are not properly prepared.The data sheet also may prevent accidental use of thewrong footage. If a scene was refilmed to correct anerror, both the rejected and corrected versions of thesame scene can be identified.

VISUAL INFORMATIONCAPTION SHEETS

If you do not have time to film the slate at thebeginning of the scene, do it at the end of the scene. Thisis known as tail slating. Record the slate upside down,then rotate it right side up when tail slating. This showsthat a tail slate was used; otherwise, the viewer mightassume that it is associated with the scene following it

A Visual Information Caption Sheet, DD Form2537, must accompany all products forwarded to a Stilland Motion Media Records Center. The use of a visualinformation caption sheet ensures that all necessarycaption information is available and standardized so itcan be entered into computer data bases at the recordscenter.

The instructions necessary to complete DD Form2537 are printed on the back of the form. Because thecompleted form provides the cover story for the motionvideo product, it is important for you to provide accurate

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Figure 13-l8A.–Visual information caption sheet (front).

information and as much detail as possible about therecorded event (fig. 13-18).

VIDEOTAPE CARE

The performance of videotape is often directlyrelated to the care and proper maintenance it has or has

not received. Temperature extremes should be avoidedwhen storing tape between recording and playback.Wide temperature variations can result in a tremendousamount of stress on the innermost tape layers caused bydimensional changes. If a tape has been in storage atsub-zero temperatures, for example, you must

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Figure 13-18B.–Visual information caption sheet (back).

“condition” it to room temperature. Completedimensional equilibrium may take as much as about 16hours. Never use direct heat to speed up the conditioningprocess. High temperatures can create harmfuldifferences in layer-to-layer tension on the reel. Neveruse extreme cold, such as a freezer, to cool down a hot

tape. In general, recommended storage conditions forvideotapes are as follows:

Relative Humidity . . . . . 50% - 60%

Temperature . . . . . . . . 60°F - 80°F

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For best long-term storage, rewind video cassettes To prevent damage, you should protect videotapesuniformly for even tension before boxing. Tapes should by covering them when they are not in use. Keepingalways be in one of two places-in the VTR or in the them in dustproof cassette containers prevents theoriginal box. Stand videotape boxes upright. Do not accumulation of airborne dust on the tapes. Dust can bestore tapes in a horizontal position. This can cause a prime cause of dropout. Body oils and salts from yourbending and distorting of reel flanges that can be a major fingertips can pick up and hold foreign particles that,cause of tape edge damage. when transferred to the tape, cause dropouts.

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CHAPTER 14

JOB CONTROL ANDPHOTOGRAPHIC FINISHING

No job is finished until the paper work is complete.This statement holds true for all photographic jobscompleted in your imaging facility. In order for yourimaging facility to operate efficiently, you must followthe procedures that regulate job control and otheradministrative procedures within your facility. Thischapter is intended as an introduction only. A morein-depth understanding of Navy imaging administrativeprocedures are found in the Navy Visual InformationManagement and Operations Manual, OPNAVINST5290.1 (series).

The first topic discussed in this chapter is thehandling of classified material. You must learn to followstrict guidelines when handling classified material.There is no allowance for mistakes. Become thoroughIyfamiliar with the standard operating proceduresestablished in your imaging facility.

SAFEGUARDING CLASSIFIEDMATERIAL

Modern methods of conducting war and safe-guarding our nation require a tremendous amount ofinformation. This information is stored in books andfiles, it accumulates in reports, it is gathered byintelligence activities, and it is transferred in the form ofletters, messages, photographs, and audio and videorecordings. This information is sifted and organized inthe minds of the people directing the war effort and thosekeeping the peace. Much of this information isextremely valuable to our enemies, and, therefore, mustbe classified and safeguarded in the interest of nationalsecurity.

In performing your job as a Navy Photographer’sMate, you may have access to classified information.Therefore, you MUST become aware of the importanceof safeguarding all classified information to which youhave access.

Classification categories, procedures, and related-security information pertaining to the Navy are con-tained in the Department of the Navy Information andSecurity Program Regulation, OPNAVINST 5510.1(series). A copy of this regulation is available in every

Navy imaging facility where classified information ismaintained or handled. Refer to this regulationfrequently to make sure you safeguard properlyclassified material. Never depend on your memoryregarding the proper disposition of classifiedinformation, particularly if you handle it infrequently.

The purpose of the security program is to protectclassified material from unauthorized disclosure. It isthe responsibility of all military personnel to safeguardclassified information.

The Navy controls the dissemination of classifiedinformation. Therefore, knowledge or possession ofclassified information is permitted only to those personswho actually require it in the performance of their duties.This principle is referred to as the “need to know” andis a prerequisite for access to classified information.Access to classified material is not automaticallygranted because a person has the proper clearance, holdsa particular billet, or is sufficiently senior in authority.Access is granted only if the criteria of proper clearanceand “need to know” are both met.

Official material that requires protection in theinterest of national defense is categorized in threedesignations. These three designations, in descendingorder of importance, are Top Secret, Secret, andConfidential. No other designation is used to classifydefense matters that require protection in the interest ofnational defense.

TOP SECRET

The classification “Top Secret” is limited to defenseinformation or material that requires the highest degreeof protection. The Top Secret classification is appliedonly to information or material that is paramount tonational security and the unauthorized disclosure ofwhich could reasonably be expected to causeexceptionally grave damage to the national security.

SECRET

Material classified as “Secret” is limited to defenseinformation or material. The unauthorized disclosure of

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which could reasonably be expected to cause seriousdamage to the national security.

CONFIDENTIAL

Use of the classification “Confidential” is limited tonational defense information or material, theunauthorized disclosure of which could reasonably beexpected to cause damage to national security.

The term Restricted Data as defined in theAtomic Energy Act of 1954 means all dataconcerning (1) the design, manufacture, orutilization of atomic weapons; (2) theproduction of special nuclear material; or(3) the use of special nuclear material in theproduction of energy.

The term Formerly Restricted Data applies toclassified defense information which (a) hasbeen removed from the Restricted Datacategory in order to conform with the AtomicEnergy Act of 1954 and (b) cannot be releasedto foreign nationals except under specificinternational agreements.

Restricted Data and Formerly Restricted Dataare NOT in themselves classificationcategories, but are additional warning notices ofspecial handling requirements. Thus aclassification category is used with the warningnotice wherever it is appropriate.

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

The designation “For Official Use Only” isassigned to official information that requiresprotection according to statutory requirementsor in the public interest, but does not requiresafeguarding in the interest of national defense.

A security classification may not be used toconceal violations of law, inefficiency, oradministrative error; to prevent embarrassmentto a person, organization, or agency; or torestrain competition.

RESTRICTED DATA

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AUTHORITY TO CLASSIFY

The authority to assign a security classification isrestricted to those officials who have been designatedthe authority in writing.

Original Classification

One important aspect of classification that iscommonly misunderstood is the difference betweenoriginal and derivative classification. Originalclassification is warranted only when informationrequiring classification is generated and classificationcannot be derived from information that was classifiedpreviously. For example, information pertaining to atechnological breakthrough or a significant scientificadvance generally requires original classificationauthority.

Derivative Classification

The majority of classified material you work withis the product of derivative classification. As the wordimplies, this type of classification is based on andobtained from a previous classification. Derivativeclassification is applied when the information presentedis the same (or closely related to) as other informationthat already is assigned a classification.

Suppose you are making photographs for a reportof Iraqi warships in the South China Sea If the report isbased on a source document that states that suchphotographs should be classified, your classification isderived from that source. Or suppose you take picturesof a radar system that is classified Secret. Then thepicture, the negatives, the test prints, and theenlargements are also classified Secret. Theclassification of the pictures is derived from theclassification of the radar system. Most of theinformation classified derivatively is taken fromdocuments classified previously. Whenever you copy orextract classified information, you must ensure that theextracted information bears the same classification inthe new document (such as a photograph) as it did in thesource document.

In marking a derivatively classified document, youmust cite the source of that classification or authority(e.g., CNO ltr, ser OP-009 of 1 Oct 93) on the “classifiedby” line. Records must be available for the lifetime ofthe document to show the basis for classification or totrace the chain of classification authority.

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CLASSIFICATION MARKINGS ONIMAGING PRODUCTS

The requester of imaging products determines thesecurity classification of the product according to theguidelines contained in OPNAVINST 5510.1. Eachoriginal and all photographic copies that are classifiedmust be marked with the appropriate securityclassification, the classification authority, anddeclassification and downgrading instructions based onthe original classification markings.

Photographic film, prints, and slides that areclassified must be marked with the appropriateclassification and other applicable markings.

Film

Roll negatives are marked on the base side with theclassification and associated markings at the beginningand end of each strip. Single negatives cut from the rollor single- sheet film negatives must also beappropriately marked on the base side. These materialsmust be kept in envelopes or film canisters withconspicuous markings.

Transparencies and Slides

The classification and associated markings must beshown clearly on the slide mount or transparency frameand whenever possible on the image area. Because theclassification on 35mm slides are not conspicuous untilthey are projected, the classification must be marked onthe slide mount. It is not necessary for each transparencyof a set of transparencies to bear applicable associatedmarkings when the set is controlled as a singledocument. In such cases, the first transparency bears theapplicable associated markings.

A camera that contains exposed film of a classifiedsubject must be given the same protection as theclassified subject. Be cautious with Polaroid film whenphotographing classified material. All waste productsproduced by these films must be destroyed as classifiedwaste.

Prints

All 8x10 and larger prints must be marked with theclassification at the top and bottom of the face side withthe associated markings at the bottom. On smaller printsthe classification is required to appear only once on theface side. When it is not practical to place theclassification and associated markings on the face side

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of prints, the markings can be placed on the reverse side,using a pressure tape label or a stapled strip whenstamping is not practical. All photographic repro-ductions must show the classification and associatedmarkings clearly.

Motion-Media Products

The beginning of each reel of film or videotape mustbe marked with a title that bears the classification andassociated markings. These markings must be visiblewhen projected on the screen or played through amonitor. Only the overall classification is required at theend of the reel or videotape. Reels and cassettes must bemarked with the appropriate classification and kept incontainers that are marked conspicuously with theclassification and associated markings.

DISCLOSURE OF CLASSIFIED MATERIAL

When classified matter is entrusted or made knownto you, you must protect it against loss or compromise.You are responsible for any act or failure that contributesto the loss, compromise, or unauthorized disclosure ofclassified information. This includes information that ispassed verbally.

When you are found responsible for the loss,compromise, or unauthorized disclosure of classifiedmatter or when you violate security regulations, you canexpect to be disciplined promptly. Disciplinary actionmay include, in the case of military personnel, trial bycourt-martial or, in the case of civilians, prosecutionunder Title 18, United States Code, as amended, or otherfederal statutes, as appropriate.

PROTECTIVE MEASURES

Generally, there are four ways that classifiedinformation is protected: censorship, physical security,transmission security, and cryptographic security. As aphotographer, you will be concerned primarily withpersonal censorship and physical security.

Personal Censorship

Censorship places a barrier between classifiedinformation and unauthorized personnel by preventingdisclosure in the form of letters, conversations, andpersonal contacts. Restricting information at the source,except for official use, depends on the integrity anddiscretion of the individual.

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Physical security

Physical security is the safeguarding of documents,photographs, and other items that contain classifiedinformation. Later in this chapter, another form ofphysical security used to safeguard property andmaterial physically at Navy shore activities is discussed.

Physical security is the concern for protectingclassified documents, devices, and materials, so theynever fall into the hands of unauthorized personnel orcome within optical range of actual or possible enemies.When working with classified matter, you must protectit from being seen by unauthorized individuals, eithermilitary or civilian. No person should have access toclassified material unless it is necessary for them tocarry out their official duties. Classified material mustnever be removed from its designated working space orleft unguarded. When not actually in use, you must keepit locked up in an authorized container.

DESTRUCTION OF CLASSIFIEDMATERIALS

When classified products, such as photographs,videotapes, or audio recordings, are no longer needed oruseful, they must be destroyed. The products must neverbe discarded in ordinary containers.

Destruction of classified material must beaccomplished and witnessed by persons who are clearedto the level of the material being destroyed. A record ofdestruction is mandatory even when an originator statesin a document that it “may be destroyed without report.”This statement means only that the originator does notneed to be notified of the destruction.

A record of destruction is required for Top Secretand Secret material, but not for Confidential material.Destruction may be recorded on OPNAV 5511/12(Classified Material Destruction Report) or on any otherrecord that includes complete identification of thematerial, number of copies destroyed, and the date ofdestruction. The record of destruction must be signed bythe two cleared people involved in the destruction of TopSecret materials, and the record must be retained for2 years.

Classified documents can be destroyed by burning,pulping, pulverizing, or shredding. When destruction isaccomplished by means other than shredding, theresidue must be inspected to ensure completemutilation.

In most imaging facilities, the policy is to give allscrap materials, test prints, and any other material

generated from a classified job, back to the requester.Do not destroy classified materials without firstconsulting your supervisor.

SECURITY AREAS

Spaces that contain classified matter are known assecurity (sensitive) areas. The areas have varyingdegrees of security, depending on their purpose, thenature of the work, and the information and materialsinvolved. All security areas should be clearly marked bysigns marked Restricted Area. Three types of securityareas are established to meet different levels of securitysensitivity.

Exclusion Area

Spaces requiring the strictest control of access aredesignated exclusion areas. They contain classifiedmatter that restrict admittance to only those persons thatrequire access to the materials and have a “need toknow.”

An exclusion area is fully enclosed by a perimeterbarrier. All entrances and exits are guarded, and onlythose persons whose duties require access and have theappropriate security clearance are authorized to enter.

Limited Area

A limited area is one where the uncontrolledmovement of personnel permits access to classifiedinformation. Within the area, access may be preventedby escort and other internal controls.

The limited area is enclosed by a clearly definedperimeter barrier. Entrances and exits are guarded orcontrolled by attendants to check personalidentification. These areas also may be protected by anautomatic alarm.

Most Navy imaging facilities should be consideredat least a limited area when classified work is inprogress. All visitors must be escorted within thesespaces. When classified work is in progress, it should beexcluded from all personnel who do not have the needto know. Even when classified work is not in progress,it is wise to operate within your imaging facility asthough it was a limited area because there is aconsiderable amount of expensive equipmentthroughout.

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Controlled Area

A controlled area usually does not contain classifiedinformation. It serves as a buffer zone to provide greateradministrative control, safety, and protection for thelimited or exclusion areas. These areas requirepersonnel identification and control systems to limitadmittance to those people having bona fide need foraccess to the area

Passageways or spaces surrounding or adjacent tolimited or exclusion areas may be designated ascontrolled areas.

SAFEKEEPING AND STORAGE OFCLASSIFIED MATERIAL

Classified information or material must be storedunder conditions that prevent unauthorized personsfrom gaining access to it. The security requirementsmust allow work to be accomplished while providingadequate security. In the Navy, the commanding officeris directly responsible for safeguarding all classifiedinformation within his command. He is also responsibleto ensure that classified material is stored properly whennot actually in use.

Storage

Whenever classified material is not under thepersonal control and observation of an authorizedperson, it must be guarded or stored in a locked securitycontainer.

Top Secret material is stored in a safe or safe typeof steel file container having a three-positioncombination lock as approved by the General ServicesAdministration (GSA) or a class A vault that meets thestandards established by the Director of NavalIntelligence. An alarm-protected area may be used toprotect Top Secret material when the responsible localofficial decides that an alarm system provides protectionequal to, or better than, the safe, steel file, or vault. Thealarm-protected area provides a physical barrier thatprevents removal of the material and prevents thematerial from being viewed by unauthorized personneland compromised.

Secret and Confidential material may be stored inthe same manner authorized for Top Secret or, in a classB vault, a vault type of room, or a secure storage roomthat has been approved according to the standardsprescribed by the Director of Naval Intelligence.

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Valuables, such as money, jewels, precious metals,narcotics, and so forth, should not be held in safes usedto store classified materials because they increase therisk of theft. Only classified materials are to be placedin containers designated for storage of classifiedmaterial.

Container Designations and Combinations

Containers used for the storage of classifiedmaterial are assigned a number or symbol foridentification purposes. The identifying numbers orsymbols are located in an obvious location on theoutside of the container. Each container must also meetthe security requirements for the highest classificationof material stored in the container. However, thisdesignation is not marked externally on the container.

Records of combinations are sealed in envelopes(OPNAV 5511/2) and kept by the security manager, dutyofficer, communications officer, or other person(s)designated by the commanding officer. Combinationsfor containers with noncryptographic material will bechanged under any of the following conditions:

When a safe is first placed into use

Annually

When the combination or record of combinationshas been compromised or a security container isdiscovered unlocked and unattended

Whenever an individual knowing thecombination is transferred or discharged, or when thesecurity clearance of an individual knowing thecombination is reduced, suspended, or revoked

When you are selecting new combination numbers,multiples of 5, simple ascending or descendingnumerical series, and personal data (such as birthdaysand serial numbers) must not be used. The samecombination cannot be used for more than one container.

Combinations to security containers are changedonly by persons that are cleared for the highest level ofclassified material stored in the container.

When a security container is taken out of service,built-in combination locks must be reset to the standardcombination 50-25-50. Combination padlocks must bereset to 10-20-30.

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Figure 14-1.–OPNAV 5216/10.

RECEIPT SYSTEM FORCLASSIFIED MATERIAL

In Navy imaging facilities, whenever Top Secret orSecret material changes hands, it MUST be done undera continuous chain of receipts. This continuous chain ofreceipts is documented on a Correspondence/MaterialControl (4 PT), OPNAV 5216/10.

For example, when a requester brings a Secret chartto the imaging facility to be copied, the person receivingthe job must sign a receipt for the original Secret chart.When the photographer turns the chart over to thecameraperson, the cameraperson must sign the receipt;

when the cameraperson turns the processed film over tothe printer, the printer signs for the negative and theprint, and so on, until the requester again signs thereceipt for the completed job.

Confidential material, on the other hand, needs tobe covered by a receipt only when it is transferred, eitherpermanently or temporarily, to another command orother authorized addresses.

The receipts for Top Secret material will beprovided by the person requesting the work. For Secretand Confidential material the OPNAV 5216/10 (fig.14-1) should be completed by the person at the front

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desk receiving the job request. OPNAV 5216/10 shouldbe unclassified and contain only the informationrequired to identify the material being received Noclassified information should be included on a receipt.The postcard receipt (back of OPNAV 5216/10 package)is given to the person delivering the job request. Thepostcard receipt is then presented to the front deskperson when the completed job request is picked up.OPNAV 5216/10 receipts are retained for a minimumperiod of 2 years.

Whenever you have questions about classifiedinformation or security matters, refer to the Departmentof the Navy Information Security Program Regulation,OPNAVINST 5510.1, or the security manager of yourcommand.

VISITOR CONTROL

Physical security is part of an overall Navy programthat deals with physical measures designed to preventunauthorized access to equipment, facilities, andmaterials.

Navy imaging facilities are a part of this physicalsecurity program. Physical security of imaging facilitiesis a direct, immediate, legal, and moral responsibility ofevery Photographer's Mate assigned to the activity.

As stated earlier, Navy imaging facilities areconsidered limited access areas. The reception or joborder desk area is the only place within the facility thatunescorted personnel, other than personnel assigned tothe activity, or visitors are permitted. Beyond thereception area, there must be a definite, well-definedlimiting barrier. This barrier may be in the form of awarning sign, locked gate, or a door, depending on thedegree of security required.

Procedures for the control of people entering therestricted areas of an imaging facility beyond the barrierinclude, as a minimum, an escort system. Escorting is amethod for controlling personnel within the lab who arenot normally authorized access. Whether or not theescort remains with the visitor during the entire time ofthe visit is determined by the amount of securityrequired, by the purpose of the visit, and by local writtenpolicy. Utility and maintenance personnel performingwork at regular or irregular intervals and for shortworking periods should be handled by the sameprocedures as those used for the control of visitors.

People are curious and like to look at pictures. Whenunescorted they will probably look through the picturesand negatives in the finishing area Even if they do not

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take the pictures, they most probably will not place themin the same order and the finishing crew will have tore-sort the jobs.

Even when your imaging facility does not handleclassified work, you must become aware of the need forsecurity. You must be accustomed to escorting visitors.By escorting visitors, you will find that the dis-appearance or misplacement of equipment and materialsis minimized

JOB CONTROL

The Navy Visual Information Management andOperations Manual, OPNAVINST 5290.1 (series),governs the administration and operation of Navyimaging facilities. It outlines the organization andadministration of audiovisual units and providespolicies and instructions for the use of imaging productsin the Navy. You should consult this manual for the mostcurrent information concerning the organization ofnaval imaging.

The ability to track photographic jobs within yourfacility quickly and accurately depends on the jobcontrol system of your imaging facility. When thesystem is not used correctly, photographic requests,negatives, prints, and other requirements may be lost ormisplaced. This causes an inordinate delay in customerservice that has a negative impact on your relationshipwith other divisions.

JOB-ORDER LOG

An unclassified job-order log is maintained by allimaging facilities. The log must contain, as a minimum,the following information: sequential job ordernumbers, security classification, product identification,and disposition of the work request (person who pickedup the job). Additional data required by your imagingfacility, such as date and requester, may also be includedin the job-order log.

Unclassified identifiers are used to refer toclassified subjects. A separate job-order log ismaintained for classified work requests. Job order logsare created on the first day of each fiscal year, and thejob order number is reset to 000001. The fiscal year ofthe federal government runs from 1 October to 30September.

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Figure 14-2A.–OPNAV 5290/1 (Front).

VISUAL INFORMATIONJOB-ORDER FORM

ALL work performed by Navy imaging facilitiesmust be documented on a job-order form. The job-orderform is used to maintain close control of in phases ofimaging services. The job-order form serves severalpurposes; they are as follows: as an official request forvisual information (VI) services, as the authority toperform the work, as a record of the time and materialsused to complete the job, and as a receipt for the finishedwork. Navy imaging facilities may use the Request forAudiovisual Services, OPNAV 5290/1 (fig. 14-2A), ora locally created, in-house job-order form.

As a minimum, an in-house job-order form mustcontain the following information: a job-order number,a customer signature block with a disclaimer that theservice requested is official work and essential tomission accomplishment, product security classifi-cation, and any other information required by yourfacility to accomplish the request officially.

Figure 14-2A is an example of an Request forAudiovisual Services, OPNAV 5290/1. Figure 14-2Ashows the front side of the form. The front side can bebroken down into two sections. The top section, Blocks1 through 14, may be completed by the requester or aperson assigned to the job-control desk by the imagingfacility. The completion of these blocks is self-explanatory. Block 2 (the work request number) is the

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Figure 14-2B.–OPNA V 5290/1 (Back).

next sequential job-order number taken from thejob-order log. Block 7 (description of services required)is the most important block on the front side. This blockmust describe the requirements of the requestercompletely. There are times when you must ask therequester specifically what is desired to meet thenecessary requirements. The information provided inthis block must indicate the time, equipment, andnumber of personnel required to complete theassignment. Sketches, diagrams, or other additionalinformation may be attached. Blocks 15, 16, and 17indicate the quantities of materials needed by therequester. The Remarks block may be used to indicatewhether the original film or videotape should beprovided to the requester, the file, or be forwarded to animaging records center.

The back of OPNAV 5290/1 (fig. 14-2B) is dividedinto two sections. The top half is used to document theproduction of original materials. The bottom half is usedto record processing, reproduction, and duplication.When completing these sections of the job order, youmust provide accurate details. The data in these sectionsare used to justify budget requests for the money andpersonnel required to provide imaging services by theimaging facility.

NOTE: When assigned to the job-control area, youmust be sharp and professional. The image that youportray reflects the professionalism of your entireimaging facility. Most customers never see theproduction spaces. It is your attitude and appearance thatleaves a lasting impression on your customers.

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VISUAL INFORMATIONCAPTION SHEETS

A Visual Information Caption Sheet, DD Form2537, must accompany each product forwarded to aNavy still and motion-media records center. (See fig.13-18.) The use of the visual information caption sheetensures that all necessary caption information isavailable and standardized, so it can be entered into thecomputer data base at the records center.

The instructions necessary to complete DD Form2537 are printed on the back of the form. Because thecompleted form provides the cover story images beingforwarded, you must provide accurate information andas much detail as possible about the recorded event.

PHOTOGRAPHIC FINISHING

Photographic finishing is just as important as all theother steps in the photographic process. Normally, thefinal checks for accuracy and quality are performed inthe finishing area.

QUALITY ASSURANCE

When the prints are dry and the job order iscompleted, you must examine them for defects or otherpoor qualities such as stains, dust spots, fingerprints, anduneven borders. Many times the prints are on long rollsand must be cut and trimmed into individual prints. Afterthe prints are trimmed, you must sort the prints intogroups according to the negatives and job orders. At thisstage you can ensure there are enough good-qualityprints to fulfill the job order. The following checks mustalso be made: the correct negatives were printed, thecorrect size was printed, and the negatives were printedon the correct finish (glossy or matt) paper. Negativesthat required additional prints or reprints should be sentback to the print room to correct discrepancies. You areresponsible for ensuring that only the highest-qualityproduct leaves the imaging facility.

Rejected prints from classified negatives must bedisposed of according to the instructions provided in theDepartment of the Navy Information and PersonnelSecurity Program Regulation, OPNAVINST 5510.1(series). Rejected prints from negatives that areunclassified must be disposed of according to localinstructions.

NOTE: It is the policy of most Navy imagingfacilities to return all film and paper scraps, test prints,rejected prints, and so forth, from classified jobs to the

requester. Be sure to follow the policy establishedlocally by your imaging facility.

Do not neglect to check the completion andaccuracy of the job order. Be sure that all personnelresponsible for completing the job have completed theappropriate blocks. Materials expended for the job,man-hours, and accountability must be provided on thejob order. Remember, without this information, properbudgeting and personnel management within youfacility cannot be performed accurately.

MARKING VISUAL INFORMATIONPRODUCTS FOR FILING

When the negatives and prints are not returned tothe requester, they must be marked and captioned beforeplacing them into the local file or forwarding them to aNavy still and motion-media records center. Classifiedprints must be marked with the appropriateclassification as specified in OPNAVINST 5510.1(series). Refer to chapter 6 for caption writingrequirements if you need to refresh your memory.

The guidelines and procedures for marking visualinformation (VI) products are in chapter 2 of the NavyVisual Information Management and OperationsManual, OPNAVINST 5290.1 (series). You should referto this instruction for the most current information onmarking and identifying imaging products.

Each original product retained in your imagingfacility file must be identified and recorded in the VisualInformation Record Identification Number (VIRIN)log. The following information must be included inproduct markings:

The Department of Defense Visual InformationAuthorization Number (DVIAN) code

The VIRIN code

The last two digits of the fiscal year (FY) inwhich the image was exposed or recorded

The six-digit sequence number

The security classification (if applicable)

Blank–Unclassified

CO–Confidential

SE – Secret

TS – Top Secret

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A complete listing of VIRIN codes is contained inOPNAVINST 5290.1 (series). Some of the morecommonly used VIRIN codes are as follows:

OTT–overhead transparency

SCN–still photographic negative, color

SPN–still photographic negative, black and white

SPT–still photographic transparency

VSP–video still

VTC–videotape cassette

Each set of characters in the markings of VIproducts is separated by a hyphen. An example of aVIRIN is as follows: the first product of FY 93 filed bythe Fleet Imaging Command Pacific, San Diego; thesubject is classified Secret and was shot by a photog-rapher using a still-video camera. The VIRIN is asfollows:

NO108-VSP-93-000001-SE

Each authorized imaging facility is assigned aseparate DVIAN code. Each original VI product that ismarked and filed by your imaging facility must berecorded in the VIRIN log. The VIRIN-log entries mustconsist of the VIRIN assigned to each original product,the job-order number, format, subject matter, camera-person or artist's name, and final disposition of theproduct. Like the job-order log, the six-digit sequencenumber in the VIRIN log is reset to 000001 the first dayof the new fiscal year.

Still Photography

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Negatives are marked with the VIRIN on the baseside, outside the usable image area with permanent inkRoll negatives are cut into strips and each strip isassigned a separate VIRIN. Individual frames on thestrip are then identified by letters (A, B, C, D, and soon). Frames within the strip that are not intended forfiling should not be assigned a letter; however, they mustnot be crossed out.

Transparencies must be mounted in plastic orcardboard mounts with the VIRIN marked on the mount.For still, electronic floppy disks, mark the outside ofthem with the VIRIN, using permanent ink

Prints

Images that are stored locally must be protected.Standard, VI file cards are commonly used throughoutthe Navy to protect and file photographic images. Thesefile cards may be color coded to distinguish classi-fication, subject matter, time frame, and so forth.Standard file cards are made of sturdy paper stock Aprint of the image, the VIRIN, and the classification areincluded on the face side of the file card, and thenegative and caption are attached to the back.Downgrading instructions must be included forclassified images. All negatives filed or handled must beprotected by negative preservers.

Photographic prints are marked on the base sidewith the same VIRIN assigned to the original negative

Photographic negatives and prints should becarefully stored in a file cabinet so they are protected.

or transparency. Prints must also include the date theoriginal photograph was taken and the name and addressof the originating activity.

Unclassified photographs that are cleared for publicrelease according to the Department of the Navy PublicAffairs Policy and Regulations Manual, SECNAVINST5720.44 (series), must be stamped-“United States NavyPhotography. Please credit USN PHOTO.”

Classified prints must include the security classifi-cation, classification authority, appropriate down-grading and declassification instructions, and bestamped “United States Navy Photography.”

Photographic prints of mishaps, accidents(including property damage and personal injury), andother types of evidence that are not releasable under theFreedom of Information Act must be stamped “UnitedStates Navy Photography."

Motion Media

Each motion-media roll of film, cassette, or diskmust be identified with the same information asstill-imaging products. However, the data must berecorded at the beginning of the tape for a minimum of5 seconds viewing time. The VIRIN should also appearon the outside of the cassette or reel, so the product canbe identified without actually viewing it. When possible,the VIRIN should be included on the slate. When theVIRIN is included on the slate, all information isprovided in the same frame.

NOTE: Remember that all Navy imaging productsforwarded to a visual information records center forpre-accessioning must be accompanied by a VisualInformation Caption Sheet, DD Form 2537.

FILING IMAGING PRODUCTS

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You should avoid storing photographic products incardboard boxes. To prevent damage, never storephotographic negatives and prints in storerooms,quonset huts, bilges and so on, where they may besubject to adverse conditions, such as direct sunlight,UV radiation, water, dampness, high humidity, and hightemperatures. Videocassettes, audio tapes, and floppydisks must never come in to contact with a magneticfield. A good general rule is to store file images inclimatic conditions under which you would becomfortable.

PRINT MOUNTING

For exhibition and display, prints are mounted ormatted on a stiff board. The difference betweenmounting and matting is the way in which a print isattached to the board. When a print is mounted, it is stuckon the face of a mounting board. When a print is matted,it is attached to the back of the board and the image isplaced behind a cut opening. When matted, a print isoften taped into place, thus the matt can be temporary.Generally, prints that are framed are matted. In bothcases, the board enhances the picture by providing abroad border as well as protecting the edges againstdamage.

When you are preparing a print for exhibition ordisplay, your goal should always be to show the print tobest advantage. Simplicity is the best strategy. Elaborateartwork or fancy lettering can often detract from thephotograph.

Generally, prints for display purposes are mountedor matted on special card stock to make them stand outfrom their surroundings. Card stock used for mountingphotographic prints should be free of acid or sulfur thatcan deteriorate the print quality. Card stock is availablein various sizes, colors, textures, and weights. There areno hard-and-fast rules for mounting prints, but the cardstock should compliment the print. The mount shouldbe large enough to balance and support the picture, andthe texture and color should compliment the overalltone.

The way the print is placed on the mounting boardis important. Prints mounted at odd angles or in a cornerof the mount unbalance the photograph. The bottomborder on most mounts is the widest border of all.Normally, prints are mounted so the top and side borderof the mount are equal. To provide balance, you shouldensure the bottom border is 25 to 35 percent wider thanthe top and side borders. There are two types ofadhesives for mounting prints: wet and dry.

Wet Method

Liquid adhesives, such as rubber cement andspray-on adhesives, can be used to mount prints. Thesetwo adhesives are easy and clean to use. After they dry,the excess adhesive can be removed easily by rubbingit lightly. The drawback to using rubber cement andspray-on adhesives is that they are not permanent. Intime the print may loosen and peel off the mount. Rubbercement is an ideal adhesive for temporary mounts usedin displays or for copying. Gum arabic, glue, or pasteshould be avoided whenever possible. These adhesivesare known to stain the print or smear out from aroundthe edges of the print. This causes smudges on themounting board.

Dry Method

A dry print-mounting method that uses a pressure-sensitive adhesive is in common use in the Navy.Pressure-sensitive adhesives come in a variety of sizesin both rolls and sheets. These adhesives form apermanent bond and are easy to use for resin-coatedpapers. To use these materials, you simply apply theprint to the sticky surface of the mounting material. Youthen peel off the protective backing and apply it to amounting board. If the print is not aligned correctly, youcan remove the print and reapply it. Once the print iscorrectly in place, you must apply pressure to the printand mounting board. Normally, this is done by runningthe print and mounting board through a speciallydesigned roller assembly. This assembly appliespressure to the materials being mounted. Thepressure-sensitive adhesive material contains tiny beadsof adhesive. The pressure breaks these beads andreleases the adhesive. Once pressure is applied to thematerials being mounted, a permanent bond is formed.

A dry-mount press can also be used to mountphotographic prints. With a dry-mounting press, heat isused to fuse a mounting tissue between the print and themounting surface.

A dry-mount press is designed to provide uniformpressure and heat. Even pressure is an important aspectof good, dry mounting. Adequate pressure helps squeezeout air from between the adhesive, print, and mountingboard. You should operate the dry-mount press at thetemperature recommended by the manufacturer of themounting tissue. It is better to use a slightly lowertemperature to mount prints than a temperature that istoo high. Excessive temperatures may cause damage tothe print. When temperatures are too high for RC papers,the resin coating blisters or bubbles.

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Porous materials, such as mounting board andrag-stock paper, absorb moisture from the air. Thismoisture becomes trapped between the layers andcauses blisters and bubbles in the finished work For bestresults, you should predry the materials beforebeginning the dry-mounting process. This can be doneby heating the mounting board or paper in the mountingpress to remove the moisture.

The time required to form a good bond varies whenyou are using a dry-mounting press. You should mountthe prints for a minimum amount of time-the timerequired to squeeze out air and moisture from thematerials and to activate the adhesive. Because differentmaterials have different thicknesses and heat-conducting characteristics, you must experiment todetermine what amount of time is required to form agood mount. Whenever possible, you should use scrapsof materials that are the same as your finished work todetermine the best time and temperature fordry-mounting prints.

The final stage of finishing for some photographs isto frame them. There is an infinite number of colors andmaterials available for framing photographs. The sameprinciples apply for framing photographs that apply tomounting or matting prints. Keep it simple and choosea frame that compliments the photograph, rather thandistract from the picture.

SLIDE MOUNTING

Unlike photographic prints, slides must be put intoslide mounts in order to be of any use. The process ofmounting slides ranges from a simple pair of scissors toslide-mounting machines, costing tens of thousands ofdollars.

Whenever handling slides, you should wear cottongloves to avoid fingerprints on the image area. If finger-prints do get on the slides, a cotton ball moistened withfilm cleaner should be used to remove them.

Slides can be mounted in either cardboard or plasticslide mounts. When using cardboard slide mounts, youmust heat them so the slide adheres to the mount. Navyimaging facilities use plastic slide mounts. The slidescan be placed in plastic slide mounts manually or bymachine.

To mount slides manually, you must cut the roll intoindividual frames. Normally, this is done on a light tableso the edges of the frame can be seen clearly. To mounta slide, you simply slide the frame into an open slit onthe edge of the slide mount. On one side of the plasticslide mount is the lettering, “THIS SIDE TOWARDSSCREEN.” The lettering appears along the side of theopen slit. The slide is mounted properly when theemulsion side of the film faces the lettering, and the slideis straight. No light should pass between the edges of thefilm edges and the mount.

When projected slides appear correctly on thescreen, they are placed in the projector (or slide tray)upside down and backwards, as viewed from theoperator’s position. An operator’s dot is often placed onthe slide mount to aid in organizing the slides in the tray.When the slide is viewed with the emulsion side towardsyou and the image is upside down, the operator's dot ismarked on the upper right-hand comer of the slidemount. The slides are placed into the slide tray correctlywhen the operator's dot can be seen facing the outsideof the tray.

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APPENDIX I

GLOSSARY

ABERRATION–A defect in the formation of an opticalimage; for example, astigmatism, chromaticaberration, curvature of field, and so forth.

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE–The temperaturemeasured from absolute zero. Expressed as degreesKelvin (°K) in the Centigrade system whereabsolute zero is –273°C or in degrees Rankine inthe Fahrenheit system where absolute zero is–459°F on the scale.

ACCELERATOR–Chemical constituent of photo–graphic developers that activates the developingagent and swells the gelatin to hasten penetration ofthe solution. See SODIUM HYDROXIDE,SODIUM CARBONATE, SODIUM META–BORATE, and SODIUM BORATE.

ACHROMATIC COLORS–Colors perceived ashaving no hue (white, black, gray, and silver).

ACHROMATISM –The absence of chromaticaberration.

ACID, ACETIC–A colorless liquid of pungent odorused in stop baths and in fixing baths. Inconcentrated form it attacks the skin and producespainful blisters. A concentrated solution of 99%solidifies at 62°F and forms a mass resembling ice(Glacial Acetic–Acid).

ACID, BORIC (BORACIC ACID) H3BO3–Colorless, odorless, transparent crystals, or a whiteamorphous powder. Slightly soluble in water andmore soluble in glycerine and alcohol. Used intoning and fixing baths.

ACID, SULFURIC, H2SO4– syrupy, odorless liquid,colorless or slightly yellow. Used for preparing atray–cleaning solution and in fixing and reducingsolutions.

ACTION–Movement within a scene being photo–graphed. Also, the picture portion of a motionpicture as differentiated from the sound trackportion.

ACUTANCE–An objective measure of the ability of aphotographic material to show a sharp line ofdemarcation between contiguous areas receivinglow and high exposures. It correlates well with

subjective judgments of picture sharpness. It is themean of the square of the density gradients times thedensity scale over a boundary.

ADDITIVE PROCESS–Any color process in which areproduction is formed by a combination of imageseach of which supplies color in proportion to thecolor observed in the original scene. In a typical,three–color additive process, the colors of theimages are blue, green, and red. See SUB–TRACTIVE PROCESS.

AGC–Automatic gain control. Regulates the volume ofthe audio or video light levels automatically withina camcorder.

AGITATION–The act of moving a photographic film,plate, or paper in a processing bath or moving thebath relative to the photographic material duringprocessing.

AIR BELLS–( 1) Air bells are bubbles of air that preventcontact between a processing bath and localizedareas on the surface of a photographic material.(ASA) (2) Undeveloped spots on negatives orprints caused by air bubbles, preventing access ofdeveloper.

ALKALI–A water soluble compound capable ofuniting with and neutralizing acids. The alkaliescommonly used for photographic processing bathsare sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide,sodium carbonate (monohydrate and anhydrous),potassium carbonate, sodium tetraborate, sodiummetaborate, and ammonium hydroxide.

AMBIENT SOUND–Background sound or wildsound. Sound that surrounds the scene or location,received by the microphone and recorded ontomagnetic tape.

AMMONIUM THIOSULFATE, (NH4)2S2O3–Awhite salt freely soluble in water. Used in thepreparation of rapid–fixing solutions.

ANALOG–An analog signal that fluctuates exactly likethe original stimulus (for example, sweepsecond–hand clock, phonograph player).

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ANGLE OF ACCEPTANCE–The angle that objectsmust align within to affect the reading of aphotoelectric exposure meter.

ANGLE OF FIELD–A property of a lens. The anglesubtended by the lines that pass through the centerof the lens and locate the diameter of the maximumimage area within the specified definition of thelens. Also called angular fields.

ANHYDROUS–Dry, containing no water ofcrystallization.

ANTICURL BACKING–A transparent, gelatincoating sometimes applied to the opposite side of aphotographic film from the emulsion to preventcurling by balancing the forces that tend to curl thefilm, as it is wet and dried during processing.

ANTIHALATION COATING–A light–absorbingcoating applied to the back side of the support of afilm or plate, or between the emulsion and thesupport, to suppress halation (also calledantihalation backing). See HALATION.

ANTISLUDGE AGENT–A chemical compoundadded to photographic processing solutions toprevent the formation of sludge. Sodiummetaphosphate and boric acid are commonly usedfor this purpose.

APERTURE–In an optical system, an opening throughwhich light can pass.

APERTURE, CURTAIN–The slit in a focal–planeshutter that permits light to reach the film. The slitsize may be either fixed or variable.

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT–Illumination provided byincandescent, fluorescent, or flame sources.

ASPECT RATIO–The ratio of the height to the widthof the film or television frame; that is, three unitshigh to four units wide (3:4).

ASTIGMATISM–A lens aberration that causes anoff–axis point to be imaged as a pair of lines at rightangles to each other and in different focal planes. Alens having astigmatism is unable to imagehorizontal and vertical lines in the same plane withequal sharpness.

ATMOSPHERIC PERSPECTIVE–Applied to theeffect of distance created by atmospheric haze in aphotograph. It lightens the tones as the distanceincreases.

AUDIO TRACK–The area of the videotape that is usedfor recording audio information.

AUTO IRIS–An automatic control of the lensdiaphragm.

AUTOFOCUS–A feature of certain cameras orenlargers by which the image is kept in focusautomatically regardless of the degree of reductionor magnification.

AVOIRDUPOIS–The system of weights commonlyused in the United States and the British Empire inwhich the primary unit is the pound (7,000 grains);usually expressed in pounds, ounces, and binaryfractions thereof.

BACK LIGHT–Illumination from behind the subjectin a direction substantially parallel to a verticalplane through the optical axis of the camera.

BACKGROUND –(1) That part of the landscape whichis more distant than the principal object from thecamera. (2) A screen, drape, or projected scene usedin a photography studio behind the subject.

BACKING PAPER (ROLL FILM)–The protectivestrip of paper to which the film is attached. Backingpaper is usually black on one side and colored onthe opposite side. Numerals are usually printed onthe colored side in a position where they can beviewed through the camera window. Also calledduplex paper. (ASA)

BARN DOOR–Folding wings used in front of studiospotlights to aid in directing the light and to shadeportions of the subject from direct illumination.

BASE DENSITY–The density of a film base. No plasticis 100% transparent, so all films have some basedensity.

BATH–Any chemical solution used in processingphotographic materials.

BEAM SPLITTER–An optical system so arranged asto reflect or transmit two or more portions of a lightbeam along different optical paths.

BELLOWS–The extensible lightproof device that joinsthe lens board to the film support section of acamera

BLEACH, PHOTOGRAPHIC–(1) To remove animage from a photographic film. Especially to dothis by converting a metallic silver image to a halideor other salt that can be removed from the film withhypo. When bleaching is not carried to completion,it is called reducing. (2) Any chemical reagent thatcan be used for bleaching. (3) Any chemical solutionused for bleaching.

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BORAX–Sodium tetraborate, Na2B4O710H2O; a mildalkali used as an accelerator in photographicdevelopers, particularly for fine–grain effects.

BRIGHTNESS RANGE–Variation of light intensitiesfrom maximum to minimum. Generally refers to asubject to be photographed. For example, aparticular subject may have a range of one tofour-that is, four times the amount of light isreflected from the brightest highlight as from theleast bright portion of the subject.

BULB EXPOSURE–An exposure in which the shutterremains open as long as the shutter releasemechanism is depressed.

BURNING IN–In photographic printing, a techniqueby which selected areas of the image are given extraexposure, and the rest of the image is protectedagainst added exposure.

CABLE RELEASE–A device consisting of a stiff wireencased in an outer flexible covering designed totrip a camera shutter without touching the cameraitself. One end is threaded to fit the shutter, and theother has a thumb–operated plunger.

CAMCORDER–A portable video camera withvideotape recorder (VTR) and a microphoneattached to form a signal unit.

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CAMEL-HAIR BRUSH–Term used to define anybrush with superfine, soft bristles used for dustinglenses and front surface mirrors.

CAMERA–A lighttight chamber, usually fitted with alens, through which the image of an object isrecorded on a light-sensitive material.

CAMERA, IDENTIFICATION –A type ofstill-picture camera used primarily for the makingof identification photographs.

CAMERA, REFLEX–A camera containing areflecting mirror within the box, so the image maybe focused on a ground glass on top of the camera.A single-lens reflex camera has a device to swingthe mirror out of the way during the exposure. Atwin-lens reflex camera uses two lenses: one for theviewing image and one for the actualpicture-making.

CAMERA, VIEW–A tripod-mounted camera that hasincorporated into its construction a long bellows, arising and falling front, horizontal and verticalswing, lateral shift of front and back, and either areversible or a rotating back The view camerasversatility is valuable for the correction of

distortions in architectural, close-up, and illustra-tion photography.

CAPSTAN–An electrically driven roller that rotatesand transports the videotape past the recorder headsat a precise and fixed speed.

CASSETTE–A light-trapped metal or plastic containerfor a length of roll film to enable it to be loaded intoa camera in full light.

CCD–Charged-coupled device, also called a chip. Asmall, solid-state (silicon resin) imaging deviceused in a video camera instead of camera pickuptubes. Inside the chip, image-sensing elementstranslate the optical image into a video signal. Chipcameras are insensitive to burn in.

CELL, PHOTOELECTRIC–A device by which lightis transformed into electrical energy. Used as thesensitive element in exposure meters and opticalsound reproducers and projectors.

CENTIGRADE –A thermometer scale having 100divisions between the freezing and boiling points ofwater in universal use for scientific purposes. Alsocalled Celsius after its inventor. Centigradetemperatures may be converted to Fahrenheittemperatures with the following formula:

F=9/5C+32

when F = Fahrenheit temperature and C = Centi-grade temperature. (PIA)

CENTIMETER –A unit of length in the metric systemwhich is 0.01 of a meter. According to Americanstandards, 1 inch is equivalent to 2.54 centimeters(cm). (PIA)

CHARACTER GENERATOR–An electronic deviceto create words or graphics that may beelectronically inserted or “keyed” over the videopicture.

CHARACTERISTIC CURVE–The curve showingthe relationship between exposure and resultingdensity in a developed photographic image. It isusually plotted as the density against the logexposure in candle-meter-seconds. Called also the“H. and D. curve” and the “sensitometric curve.”The abscissa is sometimes an arbitrary relativeexposure.

CHEMICAL FOG –Fog appearing duringdevelopment of parts of a film not exposed to light.(PIA)

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CHROMAKEY–An electronic special effect thatcombines two video sources into a compositepicture, creating the illusion that the two sources arephysically together.

CIRCLE OF ILLUMINATION–The total image areaof a lens, only part of which is actually used in takinga picture.

CLOSE-UP –A photograph or a motion-picture scenetaken at a very close range that shows intimate detailand captures and holds audience interest.

COATING, LENS–A thin, transparent coating appliedto the surface of lenses or other optical parts toreduce reflection.

COINCIDENCE–Agreeing as to position. In a coinci-dence type of range finder, when the two halfimages of a distant object are in exact juxtaposition,they are said to be “in coincidence."

COLLIMATED–A beam of light is said to be colli-mated when all of its rays have been made parallel.See SPECULAR.

COLOR BALANCE–The relationship between thethree images composing a color negative or positivethat provides an accurate (or, more generally, themost pleasing) reproduction of natural colors. (PIA)

COLOR BARS–A color standard used by the televisionindustry for the alignment of cameras and videotaperecordings.

COLOR CHART–Target for test photographycomposed of pigmented areas having colors of highsaturation, often accompanied by gray scales, anduseful in both color photography and inblack-and-white reproduction of colored objects.An assembly of chromatic samples illustrating ascheme of color classification. (PIA)

COLOR COMPENSATING FILTER–A filter used tochange the overall color balance of photographicresults obtained with color film and to compensatefor deficiencies in the quality of the light whenprinting color films.

COLOR TEMPERATURE–The temperature to whicha black body radiator must be raised in order thatthe light it emits may match a given light source incolor; usually expressed in degrees Kelvin (°K).

COLOR TEMPERATURE METER–An instrumentfor estimating the spectral quality of a light sourceor the illumination on a scene and expressing thevalue in terms of color temperature. (PIA)

COLOR TRANSPARENCY–A positive image innatural colors on a transparent support intended forprojection or for viewing by transmitted light. (PIA)

COLORBLIND –Applied to photographic layershaving only natural silver halide sensitivity to blue,violet, and ultraviolet rays. (PIA)

COMA–An aberration of a lens that causes obliquepencils of light rays from an object point to beimaged as a comet-shaped blur.

COMPONENT–The processing of RGB (red, green,and blue) channels as three separate channels.

COMPOSITE SIGNAL (Y/C)–(Also called NTSCsignal.) The video signal in which luminance “Y”(black and white) and chrominance (red, green, andblue) and sync information are encoded into a singlesignal.

CONJUGATE DISTANCE–The distances of objectand image from the lens are called conjugatedistances. For every position that an object mayoccupy with respect to a lens, there is acorresponding position for the image.

CONTACT PRINT–Print produced by exposure inimmediate contact with the original or negative.These prints are the same size as the original ornegative.

CONTAMINATION –Foreign matter in a processingsolution which impairs its operation.

CONTINUOUS TONE–Photographs in which thedetail and tone values of the subject are reproducedby an infinite gradation of gray densities betweenwhite and black. (PIA)

CONTRAST, LOW–A term expressing a relationshipof image tones in which highlights and shadows arerepresented by very little difference in densities.

CONTRASTY–Photographic term applied to imagesshowing accentuated highlights and shadows. (PIA)

CONTROL TRACK–The area of the videotape usedfor recording the synchronization information (syncspikes).

COPY–(l) Any document or photograph to bereproduced. (2) The results of such reproduction.(3) (Verb) The act of reproducing a document.

COPYBOARD –The board, frame, or other device forholding copy to be photographed.

CORROSION–The erosion of metals, as by the actionof an acid or an alkali; rusting; oxidation. (PIA)

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COUPLER–Chemical compound in color developerthat can react with the oxidized developing agent inthe sensitized material to form a dye color.

CRITICAL FOCUS–That point of focus at whichresolution is at its maximum. (NMA)

CROP–To trim or cut off parts of the picture by printingmethods to eliminate superfluous portions, and thusimprove the composition.

CROP MARKS–Markings placed on original copy,indicating where part of the top, bottom, or sides ofthe picture are to be omitted.

CURVATURE OF FIELD–An aberration of a lens thatcauses the image of a plane to be focused into acurved surface instead of into a plane.

CUTAWAYS (MOTION PICTURE)–Shots of relatedand previously established outside interest used todivert the audience attention in order to cover jumpsin action, screen-direction changes, and passage oftime.

D-LOG E CURVE–See CHARACTERISTIC CURVE.

DARK SLIDE–The opaque slide that covers the filmin a film holder, plate holder, film pack, or filmmagazine.

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DARKROOM –A room in which all light of colorquality not safe for undeveloped sensitizedmaterials has been excluded. It is used for loadingand unloading and the developing of exposedphotographic film or paper.

DENSITOMETER–Device to measure the opticaldensity of an image or base by measuring theamount of incident light reflected or transmitted.(NABDC)

DENSITY–The light-absorbing quality of a photo-graphic image is usually expressed as the logarithmof the opacity. Several specific types of densityvalues for a photograph may be expressed; howeverdiffuse transmission density is one of the mostimportant for photographic transparency materials,such as negatives. Diffuse reflection density isgenerally of interest for photographic prints.

DEPTH–In a nonstereoscopic picture, an illusion ofthree-dimensional space that is sometimes createdby a combination of favorable lighting and coloringof the set and favorable viewing conditions for thereproduction.

DEPTH OF FIELD–The distance between the pointsnearest and farthest from the camera that areacceptably sharp at a given lens setting.

DEPTH OF FOCUS–The allowable error in lens-to-film distance within which an acceptably sharpimage of the subject focused upon will still beobtained.

DEVELOPER (CHEMICAL)–A chemical reagentused to produce a visible image on an exposedphotographic layer.

DEVELOPER, COLOR–A photographic developingsolution capable of reducing silver halides with thesimultaneous production of an insoluble coloredoxidation product in the regions where silver isdeposited.

DEVELOPING AGENT–Chemicals used in thephotographic processing baths to convert the latentimage into a visible and photographically usefulimage.

DIAPHRAGM –A device, such as a perforated plate oran iris, that limits either the aperture of the lens, thefield covered by the lens, or both, depending uponits location.

DICHROIC FOG–A deposit of colloidal silver on aphotographic film caused by improper processing.This deposit commonly appears red by transmittedlight and greenish by reflected light.

DIFFRACTION (OPTICS)–The bending of lightwaves around the edges of opaque objects.

DIFFUSER–Device for obtaining diffuse directillumination, such as a wire screen, piece of cloth,or translucent membrane, placed between a lightsource and the subject illuminated.

DIFFUSION –(l) (Optical) The scattering of light raysso as to cause the light falling on a surface or passingthrough an aperture to be coming from all directionsin contrast to the regular radiation of light from apoint source. Diffusion may be introduced byreflection from a matte surface, by transmissionthrough a frosted or opal glass, or by the use of anintegrating bar. When diffusion is complete, a sharpimage of the light source can no longer be seen, andits place is taken by a uniform, extended source thatemits light equally in all directions. (2) (Chemical)The migration of molecules or ions in a solutiontending to reduce a difference in concentrationbetween two adjacent regions.

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DIGITAL VTR–A videotape recorder that translatesand records the analog video signal in digital form.

DIRECT POSITIVE–A positive image obtaineddirectly from another positive image without the useof a negative.

DODGING–A printing technique in which certain areasbeing exposed are temporarily shielded, therebyproducing a different exposure than that used for therest of the print.

DROPOUT–A loss of part of the video signal thatappears as white glitches. Caused by dirty VTRheads or poor quality videotape.

DRY MOUNTING–A method for mountingphotographs or artwork on a support by means of athermosetting laminate that is heated to effect abond. (PIA)

DRYING MARK–Spots or streaks on negatives andprints differing in density from the surroundingarea, produced by uneven drying of the film duringprocessing.

DUB–Duplication of an electronic recording, either tapeto tape, record to tape, or vise versa. Dub is alwaysone generation away from the original recording.

EKTACHROME–A trademark of Eastman KodakCompany for a multilayer reversal color film inwhich couplers are incorporated in the emulsionlayers that form dyes in the emulsion duringprocessing.

EKTACOLOR–A trademark of Eastman KodakCompany for a multilayer color negative film inwhich dye couplers are incorporated in the emulsionlayers which upon development produce dyeimages complimentary to the object colors. Unusedcouplers remaining in the emulsion afterdevelopment provide automatic masking forcorrection.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM–The entirerange of wavelengths, extending from the shortestto the longest or conversely, that can be generatedphysically. This range of electromagneticwavelengths extends almost from zero to infinityand includes the visible portion of the spectrumknown as light.

EMULSION (SILVER HALIDE)–A suspension oflight-sensitive silver salt, especially silver chlorideor silver bromide, in a colloidal medium, usuallygelatin, used for coating photographic film, plates,or papers.

EMULSION SIDE–That side of a (single coated)photographic film on which the emulsion has beencoated

EMULSION SPEED–A comparative measure for agiven emulsion of exposure to light required toproduce a correctly exposed image.

ENLARGEMENT –A print made from a smallernegative through a projection process.

ENLARGER–A photographic projection printer. (PIA)

EXHAUSTION–The state of depletion reached by aprocessing solution due to age or use that makes itincapable of producing satisfactory results. (PIA)

EXPIRATION DATE–A date placed on sensitizedphotographic material packaged by themanufacturers to limit the period during which it iswarranted to produce normal results.

EXPLODED VIEW–A photograph showing thecorrect sequence and relationship of the variousparts of an assembly. Also called an explodedphotograph.

EXPOSURE–(l) The act of exposing a light-sensitivematerial to a light source. (2) A section of a film foran individual exposure, as a roll containing sixexposures. (3) The time during which a sensitivesurface is exposed, as an exposure of 2 seconds.(4) The product of light intensity and the timeduring which it acts on a film, plate, or paper.

EXPOSURE INDEX–An exposure index is the ratingof a film for use in connection with exposure tables,exposure computers, and exposure meters.

EXTENSION TUBE–A device used to increase thelens-to-film distance for extreme closeup photog-raphy.

FAHRENHEIT–A thermometer scale, on which, understandard atmospheric pressure, the freezing point ofwater is 32 degrees, and the boiling point of wateris 212 degrees; usually indicated as 32°F and 212°F.Fahrenheit temperatures may be converted toCentigrade temperatures with the followingformula:

C = 5/9 (F - 32)

when C = Centigrade temperature and F = Fahren-heit temperature. (PIA)

FAST–Having a high-photographic speed. The termmay be applied to a photographic process as awhole, or it may refer to any element in such a

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process, such as the optical system, the emulsion, ora developer.

FAST FILM–Photographic material of relatively highsensitivity to light, having a high-exposure index.(PIA)

FIELD–Scanning lines in one half of one video ortelevision frame. There are two fields (one odd, oneeven) in a frame. One field equals 262.5 scanninglines that create a total of 525 standard televisionlines or one frame. Also known as the NTSC signal(U.S. T.V. system).

FILM, COLORBLIND–Film which is sensitive onlyto light of very short wavelengths (ultraviolet,violet, and blue). (NMA)

FILM, PHOTOGRAPHIC, INFRARED–Filmcoated with an emulsion especially sensitive toinfrared light.

FILM, PHOTOGRAPHIC, ORTHOCHROMATIC(ORTHO)–A black-and-white film coated with anemulsion that is sensitive to ultraviolet, violet, blue,and green radiation. Not being sensitive to red, redobjects photographed with orthochromatic films arerendered dark on the print.

FILM, PHOTOGRAPHIC, PANCHROMATIC(PAN)–A black-and-white film coated with anemulsion that is sensitive to ultraviolet, violet, blue,green, and red radiation. The special sensitivity ofpanchromatic films approach that of the human eye.

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FILM, PHOTOGRAPHIC, REVERSAL–A filmwhich after exposure is processed to produce apositive image instead of the customary negativeimage. Reversal films may be black and white orcolor.

FILTER–Photographic. A layer of glass, gelatin, orother material used to modify the transmitted lightselectively.

FILTER, NEUTRAL DENSITY–One not selective fora certain portion of the spectrum but absorbing allcolors equally, thus reducing the intensity of lightwithout changing its chromaticity.

FILTER FACTOR–The number of times exposuremust be increased to compensate for light absorbedby a filter.

FIXED FOCUS–The term applied to opticalinstruments and photographic equipment that arenot provided with a means for focusing.

FIXER–A solution used to remove undeveloped silverhalides from photosensitized emulsions. The fixerusually contains sodium or ammonium thiosulfate,a hardening agent, and an acid or acid salt.

FIXING AGENT–A photographic chemical thatdissolves the silver halides not used for producingan image to preserve the photograph from furtherphotographic effect upon subsequent exposure tolight. Common fixing agents are sodium thiosulfateand ammonium thiosulfate.

FLARE–A defect of optical systems in which scatteredlight resulting from reflections at optical surfaces,the walls of the camera, or imperfections in theoptical parts, reaches the image plane and producesan overall fog or flare spot that damages thephotographic quality of the resulting record.

FLASH, ELECTRONIC–A high-voltage light sourcefor photographic illumination, producing amomentary flash of light of high intensity in anatmosphere of gas enclosed in a tube that can beused repeatedly. (PIA)

FLAT–An image is said to be “flat” if its contrast is toolow. Flatness is a defect that does not necessarilyaffect the entire density scale of a reproduction tothe same degree. Thus a picture may be “flat” in thehighlight areas or “flat” in the shadow regions, orboth.

FLOATING LID–A lid designed to float on the top ofa photographic processing solution to reduce aerialoxidation.

FLOODLIGHT –A photographic light used to produceeven lighting on large subjects. A floodlight spreadslight evenly over a wide angle, as distinguishedfrom a spotlight that concentrates light in a beam.

FLUID OUNCE–A unit of capacity in the LiquidMeasure System equal to 1.8 cubic inches; it is equalto 29.57 milliliters.

FOCAL PLANE–The surface (plane) on which an axialimage transmitted by a lens is brought to sharpestfocus; the surface occupied by the light-sensitivefilm or plate in the camera.

FOCAL POINT–The point at which converging raysof light from a lens meet.

FOCUS–(l) The point at which rays of light passingthrough different parts of a lens converge to form asharp image of the original. (2) (Verb) To adjust theposition of either the lens or focusing screen in a

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camera or projector to secure the sharpest possibleimage of the object.

FOG–Nonimage photographic density. The defect isdue either to the action of a stray light, to improperlycompounded processing solutions, or to wronglystored or outdated photographic materials.

FOREGROUND (PHOTOGRAPHY)–That part ofthe landscape imaged in a horizontal or obliquephotograph that is closer than the principal object tothe camera. (ASP)

GUIDE NUMBER–Values assigned to photographicflood and flash lamps according to AmericanStandard to rate their light output in terms useful inexposure calculation. The guide number for aparticular lamp used with a particular film is dividedby the distance in feet from the lamp to the subjectto find the f/number.

HALATION –A halo or ghost image surrounding thetrue image of a bright object on a photographicemulsion, caused by reflection of rays of light fromthe back of the negative material.

FRAME–(l) Any single exposure contained within acontinuous sequence of photographs. (2) Thesmallest unit in television or film-a single picture.A complete scanning cycle of the two fields everyl/30 second. A frame equal to 525 scanning lines.

FREEZE FRAME–Arrested motion that is perceivedas a still shot.

FULL APERTURE–The maximum opening of a lensdiaphragm. (PIA)

FULL STOP–The standard series of diaphragmmarkings, or stop openings, that are 0.7, 1.0, 1.4,2.0, 2.8, 4.0, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, 45, 64, 90, and128.

FUZZINESS –Lack of image sharpness caused by adefective lens, poor focus, movement, and so forth.

GAIN–The level of amplification for video or audiosignals. Increasing the video gain increases thepicture contrast.

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GENERATION–The number of dubs or copies swayfrom the original recording. The greater number ofgenerations, the greater loss of picture quality.

GRADUATE–A container for liquids marked off tomeasure various volumes. (PIA)

GRAIN–The discrete particles of image silver inphotographs. The random distribution of theseparticles in an area of uniform exposure gives riseto the appearance known as “graininess."

GRAININESS–The subjective impression of non-uniformity in an area of a photograph correspondingto uniform exposure, most often noticeable inenlargements with a magnification of 10 or more.

GRANULARITY–An objective quantitative measureof graininess.

GROUND GLASS–A sheet of glass with a grained ormatte (translucent) surface, a focusing screen,diffusing screen, and so forth. (PIA)

HALFTONE–Reproduction of a photograph in whichthe gradation of tone is reproduced by various sizeddots and intermittent white spaces caused byinterposing a screen between the lens and the film.(IABPAI)

HALIDE–Any compound of chlorine, iodine, bromine,or fluorine, and silver. Silver bromide, silverchloride, and silver iodide are the light-sensitivematerials in silver emulsions.

HANGER, FILM–A frame, usually of metal or plastic,for holding one or more photographic films tofacilitate handling during processing.

HARDENER–A chemical that increases the meltingpoint of gelatin in photographic layers and preventssoftening in warm-processing baths. Hardenerscommonly used in photographic processing bathsare aluminum potassium sulfate, chromiumpotassium sulfate, and formaldehyde solution.(PIA)

HAZE–The presence of foreign matter in theatmosphere to an extent sufficient to reduce evenslightly its transparency.

HEAD-ON SHOT–A directionless shot in which thesubject comes directly toward the camera. Used tochange screen direction.

HEADS–A small assembly within an audio or videorecording system that can erase, record, or playbackthe signal in electromagnetic impulses.

HELICAL SCAN, OR HELICAL VTR (ALSOCALLED SLANT TRACK)–A videotaperecording or a videotape recorder in which the videosignal is put on tape in a slanted, diagonal way.Because the tape wraps around the head drum in aspiral-like configuration, it is called helical.

HIGH-ANGLE SHOT–A scene photographed on adownward angle; the camera being placed above theaction.

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HIGH CONTRAST–A term expressing a relationshipof image tones in which highlights and shadows arerepresented by extreme differences of density.

HIGH KEY–A term applied to a photographic print orsubject consisting entirely of light tones with littlecontrast; also applied to a method of lighting asubject.

HIGHLIGHT–The bright parts of a picture or subjectthat are rendered as dense areas in the negative andby very low density in the print.

HUE–That attribute of certain color perceptions inrespect to which they differ characteristically fromthe gray of the same lightness and which permitsthem to be classed as reddish, yellowish, greenish,or bluish.

HYDROMETER–Generic term for variousinstruments designed to determine the specificgravity of liquids. (PIA)

HYDROQUINONE C6H4(OH)2–Common photo-graphic developing agent para-dihydoxybenzene.

HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE–The distance from theoptical center of lens forward to the nearest plane inacceptable focus when the lens is focused at infinitydistance.

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ILLUMINANCE –Luminous flux incident per unit areaof a surface. Widely known as illumination.

IMAGE, LATENT–The invisible image produced bythe action of radiant energy on a photosensitivesurface. It may be made visible by the process ofphotographic development.

IMAGE, NEGATIVE–A photographic image in whichthe values of light and shade of the original subjectare represented in inverse order. In a negative, lightobjects are represented by high densities and darkobjects are represented by low densities.

IMAGE, POSITIVE–A photographic image in whichthe values of light and shade of the original subjectare represented in their natural order. In a positive,light objects are represented by low densities anddark objects are represented by high densities.

IMAGE PLANE–The plane in which the image lies oris formed It is perpendicular to the axis of the lens.A real image formed by a converging lens would bevisible upon a screen placed in this plane.

INCANDESCENT –Glowing with heat, such as thetungsten filament in an incandescent lamp.

LAMP HOUSE–That portion of an enlarger, reader, orprojector that contains the light source andcondensers or mirror.

INCIDENCE–The act of falling upon or affecting, aslight upon a surface.

INFINITY–A distance so far removed from an observerthat the rays of light reflected to a lens from a pointat that distance may be regarded as parallel. Adistance setting on a camera-focusing scale.

INFRARED–Pertaining to or designating those rayswhich lie just beyond the red end of the visiblespectrum. They are invisible and are detected bytheir thermal, photoelectric, and photographiceffects. Their wavelengths are longer than those oflight and shorter than those of radio waves.

INTERNEGATIVE –An internegative film is a nega-tive derived directly from a color reversal originalfilm. All other color-duplicating negatives derivedfrom any other than reversal film are known ascolor-duplicating negatives regardless of thegeneration.

INVERSE SQUARE LAW–The intensity of lightreceived at a point (irradiance) varies inversely asthe square of the distance from the source. The lawholds for relatively small sources only and is usefulin calculating photographic exposures. (PIA)

IRIS DIAPHRAGM–Term applied to the adjustableaperture fitted into the barrel of the photographiclenses and so-called because of the contraction ofthe aperture resembles that of the iris (pupil) in thehuman eye. It consists of a series of thin metaltongues overlapping each other and fastened to aring on the lens barrel, the aperture made smaller orlarger by turning the ring. (PIA)

JOGGING –Frame-by-frame advancement ofvideotape.

KELVIN (°K)–Measurement of the color of light indegrees. Numerically, the Kelvin temperature isequal to the Centigrade temperature plus 273degrees.

KEY LIGHT–The main source of illumination on asubject. (PIA)

LAMP, PHOTOFLOOD–A lamp designed to yieldbrilliant diffuse illumination. These lamps aregenerally short-lived. (NMA)

LAMP, REFLECTOR FLOOD–Light bulb withself-contained silvered surface to act as a reflector.

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LAW OF REFLECTION–The angle of reflection isequal to the angle of incidence.

LENS–In photography, the optical instrument orarrangement of light-refracting elements in a group;the whole designed to collect and distribute rays oflight in the formation of an image.

LENS, COMPOUND–A lens composed of two or moreseparate elements with a common axis. (PIA)

LENS, MIRROR–One employing reflecting elementsin addition to light-transmitting elements; usually toobtain compactness in telephoto objectives. (PIA)

LENS ELEMENTS–Individual simple lenses that arecombined to form a compound lens. (PIA)

LIGHT, AMBIENT–Surrounding light; the generalroom illumination or light level.

LIGHT, DIFFUSED–Light that does not reach thesubject in a single beam but is scattered by amedium, such as clouds, ground glass, spun glass,or thin fabric.

LIGHT, FILL-IN–Secondary illumination directed toilluminate shadow areas and avoid excess contrast.Also known as fill light. (PIA)

LIGHT, INCIDENT–The light that strikes an object,distinguished from the light reflected from ortransmitted by the object. (PIA)

LIGHT, POLARIZED–Light in which the electricvector of the wave vibrates in one plane, rather thanall planes, as it does in ordinary (unpolarized) light.Light may become polarized by reflection or bypassing through optical devices or sheets known as“polarizers.”

LIGHT BOX–A device for viewing transparencies ornegatives, providing diffuse illumination evenlydispersed over the viewing area.

LIGHT SENSITIVE–Materials that undergo changeswhen exposed to light. The commonly usedphotographic light-sensitive materials are the silverhalides used in films and papers, diazo dyes, andbichromated gelatin. (PIA)

LIGHTING, FLAT–Illumination of a photographicsubject often achieved by frontlighting or multiplesources with diffusers that minimizes contrasts andshadows. (PIA)

LIGHTING, FRONT–Illumination on the subjectcoming from near the camera position. (PIA)

LIGHTING, INDIRECT–Illumination by means oflight reflected to the scene from shielded sources.

LIGHTING, LOW KEY–A type of lighting whichwhen applied to a scene results in a picture havinggradations from middle gray to black, withcomparatively limited areas of light gray andwhites.

LINE COPY–A document consisting essentially of twotones (such as black and white, black and tinted, andbrown and buff) without intermediate tones.

LITER–A unit of capacity in the metric system,equivalent to 1.056 quarts in United Statescustomary liquid measurement. (PIA)

LOADING–The insertion of photographic film, plates,or paper into holders, hangers, magazines, and soforth, before exposure or processing.

LONG SHOT–In motion pictures, a scene filmed at aconsiderable distance from the camera to establishlocale. Also applied to scenes which showfull-length figures, as opposed to waist-length, headand shoulders, and so forth.

LOW-ANGLE (SHOT)–Where camera is placed lowand the scene is photographed at an upward angle.

LUX–Lumen per square meter, a unit of illuminance.

MASK–(l) An opaque sheet of thin material used tolimit the area of a picture or to secure white marginson a photograph. (2) A supplementary negative orpositive used for the purpose of contrast correctionin black-and-white prints. (3) A supplementarypositive either on a separate sheet or incorporatedin an integral color tripack negative for the purposeof color correction. (PIA)

MATTE–A relatively dull surface on photographicprints, having a very low level of specularreflection.

MATTE BOX–A device attached to the front of acamera to hold mattes, filters, diffusing screens, andso forth, in front of the lens.

MEDIUM–Any substances or space through whichlight can travel.

METER–A unit of length measurement in the metricsystem approximately equal to 39.37 inches.

METOL-HYDROQUINONE (M-Q)–Designatingphotographic developers that use a combination ofmetol and hydroquinone as the developing agent.

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METRIC SYSTEM–A decimal system of measure-ment based on the meter as the unit of length, thekilogram as the unit of mass, and the liter as the unitof capacity.

MICRON–A unit of length in the metric system equalto 0.001 millimeter.

MILLILITER–A unit of volume in the metric system.

1 mL = 0.03381 fl oz

29.57 mL= 1 fl oz

3785 mL= 1 gal

MILLIMETER–A unit of length measuring 0.001 of ameter; 25.4 millimeters equal approximately 1 inch.

MILLIMICRON –A unit of length in the metric systemequal to 0.001 micron. It is also equivalent to 10angstroms.

MODELING–Photographic term for the feeling of“plasticity” engendered by a photograph or thethree-dimensional effect produced in a photographby effective camera work and lighting. (PIA)

MOTTLE–A photographic defect characterized bynonuniform density differences; usually in thepattern of tiny, circular areas.

MOUNT, BAYONET–A means of quickly attaching orremoving a lens or filter by turning through only partof a revolution.

MOUNTING–The process of fastening a photographicprint to a support.

NEAR POINT–The nearest object to the camera that isstill acceptably sharp when the camera is focusedfor a given distance.

NEGATIVE, BLACK-AND-WHITE–A photo-graphic image on film or paper in which light tonesare rendered dark and dark tones appear light.

NEGATIVE, COLOR–A negative record of the colorvalues of the original object. Not only are lightvalues represented by negative densities but colorsare represented negatively by their colorcomplements. (PIA)

NEUTRAL–Hueless or achromatic color; gray. Chem-ically, a solution that is neither acid nor alkaline.(PIA)

NOISE–Unwanted sounds or electrical interference inan audio or video signal. In the audio track, there isa hiss or humming sound. In the video picture theinterference appears as “snow.”

NORMAL–Sometimes called the perpendicular. Animaginary line forming right angles with a surfaceor other lines. It is used as a basis for determiningangles of incidence, reflection, and refraction.

NOTCHING CODE–One or more notches ofcharacteristic shape placed by the manufacturer inone edge of a sheet of photographic film to identifythe emulsion side and the emulsion type. (PIA)

NTSC–National Television Standards Committee. U.S.standards for television or video signalbroadcasting. Also known as the composite signal(Y/C).

OPACITY –(l) The ability of an object to absorb light.(2) Photographic term for the light-stopping powerof the silver deposit in negative images. Opacity= 100/Transmittance in percent.

OPAQUING–All handwork on a negative to removespots or unwanted images.

OPEN FLASH–A method of taking photoflash picturesin which the camera shutter is held open during theflash and then closed.

OPTICAL CENTER–The point, generally within alens but sometimes exterior to it, at which the opticalaxis and all chief rays of oblique ray bundlesintersect.

ORIGINAL–Material from which copies are made,such as handwritten copy, typed copy, printedmatter, tracings, drawings, and photographs.(IABPAI)

OVERCOATING –A thin layer of clear or dyed gelatinsometimes applied on top of the emulsion surfaceof a film to act as a filter layer or to protect theemulsion from abrasion during exposure andprocessing.

OVERDEVELOP –To permit a photographic image tobe developed too much because of one or more ofthe following factors: (1) excessive time, (2) ex-cessive temperature, (3) overstrength of developersolution, and (4) excessive agitation.

OVEREXPOSE–To permit too much exposure of aphotographic emulsion. This may be caused by(1) too brilliant light, (2) too large an aperture, or(3) too much time.

OVEREXPOSURE–A photographic exposure thatexceeds the maximum latitude of the sensitizedmaterials.

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OXIDATION –Chemical combination of oxygen withother substances. In photography, the loss of activityof developer solutions is due partly to oxidation ofthe developing agent with oxygen in the air andpartly to oxidation with the silver halide duringdevelopment. (PIA)

PIXEL–The smallest single picture element with whichan image is constructed. The light-sensitiveelements in a CCD (chip) camera.

PLANE–A surface which has no curvature; a perfectlyflat surface.

PAN (WITH A CAMERA)–During the course ofphotographing a scene, to swing the camera aroundin such a way as to follow the action. Derived from:Panorama. Camera pans are commonly describedas slow-pan, fast-pan, swish-pan, and jerky-pan.

PAPER, VARIABLE CONTRAST–Photographicpaper coated with emulsions having contrastcharacteristics grading from soft to hard, dependingon the color of the exposing light as modified by aseries of filters supplied for that purpose.

POLARIZER–An optical device for convertingunpolarized, or natural light, into polarized light.

POSITIVE, BLACK AND WHITE–A photographicimage on film, plate, or paper in which light tonesappear light and dark tones are rendered dark

POSITIVE FILM–Photographic film, designed for theprinting of positive transparencies from negatives.

POSITIVE PRINT–A print in which the light and darkareas as they exist in the original.

PARALLAX–The apparent displacement of an objectseen from different points. Commonly encounteredin photography in the difference between the imageseen in the viewfinder and that actually taken by thelens.

POTASSIUM BROMIDE (BROMIDE ORPOTASH), KBr–White crystals, very soluble inwater. Used as a restrainer in developing solutions.Also used in bleaches and clearing solutions.

PERSISTENCE OF VISION–A property of the eyethat consists of an inability to detect the flickeringof a light that exceeds a certain critical frequency.

PERSPECTIVE –The relative size and alignment ofobjects as recorded on a plane surface; the illusionof three dimensions created on a flat surface.

POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE KOH–Caustic alkaliused as an accelerator in photographic developers.Concentrated solutions are quite caustic and willattack the skin, causing painful burns. Similar tosodium hydroxide.

Al-12

PHOTOELECTRIC CELL–A cell that converts lightenergy proportionally into electrical energy. It isused in exposure meters and sound recorders andreproducers.

POWER, RESOLVING–The measure of the ability ofa lens, a photographic material, or a combination ofboth, to distinguish detail under certain specificconditions, among which are the shape and contrastof the target, the quantity of illumination, theexposure and the method of processing. Themeasure of this ability is expressed in lines permillimeter or in angular resolution of a lens.

PHOTOMETER –An instrument for measuring thevisual intensity of light, specifically for comparingthe relative intensities of light emitted fromdifferent sources of illumination. (PIA)

PREROLL–To start a videotape and let it roll for a fewseconds before it is put in the playback or recordmode, so the electronic system has time to stabilize.

PICKUP TUBE–The imaging device of a video camerathat converts light into electrical energy-the videosignal.

PRESERVATIVE–The ingredient of a photographicdeveloper that protects it from rapid oxidation.

PINHOLE–(l) Term applied to tiny spots in aphotographic negative; usually produced as theshadow of a dust particle during exposure, morerarely the result of chemical dust contamination orgas bubble formation in the gelatin layer due toimproper processing. (2) Tiny or white or clear areasin a print or drawing material.

PRINTER, CONTACT–A photographic printer inwhich the negative is held in contact with printmaterial during the exposure. The image of a printmade with a contact printer is the same size as theimage in the negative.

PINT, LIQUID–A unit of capacity equal to 16 fluidounces, or 473.17 milliliters.

PRINTER, PROJECTION–A photographic printer inwhich the negative is positioned some distance fromthe print material; the image being projected ontothe print material. The image of a print made with aprojection printer is usually larger than the image inthe negative.

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RADIANT ENERGY–Energy in the form of anelectromagnetic wave; for example, gamma rays,X rays, ultraviolet energy, light, infrared energy,radiant heat, and radio waves.

RADIATION –The process of emitting electromagneticenergy.

RECIPROCITY LAW–Exposure is equal to theintensity of the exposing light multiplied by the timeduring which it acts. The same density should beproduced in a photosensitive material by an equalexposure obtained by doubling the intensity of thelight and cutting the time of the exposure in half.This law is only approximately followed byphotographic materials, and deviations from it areknown as “reciprocity law failures.”

RECTILINEAR –In a straight line. When applied to alens, it indicates that images of straight linesproduced by the lens are not distorted.

REDUCING AGENT–A chemical constituent of aphotographic developer that changes the exposedsilver halide to metallic silver. Reducing agentsmust be combined with other chemicals to confinetheir activity to the silver grains that have beenexposed, to control the rate of reaction, and topreserve the agent from combining with oxygen inthe air before it can do the work of development.Reducing agents are also called photographicdevelopers.

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REFLECTED LIGHT–Light that has been deflectedfrom an opaque surface; not having been absorbed.

RELATIVE APERTURE–The relative aperture is theratio of equivalent focal length to the diameter ofthe effective aperture. The symbol for relativeaperture written as a fraction is f/ followed by anumerical value. To illustrate, the expression f/2signifies that the diameter of the effective apertureis one half of the focal length.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY–Ration of aqueous vaporpresent in a space at a given temperature, ascompared with the greatest amount it could possiblycontain at that temperature.

REPLENISHER–An additional agent used to maintainthe chemical strength of a processing solution at aconstant level. (NMA)

RESOLUTION –In optics, the ability of a lens systemto reproduce an image in its finest details. SeeRESOLVING POWER.

SHADOW–General term for the thinner areas of anegative or the darker areas of an original.

SHOT–(1) Motion picture. The most basic unit of afilm; a single scene; the continuous action occurringfrom the time the camera is turned on to the time itis turned off. (2) Still picture. A single exposure orphotograph.

SHUTTER, BETWEEN-THE-LENS–A shutterwhose blades operate between two elements of the

RESOLVING POWER–The degree to which a lens,optical system, or film emulsion is able to define thedetails of an image, expressed as the maximumnumber of black lines, with equal white interspacesper millimeter discernible in the image. Resultsobtainable for a given lens or emulsion vary withcontrast of the original image and withdevelopment.

RESTRAINER–The ingredient of a photographicdeveloper that prevents too rapid development andthat minimizes chemical fog.

RETICULATION –A processing defect affectinggelatin layers on a photographic film which, upondrying, shows an irregular surface due to theformation of small, irregular scaly patterns. Sharpdifferences in the temperatures of successiveprocessing solutions and insufficient hardening ofthe gelatin are the usual causes of reticulation.

RGB–The separate red, green, and blue color(chrominance), or “C”, video signals.

SCALE, FOCUSING–A calibrated scale that permitsfocusing a camera without the use of a range finderor ground glass.

SCRIM–Diffusing medium placed in front of lamps.

SEMIMATTE–A surface having a moderate,interrupted sheen midway between glossy and dull,or full matte.

SENSITIVITY –The degree to which an emulsionreacts by the formation of a latent image under givenexposure conditions, especially as this relates toexposure by different wavelengths (colors) of light.(NMA)

SENSITIZING DYE–Any dyestuff used forsensitizing a photographic emulsion.

SENSITOMETER–An instrument with which aphotographic emulsion is given a graduated seriesof exposures to light of controlled spectral quality,intensity, and duration.

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lens, as differentiated from the focal plane orbehind-the-lens shutters. Sometimes applied to aniris diaphragm whose blades operate between lenselements.

SHUTTER, FOCAL-PLANE–A shutter located nearthe focal plane and consisting of a curtain with a slotthat is pulled across the focal plane to make theexposure. The width of the slit and the speed it ismoved determine the duration of the exposure.

SHUTTER RELEASE–A device to actuate a camerashutter.

SHUTTER SPEED–The length of time that light ispermitted to act upon film or paper as a result of theshutter having opened and closed.

SILHOUETTE –An art term for the outline of a formin black or white that is offset by a background ofthe contrasting color. (PIA)

SILVER HALIDE–A compound of silver and one ofthe following elements known as halogens:chlorine, bromide, iodine, and fluorine. (NMA)

SLANT TRACK–Same as helical scan.

SODIUM HYDROXIDE (CAUSTIC SODA,SODIUM HYDRATE), NaOH–A deliquescentwhite material usually available as pellets, flakes,or sticks. Soluble in water with the liberation of heat.A very active accelerator used in high-energydevelopers. Concentrated solutions are quite causticand will attack the skin, causing painful burns.

SODIUM THIOSULFATE (THIOSULFATE OFSODA, HYPO) Na2S2O35H2O–Colorless crystals,very soluble in water. It is the principal constituentof most fixing solutions. It may be available in theanhydrous form.

SOFT–(l) As applied to a photographic emulsion ordeveloper, having a low contrast. (2) As applied tothe lighting of a set, diffuse, giving a flat scene inwhich the brightness difference between highlightsand shadows is small.

SOFT FOCUS–An unsharp photographic image or aspecial lens or exposing technique by means ofwhich it is produced. (PIA)

SPECIFIC GRAVITY (LIQUID AND SOLID)–Theratio of the weight of a substance to the weight ofan equal volume of distilled water.

SPECULAR–Like a mirror, reflecting in a regularmanner so that clear images may be formed,nondiffusing.

SPOT–A contraction of “spotlight”; a lamp whichprojects a narrow, strong beam of light. (Verb) Toremove spots from photographic prints, sometimescalled "positive retouching" or"print retouching."

SQUEEGEE–(l) A rubber blade mounted in a holderwhich, when drawn over the surface of a wet filmor paper, removes the surface liquid. (2) Rollersused for the same purpose. (3) On continuousprocessing machines, air squeegees may be usedthat remove surface liquid by either suction or byblowing air against material being processed.

STAIN–A local or general discoloration of negativesand prints.

STEP TEST–(l) A series of exposures made withgradual increases in illumination used to determineproper exposure conditions. (2) To test for contrastor latitude, you can use a step wedge in a singleexposure. (NMA)

STOP BATH–A stop bath is an acid solution used toarrest development by neutralizing the alkalinedeveloper with which the photographic material issaturated as it leaves the developing bath.

STROBE–Designates an electronic flash lamp.

SUBTRACTIVE PRIMARIES–The three printingcolors used in three-color subtractive colorprocesses: magenta (minus green), cyan (minusred), and yellow (minus blue-violet). (PIA)

SYNCHROFLASH –Photographic arrangementwhereby a photoflash lamp is timed to provideillumination at the instant when the camera shutteris wide open.

TIME BASE CORRECTOR (TBC)–An electronicaccessory to a videotape recorder that helps makeplaybacks or transfers electronically stable. A TBChelps to maintain picture stability even indubbing-up operations.

TIME TEMPERATURE CHART–A table showingthe optimum time of development at the standardtemperature for various photographic materials in agiven developer or for different times ofdevelopment in order to obtain equivalentdevelopment at nonstandard temperatures. (PIA)

TONE–(l) In a photographic negative or print, thedegree of lightness or darkness of the various partsof the image. (2) A term applied to the color of theimage in a photographic print; that is, warm, cold,sepia, and so forth.

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TRANSILLUMINATE –To illuminate through a docu-ment, from the side opposite the camera.

UNDERDEVELOPMENT –Insufficientdevelopment; due to developing for too short a time,use of a weakened developer or, occasionally, toolow a temperature.

UNDEREXPOSURE–Insufficient exposure of aphotographic material, causing thin or weak imagesand a corresponding loss of detail. (PIA)

VANISHING POINT–In a perspective view, the pointwhere parallel lines receding from the observerseem to come together.

VELOCITY OF LIGHT–Term applied to the speed oflight waves in a vacuum (Co); 229,792.5 kilometersper second, or approximately 186,000 miles persecond. In all other media, light travels at a slowerrate.

VIDEO CASSETTE–A plastic container in which avideotape moves from a supply reel to a take-upreel. Used in all but the 1-inch VTRs.

VISIBLE SPECTRUM–The portion of theelectromagnetic spectrum to which the retina issensitive and by which we see. Extends from about400 to 750 millimicrons in wavelengths of radiation.

VTR–Videotape recorder or recording. Includes videocassette recorders.

WASHING–Act of removing soluble chemicals fromphotographic layers through the agency of water,especially the removal of fixation products andhypo in order to avoid subsequent fading ordiscoloration of the silver image.

WATER SPOTS–Deformation of photographic gelatinlayers on a film or plate due to differential dryingwhen water drops stand on the surface and keep thegelatin wet and swollen after the surroundinggelatin has become dried and compressed. The spotshave a characteristic appearance when a negative onwhich they occur is printed. Viscose sponges andwetting solutions (detergents) are commonly usedto avoid such defects. (PIA)

WAVELENGTH–Length of a wave measured from anypoint on one wave to the corresponding point on thenext wave; usually measured from crest to crest.Wavelength determines whether radiant energy isclassed as gamma rays, X rays, or ultraviolet,visible, infrared radiant energy, or radio.Wavelength of visible radiant energy is the chiefdeterminant of its perceived color.

WETTING AGENT–A chemical added to water toreduce surface tension, thereby improving wettingcharacteristics and reducing the formation of waterdrops. (NMA)

Y/C–The separate processing of the luminance (Y) andchrominance (C) signals.

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APPENDIX II

Relative Aperture:

Hyperfocal Distance:

Near Distance:

Far Distance:

Ratio between imagesize and object(subject) size:

Object Focal Distance:

Image Focal Distance:

IFGA:

Filter Factor ExposureCompensation:

Exposure:

Bellows Extension:

New Exposure Time

or

Adjuted f/stop:

Fahrenheit to Celsius:

FORMULAS

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Celsius to Fahrenheit:

Changing SolutionStrength:

Amount Wanted X Strength DesiredStrength on Hand

Exposure Time (inseconds) forMotion-PictureCamera:

Shutter-Degree Opening360 x fps

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APPENDIX III

REFERENCES USED TO DEVELOPTHE TRAMAN

Reference

Basic Developing & Printing, Kodak Publication No.AJ-2, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N.Y.,1987.

Basic Developing, Printing, Enlarging in Color, KodakPublication No. AE- 13, Eastman Kodak Company,Rochester, N.Y., 1984.

Conservation of Photographs, Kodak Publication No.F-40, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N.Y.,1985.

DeCock, Liliane, ed., Photo Lab Index Lifetime Edition,41st ed., Morgan & Morgan, Inc., Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.,1990.

Department of the Navy Information and PersonnelSecurity Program Regulation, OPNAVINST5510. 1H, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations,Washington, D.C., 1991.

Duckworth, John E., Forensic Photography, Charles C.Thomas, Publisher, Springfield, Ill., 1983.

Environmental and Natural Resources Program Manual,OPNAVINST 5090.1 A, Office of the Chief of NavalOperations, Washington, D.C., 1990.

Hart, John, 50 Portrait Lighting Techniques for Picturesthat Sell, American Photographic Book Publishing,New York, N.Y., 1983.

Intelligence Photography, Basic, Training Guide No.J-243-0974, Fleet Intelligence Training CenterPacific, San Diego, Calif., 1990.

Jacobson, Ralph E., Sidney F. Ray, and Geoffrey G.Attridge, The Manual of Photography, 8th ed.,Butterworth & Co. (Publishers) Ltd, London,England, 1988.

Chapters

10,11

10,12

14

1-3,5,6,9-12

6,14

6

9

7

6

1-4,9-13

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Reference Chapters

Kodak Color Films and Papers for Professionals, KodakPublication No. E-77, Eastman Kodak Company,Rochester, N.Y., 1986.

10,12

Printing Color Negatives, Kodak Publication NO. E-66,Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N.Y., 1982.

12

Professional Photographic Illustration Techniques, 1sted., Kodak Publication No. O-16, Eastman KodakCompany, Rochester, N.Y., 1978.

5

Professional Portrait Techniques, Kodak Publication No.O-4, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N.Y.,1987.

Naval Visual Information Management and OperationsManual, OPNAVINST 5290.1 A, Office of the Chiefof Naval Operations, Washington, D.C., 1990.

Navy and Marine Corps Records Disposition Manual,SECNAVINST 5212.5C, Office of the Secretary,Washington, D.C., 1988.

Navy Occupational Safety and Health (NAVOSH)Program Manual, OPNAVINST 5100.23B, Office ofthe Chief of Naval Operations, Washington, D.C.,1989.

Navy Occupational Safety and Health (NAVOSH)Program Manual for Forces Afloat, OPNAVINST5100.19B, Vols. 1 & 2, Office of Chief of NavalOperations, Washington, D.C., 1990.

Opticalman 3 & 2, NAVEDTRA 10205-C, NavalEducation and Training Program ManagementSupport Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1979.

1

Permission to Copy Materials Subject to Copyright,SECNAVINST 5870.5, Office of the Secretary,Washington, D.C., 1988.

Quality Enlarging with Kodak Black-and- White Papers,1st ed., Kodak Publication G-1, Eastman KodakCompany, Rochester, N.Y., 1985.

7

7, 14

14

9

9

8

11

Safety Precautions for Photographic Personnel,NAVAIR 10-1-764, Naval Air Systems Command,Washington, D.C., 1960.

9

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Reference

Ships’ Maintenance Material Management (3-M)Manual, OPNAVINST 4790.4B, Office of the Chiefof Naval Operations, Washington, D.C., 1990.

Upton, Barbara, and John Upton, Photography, 2d ed.,Little, Brown and Company, Toronto, Canada, 1981.

Wurtzel, Alan, and Stephen R. Acker, TelevisionProduction, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y.,1989.

Zettl, Herbert, Television Production Handbook, 5th ed.,Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, Calif.,1992.

Chapters

4, 10

1-5, 10-12

13

13

AIII-3

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INDEX

A Burning-in, 11-17

Absorption of light, 1-5

Accelerator, 10-2

Accessory lighting, 7-4

Action photographs, 6-11

Acutance, 2-4

Additive colors, 12-2

Additive enlargers, 12-4, 12-9

Analyzers. color, 12-11

Analyzers, video, 12-12

Angle of field, 1-15

Angle of view, 1-17

Aperture, 1-18, 4-10

Architectural photography, 6-34

exterior, 6-36

interior, 6-36

Artificial light, 1-8, 4-20

Audio track, 13-8

Authority to classify material, 14-2

Autofocus, 4-8

B

Background information for captions, 6-14

Backlighting, 4-20, 5-28

Basic sequence for motion-media recording, 13-15

closeup shot, 13-16

extreme closeup shot, 13-16

extreme long shot, 13-15

long shot, 13-16

medium shot, 13-16

Bellows, 4-27, 6-22, 8-8

extension formula, 4-20

Bounce lighting, 5-32, 6-23

Brightness range, 4-24

C

Camcorders, 13-9

Camera angle, 5-8, 6-8

Camera controls, 4-5

aperture, 4-10

focus, 4-5

rising front, 4-29

shutter, 4-12, 13-2, 13-10

slide back, 4-29

slide front, 4-29

swing back, 4-27

swing front, 4-28

tilt back, 4-28

tilt front, 4-28

Camera types, 4-2

electronic, 4-30

large format, 4-4

medium format, 4-4, 6-22

motion picture, 13-1

motion video, 13-3, 13-6

process, 8-7

small format, 4-3

35mm SLR, 4-3, 6-3,6-22

view, 4-27, 4-29, 6-22, 6-33

Camera-handling techniques, video, 13-10

Candid photographs, 6-2

Captions, 6-12

background information, 6-14

credit line, 6-14

explaining action, 6-13

five Ws, 6-13

identification, 6-14

INDEX-1

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Cathode-ray tubes (CRT), 13-8

photography of, 8-17

Charged-coupled device (CCD), 4-30

Chemical mixers, 9-5

Chemical mixing, 9-8

Circle of confusion, 1-23

Classification authority, 14-2

Classified material, 14-1

authority to classify, 14-2

Confidential, 14-2

destruction of, 14-4

marking imaging products, 14-3

protective measures, 14-4

receipt system, 14-6

safeguarding, 14-1

Secret, 14-1

storage, 14-5

Top Secret, 14-1

Closeup shot, 13-16

Color, 5-27

Colorblind emulsion, 2-2

Color negative, evaluation, 12-6

color analyzers, 12-11, 12-13

densitometer, 12-10, 12-11

video analyzer, 12-12

Color printers, automated, 12-15

Color print, evaluation, 12-6

reflection densitometer, 12-12

ring around, 12-7

viewing filters, 1`2-8

Color print processing, 12-13

Color sensitivity, 2-2

Color star, 12-3

Color temperature, 1-4, 8-15, 12-4

Composition, 5-5

background, 5-22

Composition-Continued

balance, 5-8

center of interest, 5-6

contrast, 5-18

dynamic symmetry, 5-7

foreground, 5-22

form, 5-13

framing, 5-20

leading lines, 5-15

lighting, 5-18

lines, 5-14

motion-video images, 13-13

pattern, 5-16

principle of thirds, 5-7

shape, 5-13

simplicity, 5-7

texture, 5-18

tone, 5-18

volume, 5-16

Condenser enlarger, 11-10

Condenser-diffusion enlarger, 11-11

Confidential material, 14-2

Conjugate foci, 1-26

Contact printing, 11-2

Continuity, 13-16

screen direction, 13-17

Contrast, 2-3, 5-18, 10-31

color, 5-19

filters, 3-10, 11-13

tonal, 5-19

Control charts, 10-41

Control strips, 10-41

Control track, 13-8

Controlled security area, 14-5

Controlled action, video, 13-21

Copy originals, 8-14

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Copying, 8-13

black-and-white continuous tones, 8-11

black-and-white halftones, 8-12

black-and-white line, 8-11

color reproduction, 8-11

colored line, 8-11

colored originals, 8-11

defected originals, 8-12

large originals, 8-15

reflection control, 8-15

Copyright, 8-2 through 8-6

Corrective photography, 6-33

Credit line, 6-14

Cropping prints, 11-12, 11-15

Cut-in shot, 13-20

Cutaway shot, 13-20

D

Daylight, 1-7, 8-10

artificial, 1-9

conditions, 4-18

Densitometer, 12-10, 12-12

Densitometry, 10-41

Depth of field, 1-25,4-10

Depth of focus, 1-24

Destruction of classified material, 14-4

Developer, 10-1

black and white, types, 10-2

composition, 10-1

Developing agent, 10-1

Development, 10-1

chemical, 10-1

physical, 10-1

variations, effects, 10-32

Diffraction of light, 1-6

Diffusing, 11-19

Diffusion enlarger, 11 - 10

Disks, floppy, 2-8, 4-31

Dispersion of light, 1-6

Distortion control, 11-20

Dodging, 11-17

Dropout, 13-6

Drying, 10-8

film, 10-8

paper, 11-7

E

Effective aperture, 1-18

Electronic camera, 4-30

Electronic flash, 1-9

Emulsion, 2-1

colorblind, 2-2

infrared, 2-3

latitude, 2-4

orthochromatic, 2-3

panchromatic, 2-3

sensitivity, 2-9

Enlarger, 11-9

additive, 12-4, 12-9

condenser, 1 1 - 10

condenser-diffusion, 11-11

diffusion, 11-10

lenses, 11-11

subtractive, 12-4, 12-8

Exclusion security area, 14-5

Existing lighting, 5-28

Expiration dates, 2-11

Explaining action, 6-13

Exploded-view photography, 6-29

Exposure, 4-17

aperture effects, 4-16

bellows extension, 4-20

equivalent, 4-16

f/16 rule, 4-21

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Exposure-Continued

factors affecting, 4-18

latitude, 2-4, 8-14

motion picture, 13-3

shutter-speed effects, 4-16

variations, effects, 10-32

Extreme closeup shot, 13-16

F

Field, 2-8, 4-31, 13-7

Filing recorded images, 14-10

Film

amateur, 2-7

black and white, 2-1

color reversal, 2-6

color negative, 2-6

construction, 2-5

copying, 8-10

development, 10-1

instant picture, 2-7

ISO, 2-1

motion picture, 13-2

professional, 2-7

roll, 2-7

sheet, 2-8

speed, 2-1, 4-18

Filter factors, 3-9

Filters, 3-1 to 3-12, 13-2

black-and-white photography, 3-2 to 3-4

color compensating, 3-5, 3-11, 8-19

color photography, 3-4 to 3-7

color printing (CP), 3-11, 12-4

contrast, 3-2

contrast printing, 3-10, 11-13

conversion, 3-5

correction, 3-3, 12-4

CP2B, 12-4

Filters-Continued

designations, 3-1

dichroic, 3-12, 12-4

handling and storage, 3-12

haze, 3-7

light balancing, 3-4

neutral density, 3-7

polarizing, 3-8

safelight, 3-10

skylight, 3-9, 6-38

ultraviolet absorbing, 3-9, 3-11

viewing, 12-8

Five Ws, 6-13

Fixer, 10-5

composition, 10-5

for prints, 11-1

f/16 rule, 4-21

Flash photography, 5-31

automatic, 5-3 1

bounce, 5-32

multiple units, 5-35

multiple exposures, 5-36

nighttime, 5-36

off camera, 5-34

on camera, 5-32

open, 5-36

single, 5-32

synchro-sunlight, 5-35

Floodlights, 6-23, 7-3

Floppy disks, 2-8, 4-31

Fluorescent lighting, 5-29, 8-9

Focal length, 1-13, 1-15, 1-34, 6-3

Focus, 1-22, 4-4

selective, 4-9

Focusing systems, 4-6

autofocus, 4-8

INDEX-4

Page 393: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

Focusing systems-Continued

focusing scale, 4-6

ground glass, 4-6, 8-8

range finder, 4-7

single-lens reflex (SLR), 4-3, 4-7

twin-lens reflex (TLR), 4-7

Fog, 10-1, 10-2

Frame, 2-8, 4-31, 13-2, 13-7

Frontlighting, 4-19, 5-27

f/stop, 1-18, 4-10

G

Glassware photography, 6-30

Graduates, 9-2

Grain focuser, 11-15

Graininess, 2-4

Ground glass system, 4-6, 8-8

Group photographs, 6-6

H

Hydrometer, 9-3

Hyperfocal distance, 1-25

I

Identification of recorded images, 13-23, 14-10

filing, 14-10

slating, 13-24

video/film data sheet, 13-25

Visual Information Caption Sheet, DD Form 2537,13-25

IFGA, 1-29

Illuminance, 4-18

Illustrative photography (See product photography)

Imaging product, classified markings, 14-3

Incident light, 1-5

Industrial photography, 6-37

Infinity, 1-15

Infrared emulsion, 2-3

Intelligence photography, 6-4 1

aircraft, 6-42

ports, 6-43

ships, 6-42

International Standards Organization (ISO), 2-1

Investigations, photography, 6-15

aircraft accident, 6-18 through 6-21

fire and arson, 6-16

J

Job control, 14-7

job-order form, 14-8

job-order log, 14-8

Visual Information Caption Sheet, 14-10

L

Lamps, 1-8

electronic flash, 1-9

fluorescent, 1-8

tungsten filament, 1-8

tungsten halogen, 1-9, 12-4

Large-format camera, 4-4

Latent image, 2-1

Lens, 1-10

aberrations, 1-10

copying, 8-8

diaphragm, 1-18,

effective aperture, 1-18

f/stop, 1-18 through 1-22, 4-10

focal length, 1-13

long-focal length, 1-15, l-34, 6-3

macro, 1-34

mirror, 1-35

motion picture, 13-2

normal-focal length, 1-15, 1-34

process, 8-8

rectilinear, 1-34

INDEX-5

Page 394: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

Lens-Continued

relative aperture, 1-18

speed, 1-19

telephoto, 1-34

wide angle, 1-32

zoom, 1-15, 1-36

Light, 1-1

absorption, 1-5

artificial, 1-8, 4-20

daylight (See daylight)

diffraction, 1-6

dispersion, 1-6

incident, 1-5

polarized, 1-7

primaries, 12-1

quantum theory, 1-2

reflection, 1-4

refraction, 1-5, 4-20

secondaries, 12-2

transmission, 1-5

wave motion theory, 1-2

wavelength, 1-2

Light meter, 4-16, 4-21

angle of acceptance, 4-22

erroneous readings, 4-25

incident reading, 4-22

operation, 4-22

reflected reading, 4-22

spot, 4-22

TTL, 4-25

Light meter readings, methods, 4-23,

average, 4-23

bracketing, 4-25

brightest object, 4-24

copying, 8-17

brightness range, 4-24

Light meter readings, methods-Continued

darkest object, 4-24

integrated, 4-23

substitution, 4-24

Lighting, 4-19, 5-18, 5-27

accessories, 7-4

backlighting, 4-20, 5-28

bounce, 5-32, 6-23

conditions for viewing color prints, 12-7

copy originals, 8-14

electronic flash, 5-30, 8-9

existing, 5-28

floodlights, 6-23, 7-3

fluorescent, 5-29, 8-9

frontlighting, 4-19, 5-27

outdoor, 5-27

portraits, 7-9

quartz iodine, 8-10

ratio, 5-34, 6-26

sidelighting, 4-20, 5-27

spotlights, 6-23, 7-3

tungsten, 8-9

Limited security area, 14-5

Long shot, 13-16

M

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), 9-11

Medium-format camera, 4-4, 6-22

Medium shot, 13-16

Meniscus, 9-2

Mirrors, 6-29

Monopod, 5-5

Motion picture, 13-1

cameras, 13-1

lenses, 13-2, 13-13

Mounting photographs, 14-12

INDEX-6

Page 395: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

Movement, 13-12

primary, 13-13

secondary, 13-13

tertiary, 13-13

N

Negative, quality, 10-31

contrast, 10-31

density, 10-1

graininess, 10-32

highlights, 10-31

shadows, 10-31

tonal gradation, 10-32

Negative, standard, 12-10

Negatives, color, 12-5

Night photography, 5-30

flash, 5-36

O

Optimum aperture, 4-12

Orthochromatic emulsion, 2-3

Outdoor lighting, 5-27

P

Painted light, 6-27

Panchromatic emulsion, 2-3

Panning, 4-15, 13-11

Paper

black and white, 2-9

color, 2-10

emulsion sensitivity, 2-9

handling, 2-10

storage, 2-11

surfaces, 2-10

variable contrast, 2-9

Parabolic reflectors, 8-10

Parallax, 4-7

Passport photographs, 7-19

People, photographing, 6-2

action, 6-11

candid, 6-2

command functions, 6-11

directing, 6-4

environment, 6-3

groups, 6-6

working, 6-4

Perspective, 1-17, 5-23

atmospheric, 5-26

dwindling size, 5-25

height, 5-24

linear, 5-23

overlap, 5-24

rectilinear, 5-23

vanishing point, 5-23

volume, 5-25

pH meter, 9-4

Photographer’s Data Sheets, 10-25

Pixel, 13-5

Plane reflectors, 1-10

Polarized light, l-7

Portraiture, 7-l through 7-20

accessories for, 7-4

backgrounds, 7-2

composition, 7-7

corrective techniques, 7-17

exposure calculation, 7-17

film, 7-4

full length, 7-15

lenses, 7-2

lighting, 7-9

lights, 7-3

posing, 7-6

studio, 7-1

INDEX-7

Page 396: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

Preservative, 10-2, 10-6

Primary colors, 12-1

additive, 12-2

subtractive, 12-2

Principle of thirds, 5-7

Printers, color automated, 12-15

Printing, 1 l-l

burning-in, 11-17

color negatives, 12-5

color prints from transparencies, 12-14

color transparencies from negatives, 12-14

composition (cropping), 11-12, 11-15

contact, 11-2

contrast filters, 3-10, 11-13

defects, 11-21

diffusing, 11-19

distortion control, 11-20

dodging, 11-17

enlargers, 11-9

processing black-and-white prints, 11-7

processing color prints, 12-13

projection, 11-8

projection procedures, 1 l-l 1

proof sheets, 12-10

test print, 11-5

vignetting, 11-19

Process camera, 8-7

Process monitoring, 10-38

control charts, 10-41

control strips, 10-40

Processing, 10-14

color negative, 10-26

color print, 12-13

color reversal, 10-27

defects, 10-34

reversal film, 10-25

Processing-Continued

tank, 10-18

tray, 10-16

Processing equipment, 10-9

film, 10-9

machine, 10-27

paper, 12-13

Product photography, 6-21

background elimination, 6-32

dulling reflections, 6-28

exploded views, 6-29

glassware, 6-30

lighting ratio, 6-26

lighting the subject, 6-26

lights, types, 6-22

mirror, 6-29

painted light, 6-27

rectangular shapes, 6-23

spherical shapes, 6-25

tenting, 6-28

Proof sheets, 12-10

Protection of classified material, 14-4

Q

Quality assurance, 14-10

Quantum theory, 1-2

Quartz-iodine lighting, 8-10

R

Range finder, 4-7

Ratio, lighting, 5-34, 6-26

Receipt system, classified material, 14-6

Recording systems, video, 13-5

Rectangular shaped products, 6-23

Rectilinear lens, 1-34

Red eye, 5-32

Reducing agent, 10-1

INDEX-8

Page 397: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

Reflection of light, l-4

Reflectors, 1-9

lamp, 1-9

parabolic, 8-10

plane, 1-10

Refraction of light, 1-5, 4-20

Relative aperture, 1-18

Replenishment, 10-4, 10-30

Resolving power, 2-4

Restrainer, 10-2

Reticulation, 10-15

Ring around, 12-7

S

Safeguarding classified material, 14-1

Safelights, 10-10

Screen direction, 13-17

constant, 13-18

contrasting, 13-19

neutral, 13-17

static, 13-19

Secret material, 14-1

Security areas, 14-4

controlled, 14-5

exclusion, 14-5

limited, 14-5

visitor control, 14-6

Sensitometry, 10-39

sensitometer, 10-39

step tablet, 10-40

Shot, 13-16

Shot variety, video, 13-12

Shutter

focal plane, 4-3, 4-13

function, 4-14

leaf, 4-12,

selection, 4- 14

Shutter-Continued

speed, 4-13

synchronization, 4-14

Sidelighting, 4-20, 5-27

Silhouette, 4-20

Silver recovery, 9-11

Silver halides, 2-1

Single-lens reflex (SLR) system, 4-3, 4-7

Slating, 13-24

Slide film, 2-6, 8-18

duplicating, 8-17

handling, 8-18

mounting, 14-13

Small-format camera, 4-3

Spectral sensitivity, 2-2

Spherical-shaped products, 6-25

Spotlights, 6-23, 7-3

Standard negative, 12-10

Star, color, 12-3

Stop bath, 10-5

Storage of classified material, 14-5

Subtractive enlarger, 12-4, 12-8

Subtractive colors, 12-2

T

Telephoto lens, 1-34

Tenting, 6-28

Test print, 11-5

T-grain, 2-4

Thermometers, 9-2

35mm SLR camera, 4-3, 6-3, 6-22

Top-Secret material, 14-1

Tripod, 5-3

Tungsten lighting, 8-9

Win-lens reflex (TLR) system, 4-7

INDEX-9

Page 398: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

U

Uncontrolled action, video, 13-21

V

Video, 13-3, 13-6

Video/film data sheet, 13-25

Video, motion, 13-3

basic sequence, 13-15

camcorders, 13-9

camera-handling techniques, 13-10

continuity, 13-16

controlled action, 13-21

graphics, recording, 13-22

key terms, 13-4

monitor, 13-8

recording systems, 13-5

shot variety, 13-12

uncontrolled action, 13-21

Video track, 13-8

Videotape, 13-6

care of, 13-26

View camera, 4-27, 4-29, 6-22, 6-23

Viewing filters, 12-8

Viewpoint, 5-8

Vignetting, 11-19

Visitor control, 14-6

Visual Information Caption Sheet, DD form 2537,13-25

W

Washing, 10-7

film, 10-7

paper, 11-7

Wetting agent, 10-8

Wide-angle lens, 1-32

Z

Zoom lens, 1-15, 1-36

INDEX- 10

Page 399: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

Assignment Questions

Information: The text pages that you are to study areprovided at the beginning of the assignment questions.

Page 400: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)
Page 401: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

ASSIGNMENT 1

Textbook Assignment: “Theory of Light and Optical Principles.” Pages 1-1 through 1-37.

Learning Objective: Identifyprinciples and characteristicsof light.

1-1. In what range of the electro-magnetic spectrum does light exist?

1. lnm to 100,000nm2. 10nm to 10,000nm3. 100nm to 1,000nm4. 400nm to 700nm

1-2. What theory was published by MaxPlanck to explain X ray, radiation,and photoelectricity?

1. Wave motion2. Quantum3. Raster4. Electromagnetic

1-3. What theory explains reflection,refraction, diffraction, andpolarization?

1. Wave motion2. Quantum3. Photo optics4. Electromagnetic

1-4. A nanometer is equal to whatnumber of millimeters?

1. 1/102. 1/1003. 1/1,0004. 1/1,000,000

1-5. The speed of light is alwaysconstant.

1. True2. False

1-6.

1-7.

1-8.

1-9.

The distance from the crest of onewave to the crest of the next waveof light describes what term?

1. Frequency2. Speed3. Wavelength4. Distribution

What color of light is made up ofan even mixture of all the visiblewavelengths?

1. White2. Black3. Blue4. Green

The spectral energy of a lightsource is represented by

1. speed2. frequency3. wavelength4. color temperature

The color temperature of red lightis less than the color temperatureof blue light.

1. True2. False

1-10. What scale is used to measurethe color temperature of light?

1. Fahrenheit2. Celsius3. Kelvin4. Chromaticity

1-11. Color hue is defined as whatproperty of color?

1. Brightness2. Purity3. Saturation4. Color

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1-12. The terms dull, bright, vivid, andbrilliant are used to describe whatcolor characteristic?

1. Hue2. Brightness3. Saturation4. Purity

Learning Objective: Identifyways in which light reacts withvarious mediums.

1-13. When light waves encounter anobject, which of the followingactions may take place?

1. Reflection2. Absorption3. Transmission4. Each of the above

1-14. Specular light strikes a smoothsurface at 60 degrees. At whatangle is the light reflected?

1. 30 degrees2. 60 degrees3. 90 degrees4. 120 degrees

1-15. Which of the following descriptorsbest defines an object that isopaque?

1. Very hard2. Highly reflective3. Light stopping4. Each of the above

1-16. A change in direction that occurswhen light passes from one trans-parent medium into another is knownby what term?

1. Refraction2. Reflection3. Diffraction4. Dispersion

1-17.

1-18.

1-19.

1-20.

1-21.

1-22.

What characteristic of lightallows a lens to form an image?

1. Reflection2. Diffraction3. Refraction4. Dispersion

Of the following wavelengths, whichone has its speed reduced the mostwhen it enters a medium of higherdensity?

1. Red2. Yellow3. Green4. Blue

What term describes the abilityof a prism to break up white lightinto its component colors?

1. Refraction2. Diffraction3. Dispersion4. Polarization

A light ray is bent as it passesvery close to an opaque object.What term is used to describe thisevent?

1. Dispersion2. Refraction3. Polarization4. Diffraction

When the motion a light wave is inone direction only, the light is

1. parallel2. polarized3. planed4. directionless

What type of light is seen asglare?

1. Plane polarized2. Diffused3. Tungsten4. Fluorescent

Learning Objective: Recognizevarious sources of light andthe differences between them.

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Page 403: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

1-23. What color of light is scatteredthe most by the atmosphere?

1. Red2. Green3. Yellow4. Blue

1-24. What is the approximate colortemperature of overhead sunlighton a clear day?

1. 2000 K2. 3200 K3. 5400 K4. 60000 K

1-25. You have exposed daylight balancedcolor slide film under fluorescentlight without a filter. What colorcast do the finished slides have?

1. Blue2. Green3. Yellow4. Red

1-26. What is the main purpose of a lampreflector?

1. To increase the amount oflight emitted by a lamp

2. To diffuse light3. To polarize light4. To redirect light

1-27. Most electronic-flash units aredesigned to be most efficient whenthey are at what distance from thesubject?

1. 3 to 10 feet2. 6 to 12 feet3. 10 to 18 feet4. 12 to 36 feet

Learning Objective: Identifybasic characteristics of photo-graphic lenses.

1-28. The inherent errors of a lensare known by what term?

1. Faults2. Defects3. Aberrations4. Parallax

1-29. The inability of a lens to focussharply both horizontal andvertical lines on the same planeis what lens aberration?

1. Astigmatism2. Coma3. Spherical4. Chromatic

1-30. The distance from the opticalcenter of the lens to the filmplane is 150mm. The image on thefilm is in sharp focus. The lensis focused on an object at infinityor 640 feet away. What is thefocal length of this lens?

1. 50mm2. 85mm3. 135mn4. 150mm

1-31. The focal length can be changedin what type of lens?

1. Mirror2. Zoom3. Macro4. Anamorphic

1-32. What factor determines the normalfocal-length lens for a camera?

1. Film size2. Shutter type3. Camera size4. Lens-to-film distance

1-33. Providing the camera-to-subjectdistance remains unchanged, whichof the following focal-lengthlenses provides the greatestsubject area?

1. 200mm2. 100mm3. 50mm4. 25mm

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1-34. Which of the following focal-lengthlenses used at the same lens-to-film distance will produce thelargest image of the subject?

1. 135mm2. 80mm3. 50mm4. 25mm

1-35. The angle of field for a normallens is within a range of howmany degrees?

1. 25° to 35°2. 45° to 55°3. 75° to 85°4. 95° to 105°

1-36. What type of lens has an angleof view greater than 55 degrees?

1. Telephoto2. Mirror3. Wide angle4. Long-focal length

1-37. What is the final result when animage is recorded with a lens thathas a large diaphragm opening?

1. Moving objects appear sharp2. All objects within the scene

appear sharp3. Angle of view is increased4. Only the object the lens is

focused on appears sharp

1-38. Photographic perspective dependson the focal length of the lens.

1. True2. False

1-39. The lens you are using is focusedon infinity and set at f/8. Thesize of the aperture is 1/2 inch.What is the focal length, ininches?

1. 1 1. Refraction index2. 2 2. Closed-down aperture3. 8 3. Lens speed4. 4 4. Optimum aperture

Learning Objective: Recognizethe function and the effects ofthe aperture of a lens.

1-40. The lens you are using is setat f/16 and is focused less thaninfinity. What is the relativeaperture of the lens?

1. f/82. f/113. f/164. f/22

1-41. What is the relative aperture ofa 6-inch lens with an effectiveaperture of 1.5 inches?

1. f/42. f/5.63. f/84. f/11

1-42. Three lenses of different focallengths are used at the same f/stopto photograph the same subject.What lens, if any, produces thebrightest image on the film plane?

1. 200mm2. 50mm3. 28mm4. None

1-43. Which of the following termsdescribes the device within a lensthat controls the amount of lightpassed by the lens to the filmplane?

1. Concentricizer2. Diaphragm3. Adjuster4. Obstructor

1-44. What term is used to describethe largest aperture of a lens?

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Page 405: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

1-45.

1-46.

1-47.

1-48.

1-49.

Which of the following f/stopsrepresents the largest aperture?

1. f/5.62. f/83. f/224. f/32

You have changed the lens settingfrom f/5.6 to f/16. What termdescribes the action you havetaken?

1. Stopping down2. Opening up3. Racking out4. Sliding back

You have changed the f/stop settingfrom f/16 to f/8. What amount oflight is admitted to the filmplane?

1. One half2. Two times3. One quarter4. Four times

A lens set to f/8 produced acorrect exposure in 1 second.When you set the lens at f/4,what is the correct exposuretime, in seconds?

1. 12. 23. 1/24. 1/4

Of the following f/stops, whichone is not a standard, full f/stop?

1. f/l2. f/2.53. f/5.64. f/45

Learning Objective: Identifyfactors that affect the meansin which a lens focuses an image.

Figure 1A

IN ANSWERING QUESTION 1-50, REFERTO FIGURE 1A.

1-50. What object is represented asbeing the greatest distance fromthe camera?

1. A2. B3. C

1-51. The principal focal plane is lo-cated a total of how many inchesbehind a 3-inch focal-length lens?

1. 1.52. 63. 34. 4

1-52. As an object moves closer to thelens, what distance, if any, mustthe film plane to the lens changein order to keep the image in sharpfocus?

1. It must be increased2. It must be decreased3. None

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Page 406: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

1-53. What distance is required betweenthe lens and the focal plane sothe image formed by a 2-inch focal-length lens is the same size as thesubject?

1. 1 inch2. 2 inches3. 1.4 inches4. 4 inches

1-54. The distance the focal plane can bemoved forward or backward from theplane of sharp focus and stillrecord an acceptably sharp image isknown by what term?

1. Depth of field2. Circle of confusion3. Depth of focus4. Hyperfocal distance

1-55. What term describes the distancefrom the lens beyond which allobjects are rendered in acceptablysharp focus when the lens is set atinfinity?

1. Hyperfocal distance2. Depth of field3. Depth of focus4. Near distance

1-56. What is the hyperfocal distance ofa 6-inch lens set at f/11 when thepermissible circle of confusion is0.006 inches?

1. 2.38 feet2. 36.72 feet3. 545.45 feet4. 3361.11 feet

1-57. Your lens is set at f/11, thehyperfocal distance is 71 feet,and your subject is 112 feet fromthe camera. You should focus atwhat distance for maximum depthof field?

1-58. Of the following lenses, which oneprovides the greatest depth offield when set at f/5.6 and focusedon an object 6 feet from the lens?

1. 35mm2. 50mm3. 80mm4. 135mm

1-59. Which of the following factorsaffects depth of field?

1. Lens focal length2. Lens f/stop3. Camera-to-subject distance4. All of the above

1-60. You are using a lens focusedon the hyperfocal distance whichis 50 feet. What is the approx-imate depth-of-field range?

1. 25 feet to 75 feet only2. 25 feet to infinity3. 50 feet to infinity only4. 75 feet to infinity only

1-61. What is the depth of field of a50mm lens set at f/8 with apermissible circle of confusion of0.002 inches when it is focused onan object 20 feet from the lens?

1. 10.0 feet to 20.0 feet2. 15.7 feet to 23.4 feet3. 18.6 feet to 21.7 feet only4. 20.0 feet to 23.8 feet only

Learning Objective: Determinethe relationship between thesubject/image size.

1-62. A document is 1-inch square. Youmust photograph it to produce a4-inch-square image on the film.Using a 6-inch lens, what imagefocal distance is required?

1. 35.5 feet2. 56.0 feet3. 71.0 feet4. 112.0 feet

1. 10 inches2. 12 inches3. 24 inches4. 30 inches

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1-63. The size of the image formed bya lens depends on which of thefollowing factors?

1. The size of the subject2. The lens-to-subject distance3. The lens focal length4. All of the above

1-64. A 10-inch focal-length lens is usedto photograph an object 8 feet highfrom a distance of 28 feet. Whatimage size is on the film plane?

1. 1.25 inches2. 2.50 inches3. 2.85 inches4. 5.70 inches

1-65. You are assigned to photograph anobject 10 feet wide using a 4x5-inch camera with a 7-inch lens.You must position your camera whatdistance from the object to producea 3-inch image?

1. 1.40 feet2. 11.65 feet3. 23.30 feet4. 46.60 feet

1-66. Using a 35mm camera with a 50mmlens, you have photographed asubject. However, the shooting-crew supervisor informs you thata 4x5-inch negative is required.You cannot change your shootingposition. What focal-length lensshould you use on the 4x5 camerato obtain approximately the samecoverage produced with the 35mmcamera?

1. 360mm2. 210mm3. 90mm4. 65mm

Learning Objective: Identifyvarious types of lenses andtheir characteristics.

1-67. Which of the following arecharacteristics of a long-focal-length lens?

1. They have a reduced depthof field

2. They decrease the apparentdistance between subjectson different planes

3. Both 1 and 2 above4. They introduce image distortion

1-68. A wide-angle lens has which ofthe following characteristics?

1. Increased depth of field2. Exaggerated linear perspective3. Increased apparent distance

between planes4. All of the above

1-69. When photographing a building, younotice in the viewfinder that thesides of the building appear to bebending toward the center of theimage area. What type of lens ison your camera?

1. Rectilinear2. Wide angle3. Normal4. Telephoto

1-70. The distortion caused by wide-angle lenses actually changesperspective.

1. True2. False

1-71. Which of the following lenses isvery useful for taking picturesof extreme closeups shots?

1. Fisheye2. Rectilinear3. Telephoto4. Macro

1-72. Of the following lenses, which oneis best for taking informalportraits with a 35mm camera?

1. 100mm2. 50mm3. 35mm4. 17mm

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Page 408: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

1-73. You are photographing a row ofaircraft on the flight deck. Usinga medium-format camera, you shoulduse which of the following lensesto make the aircraft appear to beparked very close to each other?

1. 500mm2. 150mm3. 75mm4. 40mm

1-74. Of the following characteristics,which one is NOT representative ofa mirror lens?

1. Shorter physical size2. Out-of-focus highlights that

record as rings of light3. Wide range of f/stops4. Limited depth of field

1-75. What type of lens is used to changethe image size without changing thelens-to-film distance?

1. Macro2. Zoom3. Mirror4. Telephoto

8

Page 409: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

ASSIGNMENT 2

Textbook Assignment: "Light-Sensitive Materials” and “Photographic Filters.” Pages 2-1through 3-12.

2-1.

2-2.

2-3.

2-4.

2-5.

Learning Objective: Identifybasic characteristics of light-sensitive materials.

What type of salts is used to makephotographic film?

1. Gelatin2. Halide3. Oxide4. Silver

Undyed silver halides are sensitiveto what color of light?

1. Blue2. Green3. Yellow4. Red

What portion of photographic filmor paper is light sensitive?

1. Base2. Emulsion3. Antihalation backing4. Overcoating

What is the primary purpose of thebase portion of photographic filmand paper?

1. It prevents the emulsionfrom being damaged

2. It suspends the silver halides3. It supports the emulsion4. It contains sensitizing dyes

Because of the nature of therecording medium used in stillvideo and digital cameras, theymust be loaded in completedarkness.

1. True2. False

2-6.

2-7.

2-8.

2-9.

Exposure to light causes whatinvisible change to a photo-graphic emulsion?

1. Film speed2. Development3. Black-metallic silver4. Latent image

Learning Objective: Identifyfilm characteristics that youmust take into considerationwhen selecting a type of filmfor a photographic assignment.

The inherent property of a filmemulsion to respond to light isknown by what term?

1. Film speed2. Spectral sensitivity3. Exposure latitude4. Emulsion definition

What organization is responsiblefor the approval of a uniform setof film-speed standards?

1. Eastman Kodak Company2. Morgan and Morgan Corporation3. International Standards

Organization4. Film Speed Organization of

America

A film may be assigned more thanone film speed for which of thefollowing reasons?

1. Because the film may beused in hot or cold weather

2. For use with fast or slowshutter speeds

3. Because the emulsion mayrespond differently todifferent qualities of light

4. To provide the photographerwith an option of shooting fastor slow subject motion

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2-10. What is/are the numerical value(s)assigned to film for exposurecalculation?

1. ISO2. Exposure Index3. Both 1 and 24. Light-meter Index

2-11. What does the term "spectralsensitivity” refer to inphotographic emulsions?

1. The manner that the filmresponds to light only

2. The intensity of light requiredto produce the proper exposure

3. The duration of light orradiant energy required toproduce a visible color image

4. The way the emulsion respondsto specific colors of lightand invisible radiations

2-12. Colorblind emulsions are sensitiveto which of the following colorsof light?

1. Blue2. Green3. Red4. Yellow

2-13. Which of the following is NOT aclassification of black-and whitefilm?

1. Infrared2. Ultraviolet3. Panchromatic4. Orthochromatic

2-14. Red records on an orthochro-matic film in what manner?

1. As a light-blue color2. As a dense deposit

of silver3. As a clear area4. As a light-red color

2-15. To what type of radiation isa panchromatic emulsion NOTsensitive?

1. Infrared2. Ultraviolet3. Blue light4. Green light

2-16. To prevent the exposure of infraredfilm by UV radiation, you shoulduse what color filter?

1. Blue2. Red3. Green4. Yellow

2-17. What areas of a black-and-whitenegative have the greatest amountof silver deposits?

1. Contrast points2. Midtones3. Highlights4. Shadows

2-18. What term describes the amount ofsilver deposit present in any areaof a negative?

1. Highlight2. Contrast3. Midtone4. Density

2-19. What term describes the differencein densities between areas of anegative?

1. Contrast2. Latitude3. Emulsin definition4. Resolving power

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2-20.

2-21.

2-22.

2-23.

2-24.

Which of the following definitionsbest describes “emulsion latitude”?

1. The ability of a film toreproduce brightnessdifferences

2. The amount of deviation fromthe correct exposure that willstill produce acceptabledensities

3. The evenness of the emulsionthickness applied to the filmbase

4. The variation in filmprocessing time that stillpermits the emulsion to respondto the action of the fixingbath

What is exposure latitude?

1. The difference in negativedensities

2. The amount of exposurevariation that will stillproduce an acceptable image

3. The minimum exposure requiredto produce sufficient shadowdetail

4. The amount of density producedby a given exposure

What factor(s) determine(s)the graininess of a negative?

1. Manufacturing2. Exposure3. Development4. All of the above

All processed black-and-white filmproduces images with metallicsilver.

1. True2. False

The ability of a emulsion to recordfine detail is known by what term?

1. Clumping action2. Resolving power3. Acutance4. Graininess

2-25.

2-26.

2-27.

2-28.

2-29.

The ability of an emulsion toproduce sharp edges betweendifferences in density is knownby what term?

1. Clumping action2. Resolving power3. Acutance4. Graininess

Learning Objective: Recognizecomponents of black-and-whiteand color films.

Film is protected from friction,scratches, and abrasions beforedevelopment by what part of thefilm?

1. Overcoating2. Base3. Antihalation backing4. Noncurl coating

What part of the film preventslight from reflecting back fromthe base and affecting the light-sensitive silver halides?

1. Overcoating2. Emulsion3. Antihalation backing4. Noncurl coating

The top emulsion layer of colorfilm is sensitive to what colorof light?

1. Blue2. Green3. Red4. Yellow

What is the purpose of the yellowfilter incorporated between theblue and green emulsion layers ofcolor film?

1. To enhance the contrast2. To prevent blue light from

affecting the middle and bottomemulsion layers

3. To prevent the film from beingaffected by UV radiation

4. To aid in printing colornegatives

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2-30. In a color negative, what color isthe image of a red subject?

1. Blue2. Magenta3. Red4. Cyan

2-31. In color-reversal film, what coloris the image of a red subject?

1. Red2. Magenta3. Blue4. Cyan

2-32. Daylight color film may be usedwithout filtration under which ofthe following light sources?

1. Sunlight2. Electronic flash3. Both 1 and 24. “Daylight” fluorescent lights

2-33. As a Navy Photographer’s Mate, youshould only use a professional typeof film.

1. True2. False

2-34. Instant picture film is very usefulwhen used in which of the followingsituations?

1. Passport photographs2. Identification photographs3. Determining test exposures4. All of the above

2-35. What segment(s) of figure 2Arepresent(s) a sheet of filmwith the emulsion facing you?

1. A2. B3. C4. Each of the above

2-36. When images are stored on a still-video floppy disk, what mode(s), ifany, provide(s) the highest qualityimage?

1. Frame only2. Field only3. Both frame and field modes

provide the same image quality4. None

2-37. What number of images can be storedon a floppy disk when used in astill-video camera set on the“field” setting?

1. 202. 363. 504. 100

Learning Objective: Identifycharacteristics of photographicpapers.

2-38. When, if ever, is panchromaticprinting paper used in makingblack-and-white prints?

1. When printing high-contrastnegatives

2. When printing low-contrastnegatives

3. When using color negatives toproduce black-and-white prints

4. Never, panchromatic papers areonly used for making colorprints

Figure 2A

IN ANSWERING QUESTION 2-35, REFER TOFIGURE 2A.

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2-39.

2-40.

2-41.

2-42.

2-43.

The top emulsion layer of variablecontrast, black-and-white paper issensitive to (a) what color oflight and produces (b) what typeof contrast?

1. (a) Blue (b) high2. (a) Green (b) low3. (a) Blue (b) low4. (a) Green (b) high

You are using variable contrast,black-and-white printing paper.The contrast of the print isprimarily controlled by what stageof printing.

1. By different exposure times2. By manipulating the processing

time3. By changing the angle of the

projected image4. By using filters

Which of the following color papersdoes NOT directly make a positiveimage from a color negative?

1. Ektacolor2. Fujicolor3. Ektachrome4. Each of the above

The top emulsion layer of colorpaper produces what color of dye?

1. Red2. Cyan3. Blue4. Yellow

Which of the following papersurfaces should you use to showfine detail in a print?

1. Matte2. Semimatte3. Pearl4. Glossy

2-44. Photographic paper and film shouldbe stored in a location that doesnot exceed what (a) temperature and(b) relative humidity?

1. (a) 75°F (b) 75%2. (a) 50°F (b) 50%3. (a) 75°F (b) 50%4. (a) 50°F (b) 75%

2-45. You notice that the expirationdate on a case of aerial film hasexpired. Which of the followingactions should you take?

1. Discard the film immediately2. Conduct photographic tests

before using the film3. Ignore the expiration date

and use the film for an aerialmission

4. Freeze the film for 24 hoursand then use it for Antarcticmissions only

Learning Objective: Identifyprincipal types of filters usedin black-and-white and colorphotography.

2-46. What primary factor determinesthe effectiveness of a photo-graphic filter?

1. The ability of the emulsion torespond to the light passed bythe filter

2. The density of the filter3. The color of the filter4. The chemicals in which the

light-sensitive emulsion isprocessed

2-47. It is not necessary to use colorfilters with black-and-whiteemulsions because only shades ofgray are produced.

1. True2. False

13

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2-48. Contrast filters should be usedfor black-and-white photographyfor which of the following reasons

1. To exaggerate a color2. To reduce a color3. To eliminate a color4. Each of the above

2-49. You are tasked to copy a documenton white paper that contains red,green, and blue lines. You do notwant the green lines to benoticeable in the final print.What color filter should you use?

1. Magenta2. Red3. Green4. Cyan

2-50. You are using black-and-whitepanchromatic film under daylightconditions. What color filtershould you use to reproduce thecolors of the scene with the samebrightness relationship as seenby the human eye?

1. No. 8 (yellow)2. No. 23A (light Red)3. No. 34A (violet)4. No. 4 (cyan)

2-51. You are photographing a land-scape scene with black-and-whitepanchromatic film. Which of thefollowing filters should you useto reduce the appearance of hazein the final print?

1. Blue2. Cyan3. Red4. Magenta

2-52. Light balancing filters areavailable in what two colors?

1. Yellow and green2. Green and red3. Blue and red4. Blue and yellow

?

2-53.

2-54.

2-55.

2-56.

2-57.

2-58.

What color of light balancingfilter should you use to lowerthe color temperature of light?

1. Yellow2. Green3. Red4. Blue

What color of light balancingfilter should you use to raisethe color temperature of light?

1. Yellow2. Green3. Red4. Blue

What type of filter should youuse to make minor adjustmentsto the color quality of lightused to expose film?

1. Light balancing2. Conversion3. Color compensating4. Correction

What instrument should you useto determine the color tempera-ture of a light source?

1. Exposure meter2. Color analyzer3. Color temperature meter4. Spot meter

What are the two series ofconversion filters?

1. 80 and 812. 80 and 853. 85 and 864. 85 and 90

What color conversion filter isused to expose daylight-type filmunder tungsten light?

1. Blue2. Green3. Amber4. Cyan

14

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2-59.

2-60.

2-61.

2-62.

2-63.

2-64.

When exposing color film underfluorescent light, you shoulduse what type of filter?

1. Color compensating2. Conversion3. Correction4. Light balancing

What maximum number of CC filterscan be used effectively on a cameralens?

1. One2. Two3. Three4. Four

A CC20M filter has a peak densityof 0.20 to what color of light?

1. Yellow2. Blue3. Magenta4. Green

What is the complementary colorof green?

1. Yellow2. Blue3. Cyan4. Magenta

What combination of complementarycolors make up red?

1. Yellow and cyan2. Magenta and yellow3. Cyan and yellow4. Magenta and cyan

What is the equivalent filter packof a 50G + 20R + 10B CC-filterpack?

1. 40G + 10R2. 50G + 20R + 0 ND3. 60G + 30R + 20B4. 80 ND

2-65.

2-66.

2-67.

2-68.

2-69.

Which of the following filters isNOT selective in the color of lightit absorbs?

1. Correction2. Neutral density3. Color compensating4. Conversion

What ND filter is used to reduceexposure by two f/stops?

1. .202. 2.003. .304. .60

What color filter is most effectivefor cutting haze?

1. Red2. Yellow3. Blue4. Green

For which of the followingsituations may polarizingfilters be used?

1. To reduce reflectionsfrom water

2. To reduce the effect of haze3. To increase color saturation4. Each of the above

Your light meter indicates anexposure of 1/500 sec at f/11. Youthen add an orange filter with afilter factor of 4. What is yournew exposure setting?

1. 1/500 sec at f/222. 1/500 sec at f/83. 1/250 sec at f/114. 1/125 sec at f/11

Learning Objective: Identify theuses for filters in photographicdarkrooms.

15

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2-70. Which of the following lightsources is used as a safelight inblack-and-white print rooms?

1. Mercury vapor2. Sodium vapor3. Quartz halogen4. Fluorescent

2-71. You have a black-and-white negativewith high contrast. What colorvariable-contrast printing filtershould you use to produce a printwith normal contrast?

1. Blue2. Green3. Yellow4. Magenta

2-72. Which of the following filtersshould always be used in a colorprinting system?

1. Color compensating2. Dichroic3. Color printing4. Ultraviolet absorbing

2-73. What type of filter works onthe principle of wavelengthinterference, rather than wave-length absorption?

1. Color compensating2. Color printing3. Safelight4. Dichroic

2-74. CP filters are used the same as CCfilters in a color printing system.

1. True2. False

2-75. Photographic filters should not beexposed to heat above what maximumtemperature?

1. 100°F2. 120°F3. 150°F4. 200°F

16

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ASSIGNMENT 3

Textbook Assignment: “Still cameras and Controls." Pages 4-1 through 4-31.

3-1.

3-2.

3-3.

3-4.

3-5.

Learning Objective: Recognizesimilarities and differencesamong the various categories ofcameras and the advantages anddisadvantages of each.

Which of the following size camerasis most suitable for an assignmentthat requires a large number ofexposures that must be taken inrapid succession?

1. 35mm2. 2 1/4 x 2 3/43. 4x54. 8x10

Which of the following systemsallows you to focus and composewith a picture-taking lens?

1. Rangefinder2. TTL3. SLR4. PMS

On an SLR camera the focal lengthis fixed and cannot be changed.

1. True2. False

What size film is used in a medium-format camera?

1. 35mm only2. 120 only3. 220 only4. 120 and 220

What size of camera is mostsuitable for retaining maximumdetail in the negative?

1. 35mm2. 6cn x 7cn3. 4x54. 8x10

17

Learning Objective: Identifyvarious focusing systems andthe importance of subject focuswithin a scene.

3-6. Which of the following focusingsystems should you use when thesubject must be photographed toexact scale?

1. TTL2. Ground glass3. SLR4. Rangefinder

3-7. Of the following focusing systems,which one is least suitable forphotographing a football game?

1. SLR2. Rangefinder3. Ground glass4. Focusing scale

3-8. Which of the following focusingsystems does NOT permit you to seedepth of field in the viewfinder?

1. SLR2. TLR3. Ground glass4. Rangefinder

3-9. As a Navy Photographer’s Mate, youwant everything in your photographsto be in sharp focus.

1. True2. False

3-10. What type of focusing should youuse to draw attention to thesubject in a photograph?

1. Selective2. Chosen3. Pointed4. Impulse

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3-11. Which of the following focal-length 3-17. Stopping down a lens increaseslenses used at a given f/stop andlens-to-film distance provides thegreatest selective focus affect?

1. 1000mm2. 400mm3. 135mm4. 50mm

3-12. Which of the following factorsdoes NOT affect depth of field?

1. f/stop2. Lens focal length3. Shutter speed4. Subject distance

Learning Objective: Identifypurpose and effects of the cameraaperture.

3-13. Which of the following cameracontrols affects the intensity oflight falling on the film plane?

1. Shutter2. Aperture3. Intensity compensator4. Preview actuator

3-14. What is the most important factorin controlling depth of field?

1. Shutter speed2. Subject distance3. Lens focal length4. f/stop

3-15. With a given camera and all cameracontrols remaining constant, whatsubject distance, in feet, resultsin the greatest depth of field?

1. 302. 203. 104. 5

3-16. What area of a lens producesthe sharpest image?

1. The central part2. The outer edges3. Either 1 or 2 above

depth of field. In what way,if any, does this action affectimage sharpness?

1. It increases overall imagesharpness

2. It decreases overall imagesharpness

3. None

3-18. The optimum or critical apertureof a lens is generally at whatf/stop setting?

1. Wide open2. Two f/stops

from wide open3. f/114. f/32

Learning Objective: Identifypurpose and effects of the camerashutter.

3-19. What is the primary functionof a camera shutter?

1. To limit the intensityof light emitted to the film

2. To control the quality of lightpassed to the film

3. To regulate the amount of timethat light is permitted to acton the film

4. To stop image motion bylimiting the frequencyof wave motion permitted topass through the lens

3-20. Which of the following shutterspeeds can be used when a leafshutter is used with an electronicflash?

1. 1/30 second2. 1/125 second3. 1/500 second4. Each of the above

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3-21. What is the primary function of thecamera shutter?

1. To control the duration ofexposure

2. To control subject movement3. Both 1 and 2 above4. To control depth of field

3-22. When increasing the camera shutterspeed, you must take what action toexpose the film properly?

1. Close down the aperture2. Open up the aperture3. Add an ND filter4. Change the film-speed

setting to a higher number

3-23. What sacrifice is made when youincrease the camera shutter speed?

1. Camera movementis more apparent

2. A shorter focal-lengthlens must be used

3. Some depth of field is lost4. Image sharpness

3-24. You must stop subject motion butcannot afford to loose depth offield. Which of the followingactions should you take?

1. Select a faster film2. Increase the camera-

to-subject distance3. Select a shorter focal-

length lens4. All of the above

3-25. A shutter speed of 1/250 second isrequired to freeze image motionacceptably. Which of the followingshutter speeds can also be usedto record the same image motion?

1. 1/302. 1/603. 1/1254. 1/500

19

3-26. When handholding a camerawith a 100mm lens, what isthe slowest shutter speed youshould use?

1. 1/302. 1/603. 1/1254. 1/250

3-27. When you are photographing a movingobject, which, if any, of thefollowing shutter speeds stopsimage motion?

1. 1/2502. 1/5003. 1/10004. None of the above

3-28. Which of the following factorslimits the time the image isallowed to move across the filmplane?

1. The interval of exposure2. The direction of subject

movement3. Subject speed4. Lens focal length

Figure 3A

IN ANSWERING QUESTION 3-29, REFER TOFIGURE 3A.

Page 420: Photography Basics (1993 Edition)

3-29. From a given camera-to-subjectdistance, what scene requires thefastest shutter speed to stop imagemovement?

1. A2. B3. C4. D

Learning Objective: Recognizefactors that affect the exposureof photographic film.

3-30. What two factors control cameraexposure?

1. Lens speed and film speed2. Shutter speed and lens aperture3. Lens aperture and film speed4. Film speed and reflected light

quality

3-31. Your light meter indicates that1/500 second at f/5.6 will properlyexpose the film. However, youprefer greater depth of field inthe scene. Which of the followingequivalent exposures should youuse?

1. 1/1000 second at f/42. 1/250 second at f/113. 1/125 second at f/84. 1/60 second at f/16

3-32. Which of the following equationsrepresents exposure?

1. E = I + T2. H = E ÷ T3. E = I x T4. I = E x T

3-33. Your light meter indicates anexposure of 1/60 second at f/4with Ektachrome ISO 100 film. Youthen change the film in the camerawith Ektachrome ISO 400 film. Whenphotographing the same subjectunder the same lighting conditions,which of the following camerasettings should you make?

1. 1/60 second at f/5.62. 1/60 second at f/83. 1/500 second at f/44. 1/500 second at f/8

3-34. On a clear, bright, and cloudlessday, the intensity of light remainsconstant.

1. True2. False

DAYLIGHT CONDITIONS

A. Bright or hazy sunon light sand or snow

B. Bright

C. Cloudy bright

D. Cloudy

E. Heavy overcast or shade

Figure 3B

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 3-35 THROUGH 3-39,REFER TO FIGURE 3B AND SELECT THE DAYLIGHTCONDITION THAT BEST APPLIES TO THESTATEMENT USED AS THE QUESTION.

3-35. The type of daylight upon whichbasic exposure for an averagescene is based:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

20

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3-36.

3-37.

3-38.

3-39

1. A2. B3. C4. D

Soft shadows:

.

1. A2. B3. C4. E

The sun is not visible and eighttimes the basic exposure isrequired:

1. E2. D3. c4. B

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 3-40 THROUGH 3-42,USE THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION: THE BASICEXPOSURE FOR A SCENE IS 1/250 SECOND ATf/16 WITH FRONT SUN LIGHTING.

Unobstructed daylight at the beach:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

Completely diffused daylight:

3-40.

3-41.

Using a shutter speed of 1/250second, you should use which of thefollowing f/stops when the scene issidelighted?

1. f/4.52. f/5.63. f/84. f/11

Which of the following exposurescan you use when the scene isbacklighted?

1. l/250 at f/82. l/125 at f/113. l/60 at f/164. Each of the above

3-42

3-43.

Which of the following exposuresshould you use to produce asilhouette of the scene whenit is backlighted?

1. l/125 at f/322. l/125 at f/223. l/250 at f/164. l/250 at f/11

You are copying a chart with a 5-inch focal-length lens and abellows extension of 10 inches.Your handheld light meter indicatesan exposure of 1/60 second atf/5.6. With the aperture remainingat f/5.6, you should use whatexposure time to expose the filmproperly?

1. l/602. l/303. l/154. 1/8

3-44. A 6-inch focal-length lens has abellows extension of 16.5 inches.Your handheld light meter indicatesan exposure of 1 second at f/22.What f/stop should you use toexpose the film?

1. f/222. f/163. f/114. f/8

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 3-45 THROUGH 4-48,USE THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION: THECORRECT EXPOSURE FOR A GIVEN SCENE IS1/125 SECOND AT f/11 USING ISO 200 FILM.

3-45. Which of the following exposuresshould you use when the scene isphotographed with ISO 100 film?

1. l/250 at f/82. l/250 at f/113. l/125 at f/84. l/125 at f/11

21

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3-46. Which of the following f/stopsshould you use when the scene isphotographed with ISO 100 film witha shutter speed of 1/250 second?

1. f/82. f/5.63. f/4.54. f/4

3-47. Which of the following f/stops canyou use when the scene is photo-graphed with ISO 400 film with ashutter speed of 1/125 second?

1. f/322. f/223. f/164. f/8

3-48. Which of the following exposurescan you use when the scene isphotographed with ISO 400 film?

1. 1/1000 at f/5.62. 1/500 at f/83. 1/250 at f/114. Each of the above

3-49. The f/16 rule for exposurecalculation only applies toblack-and-white photography.

1. True2. False

Learning Objective: Identifyvarious methods used in deter-mining exposure with alight meter.

3-50. What means provides the mostconsistent way of determining filmexposure?

1. Film data sheets2. f/16 rule3. Pocket calculator4. Light meter

3-51.

3-52.

3-53.

3-54.

3-55.

You are taking an incident light-meter reading. From what positionshould the light-meter reading betaken?

1. Subject2. Camera3. Light source

You are taking a reflected light-meter reading. You should pointthe camera in what direction?

1. Toward the subject2. Toward the camera3. Toward the light source

What type of light meter has adiffusing dome that covers thephotoelectric cell?

1. Spot2. Reflected3. Incident4. Inversion

You are using black-and-white filmto photograph a green car. Youtake a reflected light-meterreading from the car. In aproperly exposed and processedprint, the car has what appearance?

1. Bright white2. Middle gray3. Dark black

You are photographing an averagecontrast scene and you base yourcamera exposure on a reflectedlight-meter reading from the shadowarea. After it has been processedproperly, the negative has whatappearance?

1. Detail in the shadowareas only

2. Washed-out highlightsonly

3. Both 1 and 2 above4. Very high contrast

22

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3-56. You are taking an overall reflectedlight-meter reading of a subjectthat has almost equal areas ofhighlights and shadows. What typeof light-meter reading are youtaking?

1. Brightness range2. Darkest object3. Brightest object4. Integrated

3-57. You have taken an average light-meter reading of a predominatelylight scene. The meter indicatesan exposure of 1/250 second atf/11. Which of the followingexposures should you give the filmto reproduce shadow detail?

1. 1/125 at f/112. 1/500 at f/113. 1/125 at f/84. 1/1000 at f/5.6

3-58. You took two light-meter readingsfrom a scene. One reading wastaken from the darkest object withwhich you desire details and theother was taken from the lightestarea where detail is desired.However, these two objects do notrepresent the darkest or lightestobjects within the scene. Whattype of reflected light-meterreading did you take?

1. Integrated2. Brightness range3. Average4. Substitution

3-59. You are photographing a Navy shipthat is probably too distant to getan accurate light-meter reading.You then base your exposure on agray card. What method oflight-meter reading did you use?

1. Average2. Integrated3. Brightness range4. Substitution

3-60. You are photographing an averagescene but take a light-meterreading from a white card. Youdesire detail in both shadow andhighlight areas. Which of thefollowing exposure compensationsshould you take?

1. Close down two f/stops2. Close down one f/stop3. Open up two f/stops4. Open up one f/stop

3-61. Which of the following statementsregarding exposure bracketing isNOT true?

1. Bracketing is permissible forall films, both black and whiteand color

2. Bracketing produces varyingexposures

3. Bracketing can be used butprecise exposure for colorslide film is required

4. Bracketing should not be usedfor black-and-whitetransparencies

3-62. You have overexposed color reversalfilm by one f/stop and haveprocessed the film normally. Thefilm has what general appearance?

1. It is very dark2. It is washed out3. It has more color saturation4. It has excessive contrast

3-63. You have processed a roll ofnegatives normally. Each frame ofthe roll appears to be overexposedby one f/stop. What is theprobable cause?

1. The light meter was set to thewrong ISO

2. Light entered the viewfinderwhile the light-meter readingwas being taken

3. A very bright area of the sceneinfluenced the light meter

4. The batteries in the lightmeter were too weak

23

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Learning Objective: Recognizevarious functions of a viewcamera.

3-64. Of the following types of cameras,which one provides movements andadjustments that permit distortioncorrection?

1. Single-lens reflex2. Twin-lens reflex3. View4. Direct-vision viewfinder

3-65. View cameras have all but which ofthe following parts?

1. Monorail2. Bellows3. Ground glass4. Viewfinder

VIEW CAMERA CONTROL

A. Front swing

B. Rear swing

C. Front tilt

D. Rear tilt

E. Rising and falling front

F. Sliding front

G. Sliding rear

Figure 3C

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 3-66 THROUGH3-71, REFER TO FIGURE 3C AND SELECTTHE VIEW-CAMERA CONTROL THAT PROVIDESTHE CORRECTION USED AS THE QUESTION.

3-66. Centers the image vertically:

1. C2. D3. E4. F

3-67.

3-68.

3-69.

3-70.

3-71.

3-72.

3-73.

Centers the image horizontally:

1. A2. C3. E4. G

Controls distortion of the verticalplane:

1. B2. D3. E4. G

Controls distortion of thehorizontal plane:

1. B2. D3. F4. G

Increases depth of fieldof the horizontal plane:

1. A2. C3. E4. F

Increases depth of fieldof the vertical plane:

1. A2. C3. E4. G

When you are initially setting upthe view camera, all controls arelined up and no correctivemovements are set. What is thisposition called?

1. Set up2. Initial3. Neutral4. Starting

What total number of vertical orhorizontal planes can be correctedwith a view camera?

1. One2. Two3. Three4. Four

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Learning Objective: Recognizedifferences and similaritiesof electronic and conventionalcameras.

3-74. Which of the following electroniccameras provides the highestresolution?

1. Still video2. Digital3. Analog4. Each provides the

same resolution

3-75. How does the angle of view of a DCScamera compare to the angle of viewof a 35mm camera?

1. They are identical2. It is less than the 35mm3. It is greater than the 35mm

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ASSIGNMENT 4

Textbook Assignment: “Basic Photographic Techniques.” Pages 5-1 through 5-37.

Learning Objective: Identifygeneral guidelines used inholding cameras steady.

4-1. What is the best way to supporta camera?

1. By using a tripod2. By handholding it3. By holding it against

a building4. By using a neck strap

4-2. Under normal circumstances, youshould NOT handhold a camera atshutter speeds that exceed whatexposure time?

1. 1/500 sec2. 1/250 sec3. 1/125 sec4. 1/60 sec

4-3. Holding the camera steady is mostcritical when using what focal-length lens?

1. 35mm2. 50mm3. 100mm4. 200mm

4-4. When handholding a camera with a250mm focal-length lens, you shoulduse which of the following shutterspeeds?

1. 1/250 sec2. 1/125 sec3. 1/60 sec4. 1/30 sec

4-5. What method(s) is/arc usedto prevent camera shake?

1. Locking the mirrorup on an SLR camera

2. A tripod3. A cable release4. Each of the above

4-6. To obtain high-quality photographs,you must always use a tripod.

1. True2. False

4-7. The use of a monopod is NOTrecommended below what shutterspeed?

1. 1/15 sec2. 1/30 sec3. 1/60 sec4. 1/125 sec

Learning Objective: Identifyelements of photographiccomposition.

4-8. For photographers to be creative,they must have which of the follow-ing attributes?

1. An ability to select stateof the art equipment

2. An ability to handhold thecamera at slow shutter speeds

3. An ability to see what thecamera sees

4. An ability to selectively seeonly important details withina scene

4-9. Photographic composition can beimproved by which of the followingmethods?

1. By looking all around withinthe viewfinder

2. By practice only3. By analyzing photographs

used in various medias4. All of the above

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4-10. A photograph should have whatmaximum number of center(s)of interest?

1. One2. Two3. Three4. Four

4-11. Which of the following methodsshould you NOT use to draw viewerattention to the center of interestin a photograph?

1. Compose the subject withmore than one object

2. Use a contrasting backgroundto separate the subject

3. Place the subject in thecenter of the picturewhenever possible

4. Use lines to draw attentionto the subject

4-12. You are photographing a scene andpeople are included, but they arenot the center of interest. Thepeople should be composed in thephotograph in what manner?

1. In the foreground only2. Looking at the subject3. As far from the subject

as possible4. Looking directly into the

camera

4-13. Which of the following statementsregarding simplicity in photo-graphic composition is true?

1. Because of todays advancedtechnology, a photograph shouldnot be simple

2. Simple pictures are monotonousand are rejected by mostviewers

3. Simple pictures can be used tomake a clear, strong statement

4. The most successfulphotographers limit simplicityby having at least two pointsof interest in each picture

4-14. You are photographing the CO ofyour ship and want him to appear inthe picture as a domineering man.What camera angle should you use?

1. Low2. High3. Eye level

4-15. You are photographing a person whois running. What viewpoint shouldyou use to enhance the feeling ofspeed?

1. Low2. High3. Eye level

4-16. You are photographing a refugeechild. From what viewpoint shouldyou take the picture to emphasizethe illusion of little strength?

1. Low2. High3. Eye level

4-17. In a photograph, two objects, oneon each side of the picture, appearto have equal weight. However, thepicture is not symmetrical. Whattype of balance, if any, has beenachieved?

1. Asymmetrical2. Informal3. Formal4. None

4-18. A photograph shows several objects.There is an obvious difference insize and weight of the objects.However, the picture still givesthe illusion of balance. What typeof balance, if any, has beenachieved?

1. Formal2. Informal3. Symmetrical4. None

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4-19. Which of the following statementsconcerning photographic balance isNOT true?

1. Objects in the upper part ofa picture appear to have moreweight than objects in thelower part of the picture

2. Objects close to the middleof a picture appear lighterthan objects at the edge ofthe picture

3. Irregular shapes give theimpression of being lighterthan regular shapes

4. When an object is isolated,the weight of the objectappears to decrease

4-20. In most photographs, an objectwithin the picture is firstidentified by

1. weight2. tone3. form4. shape

4-21. What is the three-dimensionalequivalent of shape?

1. Weight2. Tone3. Form4. Balance

4-22. Which of the following photographictechniques best emphasizes theshape of an object?

1. Silhouette2. Balance3. Texturizing4. Three-dimensional lighting

Learning Objective: Identifymethods in which lines are usedfor photographic composition.

4-23. Lines that lead the eye or directattention within a photograph areknown by what term?

1. Lines of direction2. Lines of unification3. Leading lines4. Linear-perspective lines

LEADING LINES

A. Vertical

B. Diagonal

C. Horizontal

D. Curved

Figure 4A

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 4-24 THROUGH 4-36,REFER TO FIGURE 4A. SELECT THE LEADINGLINE USED TO PRODUCE THE MOOD THAT IS USEDAS THE QUESTION.

4-24. Strength:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

4-25. Graceful movement:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

4-26. Peace:

1. D2. C3. B4. A

4-27. Dignity:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

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4-28. Action: 4-36. Solidarity:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

1. D2. C3. B4. A

Rigidity:4-29.Learning Objective: Recognizecompositional guidelines in whichpatterns are used for photography.

1. A2. B3. C4. D

4-37. The use of patterns can providewhich of the following effectsin photographic composition?

Quietness:4-30.

1. D2. C3. B4. A

1. Support of the elementswithin a picture

2. Add interest to the picture3. Overwhelm the viewer4. Each of the above4-31. Smoothness:

4-38. What is the most common patternused in photographic composition?

1. A2. B3. C4. D 1. Line

2. Shape3. Color4. Tone

Grace:4-32.

1. D2. C3. B4. A

4-39. What key element of compositionprovides apparent depth tophotographs?

1. Lines2. Shape3. Shadows4. Texture

4-33. Power:

1. D2. C3. B4. A

Learning Objective: Identifymethods used to draw viewerattention to the center ofinterest in a photograph.

4-34. Speed:

1. A2. B3. C4. D 4-40. Which of the following elements of

photographic composition can youuse to draw viewer attention to thecenter of interest?

4-35. Tranquility:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

1. Lighting2. Texture3. Contrast4. All of the above

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4-41. The view of a gray ship on a foggymorning is an example of what typeof scene?

1. Low contrast2. Flat3. Both 1 and 2 above4. Contrasty

4-42. The view of a white sailboat indark-blue water on a clear, sunnyday is an example of what typeof scene?

1. Low contrast2. Flat3. Both 1 and 2 above4. Contrasty

4-43. A photographic technique used todraw viewer attention to the centerof interest by surrounding thesubject with related objects isknown by what term?

1. Keystoning2. Framing3. High keying4. Desegregation

4-44. Which of the following techniquescan you use to separate the subjectfrom the foreground or background?

1. A large f/stop2. Pan the subject3. Move in closer

to the subject4. All of the above

4-45. What aspect of good compositionis used when the viewer of aphotograph gets a feeling ofvolume, space, depth, and distance?

1. Background2. Foreground3. Perspective4. Framing

Learning Objective: Recognizevarious types of perspectivesand how they are used inphotographic composition.

TYPES OF PERSPECTIVE

A. Linear

B. Rectilinear

C. Vanishing Point

D. Height

E. Overlap

F. Dwindling Size

G. Volume

H. Atmospheric

Figure 4B

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 5-46 THROUGH 5-54,REFER TO FIGURE 4B. SELECT THE TYPE OFPERSPECTIVE THAT BEST APPLIES TO THESTATEMENT USED AS THE QUESTION.

4-46. Two parallel roads seem to convergein the background of the picture:

1. A2. D3. F4. H

4-47. Straight, parallel, horizontallines in the subject are recordedon the film as straight lines:

1. A2. B3. D4. H

4-48. Parallel lines in a photo seem tomeet outside of the picture:

1. A2. C3. E4. H

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4-49.

4-50.

4-51.

4-52.

The distance from the bottom of apicture where the base of an objecton the ground begins:

1. D2. E3. F4. G

Several objects within a photographpartly hide one another:

1. C2. D3. E4. G

A number of similar objects withina photograph are shown as differentsizes:

1. B2. D3. F4. G

The size of objects within aphotograph gives the viewera clue as to distance:

1. A2. C3. E4. F

4-53. The length of shadows providesan idea of the image size ofthe subject:

1. B2. D3. E4. G

4-54. A photograph shows distant objectssomewhat obscured by haze:

1. H2. F3. D4. C

4-55. Which of the following factorsaffect linear perspective?

1. Lens-to-subject distanceand lens focal length

2. Lens-to-subject distanceand object size

3. Object size and lens focallength only

4. Object size and object-to-camera distance

4-56. What type of perspective isproduced by a panoramic lens?

1. Concave2. Cylindrical3. Rectilinear4. Convex

4-57. Two identical objects at differentdistances from the camera arerecorded on film in differentcontrasts. This difference incontrast provides the viewer withwhat perception?

1. Color saturation2. Brightness3. Distance4. Sharpness

Learning Objective: Identifythat various lighting conditionsaffect the appearance of thesubject.

4-58. Which of the following termsbest describes color saturation?

1. Chroma2. Brightness3. Hue4. Value

4-59. Which of the following statementsconcerning front lighting on aclear day is true?

1. It gives an impression ofdepth to the photograph

2. It adds a flattened effect3. It emphasizes the texture

of the subject4. It aides in bringing out the

finer details of the subject

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4-60. You are tasked to photograph theflight deck of your ship after anew coat of non-skid has beenapplied. What time of day is bestto photograph the flight deck toemphasize the texture of the newlyapplied non-skid?

1. 10002. Noon3. 14004. Early morning

4-61. What type of lighting shouldyou use outdoors to produce asilhouette photograph?

1. Back2. Side3. Front4. 45 degree

4-62. You have processed a roll ofdaylight-balanced slide film.After removing the film from thedryer, you notice all of the framestaken indoors have a greenish cast.Which of the following lightsources was most likely used tophotograph the indoor scenes?

1. Electronic flash2. Tungsten3. Sodium vapor4. Fluorescent

Learning Objective: Identifyproper techniques used in producingimages with electronic-flash units.

4-63. Which of the following factorspertaining to electronic-flashunits always remains constant?

1. The f/stop being used2. The effective candlepower

seconds (ECPS)3. The guide number4. The film speed

4-64. What two factors are used todetermine the guide number ofan electronic flash?

1. ECPS and flash-to-subjectdistance

2. Film speed and flash-to-subjectdistance

3. ECPS and film speed only4. f/stop and flash-to-subject

distance

4-65. Which of the following is NOTa factor in obtaining correctexposures with an electronic flashand a lens with a leaf shutter?

1. Shutter speed2. ISO of the film3. Flash-to-subject distance4. f/stop

4-66. Of the following flash techniques,which one is least desirable whenyou are photographing people?

1. Position the flash above thelens

2. Bounce the light from a whiteceiling

3. Position the flash below thelens

4. Place diffusion material infront of the flash

4-67. Which of the following actionsshould you take to minimize theaffect of red eye?

1. Have the subject look directlyinto the lens

2. Move the flash away from thelens axis

3. Move the flash closer to thelens axis

4. Reduce the ambient room light

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4-68. You are using the bounce-lightingtechnique with an electronic flashset to “manual." The flash-to-ceiling-to-subject distance is14 feet. The guide number of theflash is 220. What f/stop shouldyou use to expose the filmcorrectly?

1. f/162. f/113. f/84. f/5.6

4-69. You are using an electronic-flashunit. Which of the followingtechniques should you use tominimize distracting backgroundshadows?

1. Hold the flash above the lens2. Bounce the flash off the

ceiling or bulkhead3. Diffuse the light from

the flash unit4. Each of the above

4-70. What is the best general lightingratio for both black-and-white andcolor photography?

1. 1:12. 2:13. 3:14. 5:1

4-71. You are using two flash units withthe same ECPS to illuminate thesubject. You should place (a) themain light and (b) the fill lightat which of the following distancesfrom the subject to achieve a 3:1lighting ratio?

1. (a) 8 feet (b) 11 feet2. (a) 6 feet (b) 6 feet3. (a) 4 feet (b) 16 feet4. (a) 4 feet (b) 8 feet

4-72. A common occurrence with thesynchro-sunlight technique is itproduces images of the subject thatappear as though they were taken atnight with a single flash unit.What is the most probable cause ofthis problem?

1. The flash unit was notpowerful enough

2. The flash illuminationoverpowered the sunlight

3. The aperture used was too wide4. The lens was not synchronized

with the flash unit

4-73. What is the first step incalculating synchro-sunlightexposure?

1. Determine the correct daylightexposure

2. Determine the desired flash-to-subject distance

3. Establish the camera-to-subjectdistance

4. Establish the camera-to-flashdistance

4-74. You are using an electronic flashunit to light a subject 20-feetaway at night. The indicatedf/stop on the flash unit is f/11.What f/stop should you use toexpose the subject?

1. f/162. f/113. f/84. f/5.6

4-75. You are using two flash unitsof equal intensity that areequidistant from the subject toilluminate the same area of thesubject. The calculated f/stopfor one flash unit is f/16. Whatf/stop should you use to exposethe image?

1. f/112. f/163. f/224. f/32

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ASSIGNMENT 5

Textbook Assignment: “Photographic Assignments." Pages 6-1 through 6-44.

Learning Objective: Selectequipment and techniques bestsuited for photographing people.

5-1. Which of the following statementswill best determine your successas a Navy Photographer’s Mate?

1. Use only state-of-the-artequipment

2. Plan for each of yourassignments

3. Use professional film only4. Use a 4x5 view camera for the

majority of your photographicassignments

5-2. The UIC of your imaging facilityis 32509. Which of the followingserial numbers best represents alocal serial number for a cameraassigned to your unit?

1. L-0692. L/S 32509-0693. 069-L-325094. 32509-069

5-3. When photographing people, youshould strive to achieve whichof the following objectives?

1. Display the subject’s character2. Identify the person clearly

only3. Exaggerate the facial features

of the subject4. Always portray the subject in

a pleasing, flattering manner

5-4. For you to make a candid photographof a person, the subject must notknow that his/her photograph isbeing taken.

1. True2. False

5-5. You should normally select whichof the following lenses for a 35mmcamera to shoot candid photographs?

1. Fisheye2. 35mm3. 50mm4. 135mm

5-6. Which of the following statementsregarding the technique of framingpeople in their environment istrue?

1. The “frame” should be asubtle part of the photo

2. The "frame" should beexaggerated

3. The “frame” must completelysurround the subject

4. The “frame” should be infront of the subject

5-7. You are photographing peopleworking in their environment.Which of the following aspectsof the finished product isextremely important?

1. The face of the subject mustbe in full view

2. The subject must be actuallyworking

3. The props used in thephotograph must be technicallycorrect

4. A low angle should be used toportray the person in power

5-8. In a formal group picture,attention must not be drawn to anyone individual in the photograph.However, in an informal groupphotograph, attention should bedrawn toward the most senior memberof the group.

1. True2. False

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5-9. You are taking a formal groupphotograph of eight people.You should arrange them ina total of how many rows?

1. One2. Two3. Three4. Four

5-10. You are making a formal grouppicture of an admiral’s staff.The staff consists of the admiral,three captains, seven commanders,two lieutenants, and three CPOs.The admiral should be placed inwhat location for the picture?

1. On the far right end of thefirst row

2. In the center of the back row3. In the center of the middle row4. In the center of the first row

5-11. Which of the following elementsof a group photograph is themost difficult to control?

1. The viewpoint2. The composition3. The people4. The distracting background

5-12. To take action photographssuccessfully, you should performwhich of the following actions?

1. Anticipate the action2. Know the photographic

equipment being used3. Learn something about

the action4. All of the above

5-13. Action should always be photo-graphed at what time?

1. At the peak2. Directly after the peak3. Immediately before the peak

5-14. You are photographing the Secretaryof the Navy presenting a Purple-Heart Medal to an Airman Recruit.Your battle group flag officer andyour CO are also involved in theaward ceremony. What person shouldyou concentrate on as the center ofinterest?

1. Secretary of the Navy2. Admiral3. Commanding Officer4. Airman Recruit

Learning Objective: Recognizebasic principles of captionwriting.

5-15. Which of the following elements isNOT a basic requirement in captionwriting?

1. Explanation2. Identification3. Credit line4. Background information

5-16. In a picture caption, whatsentence is most important?

1. First2. Middle3. Last4. Closing

5-17. When you are writing captions, theyshould always be written in what(a) voice and (b) tense?

1. (a) Passive (b) past2. (a) Active (b) past3. (a) Passive (b) present4. (a) Active (b) present

5-18. The amount of backgroundinformation included in a captionis determined primarily by whichof the following factors?

1. The way the final picture isto be used

2. The location in which thefinal picture is to be used

3. Both 1 and 2 above4. The ethnic background of the

subject

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I CAPTION WRITING ELEMENTS

A. What

B. Where

C. When

D. Why

E. How

Figure 5A

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 5-19 THROUGH 5-22,SELECT THE CAPTION WRITING ELEMENT THATBEST APPLIES TO THE STATEMENT USED AS THEQUESTION.

5-19. Testing squadron readiness:

1. A2. B3. D4. E

5-20. During July and September:

1. E2. C3. B4. A

5-21. Falling in for muster:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

5-22. On board the USS Lincoln:

1. D2. c3. B4. A

5-23. When following the general guide-lines for caption writing, youshould limit the words to whatnumber?

1. 122. 253. 504. 100

5-24. What element is the most importantpart of caption writing?

1. Explaining the action2. Caption length3. Identifying principal

subjects4. Credit line

5-25. Of the four methods of identifyingpersons in writing a caption, whatmethod is best?

1. Obvious contrast2. Elimination3. From the left4. Action

5-26. What is the least desirable methodof identification used in captionwriting?

1. From the left2. Elimination3. Obvious contrast4. Action

Learning Objective: Recognizemethods used for investigativephotography.

5-27. When photographing a scene as partof an investigation, you shouldalways include which of thefollowing items?

1. The investigative team2. An overall shot of the scene3. Close-up photographs of each

object in the scene4. Fingerprints

5-28. You are assigned to take photo-graphs for an investigation. Youtrip accidentally and knock overseveral items. Which of thefollowing actions should you take?

1. Photograph the items as theynow appear

2. Rearrange the objects as theywere and then photograph them

3. Inform the investigative teamof your accidental act

4. Say nothing unless asked

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5-29. Using color film to photograph thescene of a fire has what primaryadvantage over black-and-whitefilm?

1. It can be processed faster2. It records finer detail3. It can assist in identifying

the types of materials beingburned

4. It records blackened andcharred objects better

5-30. You are taking photographs of aburned-out building. Your basicflash exposure indicates anexposure of f/11. Which of thefollowing aperture settings shouldyou use?

1. f/162. f/113. f/84. f/5.6

5-31. What is the primary purpose ofaircraft-accident photography?

1. To identify the person(s)at fault

2. To prevent future accidents3. To establish the primary

cause of the accident4. To provide photographs for

safety grams

5-32. What type of information is NOTrequired on photographs of anaircraft accident?

1. Type of aircraft2. Date of accident3. Name of pilot(s)4. Type of accident

Learning Objective: Selectequipment and methods usedin product photography.

5-33. When used properly, which of thefollowing cameras provides the bestresults when you are photographingsmall parts in a studio?

1. 35mm SLR2. Medium-format SLR3. Medium-format TLR4. 4x5 view

5-34. The most effective main light forproduct photography is provided bywhich of the following lightsources?

1. Spotlight2. Floodlight3. Fluorescent bulbs4. Plane reflectors

5-35. In product photography, where isthe main light generally located?

1. High and in front of thesubject

2. Beiow and to the side of thesubject

3. High and behind the subject4. Directly above the subject

5-36. In product photography, thesubject should appear as thoughit is illuminated by what numberof light source(s)?

1. One2. Two3. Three4. Four

5-37. In the studio, which of the follow-ing types of lighting can be usedto simulate the light from anovercast sky?

1. Spot2. Tent3. Key4. Flood

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5-38. When establishing the lightingfor a product, you should viewthe subject from what position?

1. The main light2. The fill light3. Above the subject4. The camera

5-39. What type of lighting is used toemphasize the texture of a product?

1. Tent2. Fill3. Cross4. 45 degree

5-40. You are using color film for pro-duct photography. The areasbetween the highlights and shadowswhere you want to record detailshould not exceed what number off/stops?

1. Seven2. Six3. Five4. Four

5-41. Your light meter indicates anexposure of 7 seconds at f/8.What is your exposure using thepainted light technique?

1. 7 seconds at f/82. 14 seconds at f/43. 14 seconds at f/84. 21 seconds at f/8

5-42. When using the painted-lighttechnique, you should use whatminimum exposure time?

1. 5 seconds2. 10 seconds3. 20 seconds4. 25 seconds

5-43. You are using a mirror to photo-graph a broken fitting in the wheelwell of an aircraft. The brokenfitting-to-camera distance is27 inches, the mirror-to-fittingdistance is 19 inches, and thecamera-to-mirror distance is33 inches. What focusing distance,in inches, should you set on thecamera lens?

1. 792. 603. 524. 46

5-44. You are photographing an arrange-ment of glassware in the studiousing color negative film. Yourlight-meter reading taken from thebackground indicates an exposure of4 seconds at f/16. While at f/16,you should use which of the follow-ing camera settings to expose thefilm?

5-45.

1. 16 seconds2. 12 seconds3. 8 seconds4. 4 seconds

You are photographing an objectin the studio and are using acontinuous-tone film (ISO 100)and a high-contrast film (ISO 8)to eliminate an unwanted back-ground. Your exposure for thecontinuous-tone film is 24 secondsat f/16. What f/stop should youuse to expose the slow, high-contrast film?

1. f/162. f/113. f/84. f/5.6

Learning Objective: Recognizeequipment and techniques usedfor photographing buildings andstructures.

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5-46. What type of camera is best suitedfor photographing architecturalstructures?

1. 35mm SLR2. Medium-format TLR3. Medium-format SLR4. View camera

5-47. You are tasked to photograph a newNavy Lodge on board a local NAS.Which of the following weatherconditions should you avoid whentaking this photograph?

1. Bright day with clear skies2. Slightly overcast day3. Cloudy day4. Bright day with large, puffy

clouds

5-48. You are tasked to photograph theinterior of a building that hasa number of large windows. Whattime of day should you make theexposures?

5-49.

1. Early Morning2. Mid Morning3. Noon4. After dark

A lens shade should always beused over camera lenses.

1. True2. False

Learning Objective: Identifybasic principles used inintelligence-gathering photography.

5-50. What black-and-white film is bestsuited for taking intelligence-gathering pictures?

5-51. What color film is best suitedfor taking intelligence-gatheringpictures?

1. Kodak Gold2. Kodak Ektar3. 3M HR4. Kodak Vericolor Professional

5-52. Because the resolution of videotapeis inferior to film, it should notbe used for intelligence-gatheringpurposes.

1. True2. False

5-53. What type of shot is most helpfulto analysts in determining theoverall dimensions of a ship?

1. Starboard beam2. Stern3. Port quarter4. Bow

5-54. Which of the following light-meterreading techniques should you useto photograph an aircraft that isairborne?

1. Integrated2. Brightest object3. Incident4. Substitution

5-55. Intelligence photographs of foreignports are seldom taken from Navyships because an ample supply ofthese images are provided bysatellites.

1. True2. False

1. Kodak Tri-X2. Kodak Tech Pan3. Ilford XP-14. Kodak Plus-X

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ASSIGNMENT 6

Textbook Assignment: “Portraiture." Pages 7-1 through 7-20.

Learning Objective: Identifyproper equipment and techniquesused in photographing portraits.

6-1. A portrait should emphasize whichof the following aspects about aperson?

1. Their environment2. A recognizable likeness

only3. Their personality4. Their flattering

characteristics only

6-2. Which of the following factorscan help you succeed in portraitphotography?

1. An understanding of thetechniques involved

2. An artistic ability3. The ability to direct

subjects4. All of the above

6-3. What is/are the most importantfeature(s) of the face?

1. Nose2. Eyes3. Mouth4. Ears

6-4. What is/are the most expressivefeature(s) of a face?

1. Eyes2. Mouth3. Cheeks4. Forehead

6-5. You are using a camera that pro-duces a 6x7 cm negative to shoot ahead-and-shoulders portrait. Whichof the following lenses should youuse?

1. 50mm2. 75mm3. 150mm4. 250mm

6-6. What type of background is bestsuited for official Navy portraits?

1. Bright colored2. Light, neutral colored3. Dark colored4. Glossy surfaced

6-7. Your studio is set up with abrightly colored background andyou are shooting color film fora portrait session. What is/arethe disadvantage(s) of using thiscolored background?

1. It can distract from thesubject

2. Reflected light may affect thetone of the subject’s face

3. It may alter the mood you wantto represent

4. Each of the above

6-8. As a minimum, what two colorsof backgrounds available shoulda Navy portrait studio have?

1. White and gray2. Black and gray3. Black and white4. Gray and black

Learning Objective: Selectvarious lighting sources andaccessories used in portraitphotography.

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6-9. What light source is best forportrait photography?

1. Sunlight2. Daylight3. Incandescent light4. Electronic flash

6-10. You want to produce deep, well-defined shadows on the face ofa portrait. What type of lightsource should you use?

1. Reflected light2. Spotlight3. Floodlight4. Diffused light

6-11. The technique that allows only thesofter, outer part of a light beamto fall on the subject is known bywhat term?

1. Diffusing2. Snooting3. Feathering4. Spotting

6-12. Which of the following lightingaccessories is used to softenspecular light?

1. Fresnel lens2. Barn door3. Snoot4. Diffusers

6-13. What lighting accessory is usedto feather light?

1. Snoot2. Barn door3. Diffuser4. Umbrella

6-14. What lighting accessory is usedto control spill light?

6-15. What lighting accessory is used tocontrol the size of the light beamfalling on the subject?

1. Barn door2. Snoot3. Diffuser4. Umbrella

6-16. What lighting accessory is usedto spread light over a largerarea than that provided from theoriginal source?

1. Barn door2. Snoot3. Diffuser4. Umbrella

Learning Objective: Identifycamera- and subject-handlingtechniques used in portraitphotography.

6-17. What type of black-and-white filmshould you use to emphasize thetexture of a man’s skin in aportrait?

1. Panchromatic2. Colorblind3. Orthochromatic4. Infrared

6-18. Which of the following f/stops isgenerally better suited for takingportraits?

1. f/82. f/163. f/324. f/64

6-19. Portrait appointments should bescheduled no closer than how manyminutes apart?

1. Barn door2. Diffuser3. Umbrella4. Reflector

1. 52. 103. 154. 20

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6-20. People should generally have theirportraits taken during what part ofthe day?

1. Morning2. Afternoon3. Evening4. Night

6-21. Which of the following methodshelps to provide a naturalexpression of the subject?

1. Tell them to "just act natural"2. Show them an example of how you

want them to look3. Carry on a conversation with

the subject to help them feelat ease

4. Tell a joke at the time ofexposure

6-22. When directing the subject fora portrait pose, you, as thephotographer, should be in whatlocation?

1. Behind the camera2. At the subject's side3. Behind the subject4. In front of the camera

within the circle of light

6-23. What is the best average height ofa camera for a head-and-shouldersportrait?

1. Chest level2. Slightly above the subject’s

eyes3. Slightly below the subject's

chin4. Nose level

6-24. When shooting a full-lengthportrait, you should begin withyour camera at what level to thesubject?

6-25. You are shooting a portrait andwant the subject to appear to belooking, but not staring at theviewer in the finished print. Tocreate this effect, you shouldhave the subject look in whatdirection during the cameraexposure?

1. Into the camera lens2. Slightly above the camera

lens3. Below the camera lens4. At the modeling light

6-26. To create the feeling of motion ina head-and-shoulders portrait, youshould have the subject sit in whatposition in relation to the camera?

1. At an angle and leaningslightly forward

2. At an angle and leaningslightly backward

3. Square and leaning slightlyforward

4. Square and leaning slightlybackward

6-27. What is the point of interestin a military portrait?

1. The national ensign2. The subject's rank or

rating insignia3. The subject's awards4. The subject's face

Learning Objective: Recognizedifferent types of portraitlighting and their correspondingeffects.

1. Waist2. Chest3. Shoulder4. Head

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PORTRAIT LIGHTING

A. Rembrandt

B. Short

C. Broad

D. Rim

Figure 6A

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 6-28 THROUGH 6-31,REFER TO FIGURE 6A AND SELECT THE TYPEOF PORTRAIT LIGHTING USED TO CREATE THEEFFECT USED AS THE QUESTION.

6-28.

6-29.

6-30.

6-31.

6-32.

The side of the face away fromthe camera is fully lighted:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

The side of the face away from thecamera is lighted by a high mainlight:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

The entire face is in shadow:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

The side of the face toward thecamera is well-lighted:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

What type of lighting produces ashadow directly under the nose?

1. Broad2. Butterfly3. Short4. Rembrandt

6-33. What type of lighting is used toilluminate one side of the facewhile placing the opposite sidecompletely in shadow?

1. Rim2. Short3. Split4. Broad

Learning Objective: Identifymethods used to determine theplacement of portrait lights.

6-34. What light source in a portrait-lighting situation is the mostinfluential?

1. Fill2. Hair3. Background4. Modeling

6-35. In military portraits, what typeof lighting is used for subjectswith a normal shape face?

1. Short2. Broad3. Butterfly4. Spit

6-36. What type of lighting should youuse for a subject with a narrowface?

1. Short2. Broad3. Spit4. Rembrandt

6-37. Which of the following lightingeffects causes too much light tobe reflected from the subject'sforehead in a portrait?

1. The fill light is too bright2. The main light is too far

from the fill light3. The main light is too close

to the subject4. The intensity of the fill light

is greater than the main light

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6-38. What light creates the facialhighlights in portrait lighting?

1. Background2. Hair3. Fill4. Main

6-39. What factors are used to determinethe required direction of the mainlight in three-quarter portraitlighting?

1. The distance of the mainlight from the fill light

2. The size and shape of thesubject's nose

3. The size and intensity of themain light as compared to thefill light

4. The relationship of the noseshadow to the upper lip

6-40. What facial highlight is used todetermine the distance of the mainlight?

1. Nose2. Forehead3. Chin4. Cheek

6-41. When naval officers have theirportrait made with their cover on,the shadow cast by the visor mustnot fall across their eyes.

1. True2. False

6-42. What is the purpose of the filllight in portrait lighting?

1. To provide shadow detail2. To increase the level of

illumination necessary toobtain greater depth of field

3. To provide modeling andhighlight contrast

4. To increase the lighting ratio

6-43.

6-44.

6-45.

6-46.

6-47.

6-48.

In three-quarter portrait lighting,the fill light should be in whatlocation?

1. Directly behind the main light2. On the same side of the camera

as the main light3. On the opposite side of the

camera from the main light4. Behind the subject

The shadow cast under the subject'schin by the fill light helps toseparate the head from the neck inportrait lighting, and thereforeshould be quite dark.

1. True2. False

In a portrait subject's eye, whatis the small reflection caused bythe main light called?

1. Highlight2 . Star light3. Bright light4. Catch light

What number of catch lightsshould be in each eye?

1. One2. Two3. Three4. Four

In broad lighting, the catch lightshould be in what approximateposition?

1. One o'clock2. Six o'clock3. Three o'clock4. Eleven o'clock

In short lighting, the catch lightshould be in what approximateposition?

1. One o'clock2. Six o'clock3. Three o'clock4. Eleven o'clock

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6-49. What is the maximum lighting

6-50.

6-51.

ratio for color portraits?

1. 1:12. 2:13. 3:14. 5:1

In portrait lighting, what lightis used to provide tonal separationbetween the subject and thebackground?

1. Main2. Catch3. Fill4. Background

You are shooting a color portraitfor a command roster board. Toreproduce the background in itstrue color, you should ensure whatamount of incident light is fallingon it?

1. The same as the subject2. Twice as much as the subject3. One half as much as the subject4. Four times as much as the

subject

6-52. You position the background lightso the illumination falls offgradually into the corners of theframe. This produces what effect?

1. It hides uneven borders2. It provides image balance3. It “locks” the image into

the frame4. It helps direct attention

to the subject’s face

6-53. Light-meter readings for portraitsshould be taken with the hair lightturned off.

1. True2. False

6-54.

6-55.

6-56 .

1. Spit2. Broad3. Butterfly4. Rembrandt

What facial shadow should you useto determine the height of the mainlight for butterfly lighting?

1. Eyebrow2. Nose3. Lip4. Chin

6-57. You are taking a portrait of afemale admiral using butterflylighting. In what position shouldyou place the fill-in light?

1. Close to the lens axis and onthe opposite side from the mainlight

2. 45 degrees from the lens axisand on the same side as themain light

3. 45 degrees from the lens axisand on the opposite side of themain light

4. Directly below the main lightand close to the lens axis

Learning Objective: Identifythe basic setup used for takingfull-length portraits.

When setting up a portrait usingside lighting, you should startwith the main light in whatposition?

1. Very close to the lens axis2. 45 degrees from the lens axis3. 90 degrees from the lens axis4. 180 degrees from the lens axis

What type of portrait lightingshould you use to subdue lines andwrinkles in the subject’s face?

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6-58.

6-59.

6-60.

What background color is bestsuited for a full-length portraitof an officer wearing khakis?

1. Gray2. Light blue3. Beige4. White

You are taking a full-lengthofficer promotion portrait of aCDR. You should pose the subjectin what manner?

1. Square to the camera2. Facing your left3. Three quarters with the

left shoulder forward4. One that makes him appear thin

Because all military portraits arestandardized, they should be takenwith the same pose, camera height,and lighting setup.

1. True2. False

Learning Objective: Identifycorrective techniques used inportrait photography.

PORTRAIT PROBLEM AREAS

A. Protruding lips

B. Glasses

C. Baldness

D. Fat, round face

E. Deep-set eyes

F. Wide forehead

Figure 6B

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 6-61 THROUGH 6-66,REFER TO FIGURE 6B AND SELECT THE PORTRAITPROBLEM AREA THAT BEST MATCHES THECORRECTIVE ACTION USED AS THE QUESTION.

6-61. Low-camera viewpoint and front-lighting:

1. B2. C3. D4. E

6-62. Shoot three-quarter view. Short

6-63.

6-64.

6-65.

6-66.

6-67.

or sidelighting:

1. A2. C3. D4. F

Low main light:

1. A2. B3. D4. F

Low-camera viewpoint. Lightto blend head with background:

1. B2. C3. D4. F

High, three-quarter or front-lighting. Tilt head downward:

1. A2. B3. C4. E

Low-camera viewpoint. Tilt chinupward:

1. A2. B3. D4. F

Film exposure for portraits shouldbe based on the intensity of

1. the fill light only2. the main light only3. the fill and main lights only4. all lights used

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Learning Objective: Recognizeprinciples used for taking pass-port photographs.

6-68. All active-duty military personnelare entitled to no cost touristpassport photographs taken in Navyimaging facilities.

1. True2. False

6-69. The head size for passportphotographs must be what size,in inches?

1. 1 to 1 3/82. 1/2 to 13. 3/4 to 1 1/44. 1 3/8 to 2

6-70. A Navy lieutenant enters yourimaging facility for a passportphotograph wearing prescriptionaviator sunglasses. He normallywears glasses but does not haveglaucoma. Which of the followingactions should you take?

1. Ask him to put on his regularglasses and then take thephotograph

2. Have him remove the sunglassesand take the photograph

3. Say nothing and take thephotograph with the sunglasseson

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ASSIGNMENT 7

Textbook Assignment: "Copying" and "Chemical Mixing." Pages 8-1 through 9-12.

7-4. A picture made of various sizeLearning Objective: Recognizedifferent types of copy originals

dots:

1. A2. B3. C4. DCOPY TERMS

A. Line Originals

B. Reproduction

C. Halftone

D. Continuous-Tone Original

E. Duplication

Figure 7A

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 7-1 THROUGH 7-4,SELECT THE COPY TERM THAT BEST APPLIESTO THE DEFINITION USED AS THE QUESTION.

7-1. A photograph comprised of manydifferent gray, white, and blacktones:

1. A2. B3. D4. E

7-2. The product of copying:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

7-3. A black-and-white printed page:

1. A2. B3. C4. D

7-5.

7-6.

7-7.

Learning Objective: Identify con-ditions of copyrighted materials.

Copyright laws apply only to workspublished and made available forsale.

1. True2. False

To play it safe as a NavyPhotographer's Mate, you shouldabide by which of the followingrules regarding copyrightinformation?

1. Never copy information thatis copyrighted

2. You may copy any copyrightedmaterial if it will be usedone time only and the copy ismarked "For Official Use Only"

3. Be sure permission from thecopyright holder is obtainedbefore copying copyrightedmaterials

4. If it is used for trainingpurposes, it may be copied

Which of the following itemsmay be copyrighted?

1. Compact disks2. Videotapes3. Photographs4. Each of the above

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7-8. At what point in time doesa photograph legally becomecopyrighted?

1. When it is processed2. When it is submitted

to the Copyright Office3. When it is published4. When it is sold

7-9. Which of the following statementsregarding copyright is true?

1. A notice of copyright ismarked conspicuously onall copyrighted documents

2. Although a publication doesnot carry a notice of copy-right, it may still becopyrighted

3. Without permission from thecopyright owner, you may stillcopy publications from foreigncountries

4. All of the above

7-10. A literary work was created by twoauthors in 1980. Neither of theauthors worked for hire. The firstauthor died in 1981, and the secondauthor died in 1885. What yeardoes the copyright expire for thiswork?

1. 20312. 20353. 20564. 2085

7-11. What, if anything, is meant by“international copyright?”

1. The material is copyrightedthroughout the world

2. The copyright applies to UCCcountries only

3. All UCC countries have agreedto copyright the material

4. There is no such thing as“international copyright”

7-12. A Navy pilot takes some air-to-airphotographs of an aircraft justintroduced to the fleet. Asassistant PAO, this is a part ofhis duty. These photographs arecopyright protected for what lengthof time, if any?

1. 50 years after his death2. 75 years after his death3. 100 years from the date the

photograph s were processed4. None

7-13. Which of the following statementsconcerning copyright informationand the principle of “fair use” isNOT true?

1. For educational purposes, ateacher can make a single copyof a document for each studentand use the copies from year toyear

2. A single copy of an articlefrom a magazine may be usedfor research purposes

3. There is no limit to the numberof copies that can be made of atable of weights and measures

4. A teacher may make a singlecopy of a chapter in a bookif the material is used inpreparation for teaching aclass

7-14. What instruction providesinformation on the use ofcopyrighted material for officialNavy use?

1. OPNAVINST 5290.12. SECNAVINST 5870.53. SECNAVINST 5216.54. COPYRITINST 10700.3

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7-15. You are standing "duty PH" alone ata base imaging facility. The CO ofthe base personally brings in acopyrighted document that he needscopied to a 35mm slide at once.What action should you take?

1. Tell the CO you cannot copythe document because it iscopyrighted

2. Mask the copyright notice,then copy the document

3. Ensure the CO knows that thedocument is copyrighted beforeyou begin the job

4. Make an extra slide of thedocument and forward it tothe CNO

7-16. It is illegal to photograph UnitedStates currency.

1. True2. False

Learning Objective: Recognizeequipment, film, and lightingtechniques used for photographiccopying.

7-17. For an imaging facility thatperforms a large quantity of copywork, what focusing system is best?

1. SLR2. Rangefinder3. Ground glass4. Split level

7-18. What is the minimum desired bellowsextension for a copy camera?

1. The lens focal length2. Twice the lens focal length3. Three times the lens focal

length4. Four times the lens focal

length

7-19. What type of lens is designedspecifically for copying?

1. Process2. Convertible3. High resolve

Two dimensional

7-20. What primary factor determines thefocal-length lens you should usefor copy work?

1. The lens-to-original distance2. The size of the original3. The distance from the light

source to the original4. The size of the negative

7-21. For copy work, you should use whichof the following lenses, in inches,on a camera that produces an 8x10-inch negative?

1. 82. 103. 124. 18

7-22. The copyboard of a copy camerashould not be white or a lightcolor for which of the followingreasons?

1. The film will be overexposed2. The film will be underexposed3. The reproduced image will lack

good contrast4. The reproduced image will have

excessive contrast

7-23. What is the color temperaturerating of tungsten lamps?

1. 3200 K and 3400 K2. 5400 K and 7200 K3. 7400 K and 9600 K4. 10,000 K and 21,000 K

7-24. What is the approximate lifetime,in hours, of a 3400 K lamp?

1. 52. 93. 34. 34

7-25. What type of light source is bestsuited for copying a painting withrough surface?

1. 3200 K tungsten lamp2. Fluorescent lamp3. Electronic flash4. Quartz-halogen lamp

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7-26. You are copying charts to 35mmcolor slides on an MP-4 copycamera. The right-rear lamp burnsout. What lamp(s) should youreplace?

1. The right-rear lamp only2. The right-rear and the

right-front lamps only3. The right-rear and the

left-rear lamps only4. All four lamps

7-27. What type of film should you useto copy a black-and-white lineoriginal?

1. Kodalith2. Plus-X3. HP5 Plus4. XP2

7-28. Which, if any, of the followingtypes of film should you use tomake a black-and-white copy ofa colored line original?

1. Colorblind2. Orthochromatic3. Panchromatic4. None of the above

7-29. To copy a black-and-whitecontinuous-tone original,you should use which of thefollowing films??

1. Kodalith2. Contrast Process Pan3. Kodak Commercial4. Tri-X

7-30. Which of the following films shouldyou use to produce a color negativeof a color photographic print?

1. Vericolor III Professional2. Kodak Internegative3. Ektachrome4. Kodacolor

7-31

7-32

. You are printing a number of colorprints that will later be copied tocolor slides. What surface papershould you use to make the prints?

1. Glossy2. Matte3. Semimatte4. Pearl

. At what angle to the originalshould the copy lights bepositioned for general, routinecopy work?

1. 90°2. 45°3. 30°4. 10°

7-33. You have produced a copy negativethat you know was lighted evenly,but the negative still has lessdensity at the edges than at thecenter. What factor most probablycaused this problem?

1. A wide-angle lens was used2. A telephoto lens was used3. The film was overexposed4. The film was underexposed

7-34. What type of film requiresthe most critical exposure?

1. High contrast2. Moderate contrast3. Normal contrast4. Low contrast

7-35. Many bright reflections areoccurring from high points ofbrush strokes on an oil paintingthat you are copying. What maybe the end result?

1. Increased contrast2. Reduced contrast3. Underexposure4. Overexposure

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7-36. Polarizing screens are being usedover copy lights. Approximatelyhow much of an increase in exposureis required as compared to usingthe lights unscreened?

1. 5 times 7-41. You have copied a number of slides2. 2 times and all of the processed images on3. 12 times the roll are extremely yellow.4. 20 times What action should you take first?

7-37. You are using an ISO 100 speedfilm to make copies. Your exposuremeter reading is taken from an18-percent gray card. What ISOspeed should you set into themeter?

1. 252. 503. 1004. 200

7-38. You are producing copies usinga 14-inch bellows extension.The lens focal length is 6 inchesand the indicated exposure is3 seconds. What exposure time,in seconds, should you use?

1. 62. 123. 164. 32

7-39. When photographing images of a CRT,you must be aware of which of thefollowing requirements?

1. The shutter speed is extremelycritical when photographingradarscopes

2. The screen brightness mustbe adjusted to maximum so thebrightest possible images areprovided

3. To shoot a computer monitor,you must set the camera shutterspeed to 1/250 second

4. The optical axis of the lensmust be centered andperpendicular to the monitor

7-40. For slide duplication, what side ofthe film should face the camera?

1. Emulsion2. Base

1. Subtract 50Y from the filterpack

2. Add 50B to the filter pack3. Add 50M and 50C to the filter

pack4. Check the duplicating system

to ensure the CC filters werein the proper position whenthe slides were exposed

7-42. When trying to determine thecolor correction necessary for aduplicate color slide, you shouldexamine what tones?

1. Midtones2. Shadows3. Highlights

7-43. By viewing a color slide through aCC10R filter, you determined thatthe color looks correct. Which ofthe following adjustments shouldyou make to your filter pack?

1. Subtract CC10R only2. Subtract CC10M and CC10Y3. Add CC10C only4. Subtract CC10C only

Learning Objective: Identifyproper mixing and storageprocedures for photographicchemicals.

Learning Objective: Identifymethods used to duplicate slides.

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7-44. What is the most important reasonfor ensuring that photographicchemicals are mixed properly?

1. using improperly mixedchemicals is always hazardousto the user’s health

2. Improperly mixed chemicals mayruin the film from an importantmission

3. The mixing equipment may bedamaged

7-45. The storage of unmixed chemicalsshould be at what approximatetemperature and relative humidity,respectively?

1. 20°F; 68 percent2. 40°F; 75 percent3. 68°F; 20 percent4. 75°F; 40 percent

7-46. Containers made from what materialare best for storing liquiddeveloper?

1. Hard rubber2. Plastic3. Glass4. Stainless steel

7-47. Air space should never be left ina large bottle used for storingdeveloper replenisher.

1. True2. False

7-48. Floating lids are used for storageof large volumes of solution intanks for what primary purpose?

1. To prevent dust from settlingon the surface of the solution

2. To prevent water in thesolution from evaporating

3. To prevent unauthorized useof the solution

4. To protect the solution fromaerial oxidation

7-49.

7-50.

7-51.

7-52.

Which of the following materialsis NOT suitable for a photographicchemical storage tank?

1. Aluminum2. Glass3. 316 Stainless Steel4. Polyethylene

When washed well between uses,wooden paddles make excellentchemical mixing tools.

1. True2. False

The curved surface at the top ofa solution is known by what term?

1. Convexation2. Concavation3. Meniscus4. Mantissa

An increase in temperature haswhat effect, if any, on chemicalaction?

1. It increases2. It decreases3. None

Learning Objective: Identifyitems of equipment used in Navyimaging facilities to test orverify chemical solutions.

7-53. What instrument is used tomeasure the specific gravityof a solution?

1. Densitometer2. pH meter3. Hydrometer4. Thermometer

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7-54. The specific gravity measurementof a solution is below the lowerlimit. This may be an indicationof which of the following errors?

1. The solution is dilutedwith too much water

2. Not enough water was added3. Too much of an ingredient

has been added4. The solution may be highly

acidic

7-55. A hydrometer used to measure thesilver content of a fixing bathis calibrated in grams of silverper

1. ounce2. milliliter3. gallon4. liter

7-56. Specific gravity is a measurementof what property of a liquid?

1. Composition2. Strength3. Opacity4. Density

7-57. What part of the meniscus, if any,at the stem of the hydrometerindicates the ratio of the densityof a solution to the density ofdistilled water?

1. The top2. The center3. The bottom4. None

7-58. Acidity and alkalinity of solutionsare measured with what instrument?

1. Hydrometer2. pH meter3. Activity indicator4. Sensitometer

7-59. Photographic developing solutionshave which of the following pHvalues?

1. 3.1 to 5.02. 5.0 to 8.03. 8.0 to 12.04. 12.0 to 14.0

7-60. An alkali may have which ofthe following pH values?

7-61. A pH value of 7.0 is

7-62.

1. acidic2. alkaline3. neutral

A pH value of 1.0 is how manytimes stronger than a pH valueof 3.0?

7-63.

1. One2. Two3. Ten4. One hundred

The solution used to standardizea pH meter is known as what typeof solution?

7-64.

1. Acid2. Alkali3. Buffer4. Neutral

You are standardizing a pH meterbefore taking the pH reading of ablack-and-white fixer. You shoulduse a buffer solution with what pHvalue to standardize the meter?

1. 1.02. 5.03. 7.04. 9.0

1. 14.02. 10.03. 7.04. 4.0

Learning Objective: Identifyprocedures used in mixingphotographic chemicals.

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7-65. You have set up an impeller type ofmixer to mix a developer solution,but you have adjusted the clampimproperly so the shaft is verticaland in the center of the container.What is the most probable endresult?

1. The motor bearings are damaged2. Too much air was whipped into

the solution3. The mixer vibrated enough to

mix the chemicals sufficiently4. The solution was churned from

top to bottom, rather than frombottom to top

7-66. How many degrees Celsius equateto 68°F?

1. 10°C2. 20°C3. 30°C4. 40°C

7-67. You are mixing a developingsolution and the directions callfor water at 23.8°C. This is equalto how many degrees Fahrenheit?

1. 18.75°F2. 37.50°F3. 75.00°F4. 125.50°F

7-68. You are preparing a workingsolution of developer from a stocksolution. The instructions callfor 1 part of stock solution and3 parts water. You need a totalof 1 gallon of working solution.What amount of water, in ounces,should you add to the solution?

1. 322. 643. 964. 128

7-69. For adequate ventilation in achemical mixing area, there shouldbe one complete air change every

1. 15 minutes2. 30 minutes3. 3 minutes4. 45 minutes

7-70. It is permissible to mix photo-graphic chemicals in a photographicprint room that has adequateventilation.

1. True2. False

7-71. You need 32 ounces of developersolution. The only size packageof dry, prepackaged chemicals youhave on hand makes 128 ounces.Should you mix the entire packageto make 128 ounces and, if so, why?

1. Yes; when only part of thepackage is mixed, some of theingredients may be left outof the resulting solution

2. Yes; when only part of thepackage is mixed, the resultingsolution will not develop film

3. No; dry, packaged chemicals arehomogenized

4. No; dry, packaged chemicals areformulated to be mixed eitherin part or in whole

7-72. You should follow what procedurewhen mixing chemicals?

1. Add water to dry chemicalsand acid to water

2. Add dry chemicals to waterand acid to water

3. Add water to dry chemicalsand water to acid

4. Add dry chemicals to waterand water to acid

Learning Objective: Recognizesafety precautions required inchemical mixing areas.

7-73. Labels on chemical storage tanksmust include the name of thesolution, hazardous chemicalscontained, the name of the personwho mixed it, and what otherinformation?

1. The water-mixing temperature2. The date mixed3. The antidote4. The name of the chemical-mixing

supervisor

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7-74. What rule(s) is/are important toremember whenever you are workingaround chemicals?

1. An antidote is for emergencyuse only

2. Ingestion of a poisonouschemical may be induced bysmoking

3. A person who has spilled acidon himself should seek medicalattention immediately

4. All of the above

7-75. Which of the following personnelmust be completely familiar withMaterial Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)?

1. The division officer only2. The division officer and LCPO

only3. The division officer, LCPO, and

production PO only4. All persons within an imaging

facility

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ASSIGNMENT 8

Textbook Assignment: "Image Processing and Control." Pages 10-1 through 10-30.

8-1.

8-2.

8-3.

Learning Objective: Recognizefunctions of the various solutionsused to process light-sensitivematerials.

What process is most commonlyused for film development?

1. Physical2. Chemical3. Intensification4. Latent conversion

When performed correctly, thechemical development processreduces exposed silver halidesto what composition?

1. Black metallic silver2. Soluble-silver salt3. Dye-image salt4. Gray-tone dye

All silver halides, both exposedand unexposed, can be reduced tometallic silver in the developmentprocess.

1. True2. False

8-4. What term describes the amount ofsilver in a film emulsion that hasbeen reduced to black metallicsilver?

1. Light struck2. Rate phenomenon3. Density4. Primary silver

8-5. What is the most importantingredient in a developingsolution?

1. Preservative2. Accelerator3. Restrainer4. Reducing agent

8-6. What is the purpose of thepreservative in a developingsolution?

1. It makes the image permanent2. It retards oxidation3. It prevents the formation

of poisonous gas4. It prevents the reducing agent

from attacking the unexposedsilver halides

8-7. Which of the following chemicalsmay be used as a preservative?

1. Hydroquinone2. Metol3. Sodium hydroxide4. Sodium sulfite

8-8. What ingredient in a developingsolution makes it alkaline?

1. Reducing agent2. Accelerator3. Preservative4. Restrainer

8-9. What two functions does theaccelerator in a developingagent serve?

1. It constricts the emulsionand prevents aerial oxidation

2. It constricts the emulsionand increases the rate ofdevelopment

3. It swells the emulsion andabsorbs the halide elementsfreed from the silver

4. It swells the emulsion andretards the rate of development

8-10. A developer with which of thefollowing pH values will mostlikely produce an image with afiner grain?

1. 1.52. 5.53. 8.54. 11.0

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8-11. The restrainer in a developingsolution serves what purpose?

1. It slows down the actionof the reducing agent

2. It prevents the preservativefrom etching the silver grains

3. It reduces image contrast4. It prevents the solution

from oxidizing

8-12. Which of the following developeringredients is used to preventchemical fog?

1. Metol2. Hydroquinone3. Sodium sulfite4. Potassium bromide

Learning Objective: Identifydifferent types of black-and-whitedevelopers and their uses.

8-13. In the development stage of filmprocessing, what areas of thenegative are converted to blackmetallic silver first?

1. Highlights2. Mid-tones3. Shadows

8-14. Which of the following factors doesNOT determine the type of developeryou choose to process film?

1. Film size2. Type of process3. Exposure conditions4. Type of film

8-15. When black-and-white film isprocessed in a fine-graindeveloper, the grain structurecannot be seen even in printsmade at high magnifications.

1. True2. False

8-16. What type of developer should youuse to process a line copy film?

1. High definition2. Fine grain3. High contrast4. General purpose

8-17. Which of the following statementsis NOT a property of a compensatingdeveloper?

1. It increases image sharpness2. It may produce acceptable

negatives that are one ortwo f/stops underexposed

3. It is recommended for use withfine-grain emulsions only

4. It produces extremely finegrain

8-18. What effect, if any, does the by-products caused by the reductionof silver halides have on the pHof a developing solution?

1. It increases2. It decreases3. None

8-19. Which of the following actionsshould you take to compensatefor the additional bromide presentin a used developer?

1. Increase the developing time2. Decrease the developing time3. Add more restrainer4. Lower the temperature

of the developer

8-20. Which of the following ingredientsis NOT included in a developerreplenisher?

1. Reducing agent2. Preservative3. Restrainer4. Water

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8-21. What is the primary reason forusing a developer replenisher?

1. To allow use of the samedeveloping solutionindefinitely

2. To maintain the compositionof a developer

3. To extract the used developer4. To keep the developer activity

constant

8-22. What replenishment method is usedto maintain solution volume only?

1. Bleed2. Topping off3. Titration

8-23. The processing characteristicsof a developer remains moreconsistent when what replenishmentmethod is used?

1. Bleed2. Topping off3. Titration

Learning Objective: Identifyprocedures carried out afterfilm is developed.

8-24. A water-rinse bath stops the actionof the developer.

1. True2. False

8-25. What property of a stop bathprevents further development?

1. Temperature2. Volume3. Penetrating action4. pH

8-26. A solution with which of thefollowing pH readings should beused as a stop bath?

1. 2.02. 5.03. 7.04. 9.0

59

8-27. A stop bath should be made up of aweak acid for which of thefollowing reasons?

1. To prevent damage tothe film emulsion

2. To prevent the fixingbath from sulphurizing

3. Both 1 and 2 above4. To prevent darkroom workers

from inhaling strong acid fumes

8-28. What type of acid is commonly usedas a stop bath and in what strength(percentage)?

1. Sulfuric; 28.0%2. Acetic; 99.5%3. Sulfuric; 99.5%4. Acetic; 28.0%

8-29. Glacial acetic acid freezes at whattemperature, in degrees Fahrenheit?

1. 61°F2. 32°F3. 10°F4. 0°F

8-30. For a normal stop bath, youshould mix a total of how manyounces of 28 percent acetic acidwith 32 ounces of water?

1. 12. 1/23. 164. 28

8-31. Once film is treated in a stopbath, it is no longer sensitiveto light?

1. True2. False

8-32. What step in film processing makesthe silver salts that are notaffected by the developer watersoluble?

1. Water rinse2. Stop bath3. Fixer4. Wash

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8-33. Which of the following chemicalsis used commonly as a silver-halidesolvent?

8-34.

8-35.

8-36.

8-37.

1. Acetic acid2. Sodium thiosulfate3. Sodium sulfite4. Borax

Which of the following chemicalsis added to fixing solutions toprevent sulfurization anddiscoloration as well as aidingin prevention of stains?

1. Sodium thiosulfate2. Ammonium thiosulfate3. Sodium sulfite4. Potassium alum

Which of the following filmsrequires the longest fixing time?

1. Very fine grain2. Fine grain3. Medium grain4. Coarse grain

You used an undeveloped piece offilm to determine the proper fixingtime. The film took 2 minutes toclear. After development, whatlength of time, in minutes, shouldyou fix the same type of film?

1. 12. 23. 84. 4

A fresh fixer used to processblack-and-white film takes4 minutes to cleat- a piece ofundeveloped film. The fixershould be considered exhaustedwhen it takes a total of how manyminutes to clear undeveloped film?

1. 52. 63. 74. 8

8-38. The purpose of washing film isto remove which of the followingelements?

1. Black metallic silver2. Fixer3. Developer4. Silver halides

8-39. For black-and-white film, themaximum recommended wash wateris what temperature, in degreesFahrenheit?

1. 65°F2. 70°F3. 75°F4. 80°F

8-40. The time required to wash negativesin a large tank is 20 minutes.However, halfway through the washcycle a PH Striker from the deckdepartment puts his fixer-coveredhand into the wash tank. Youshould wash the negatives whatadditional amount of time?

1. 5 minutes2.3.

10 minutes20 minutes

4. 30 minutes

8-41. The final stage in film processingis what step?

1. Drying2. Washing3. Fixing4. Captioning

8-42. Which of the following statementsis correct regarding the wettingagent used in film processing?

1. It promotes even drying2. It helps wash the film

because it is made of asoaplike substance

3. It retards vigorous dryingthat causes film curl

4. It shrinks the swollen gelatin

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8-43. You place a long roll of 35mmfilm in a film dryer to dry. Whataction should you take to preventthe film from curling?

1. Attach a film clipto the bottom of the roll

2. Cut the film intosix-frame segments

3. Dry the film on the film reel4. Hang the film in a U-shape loop

8-44. What is the best "cure" for film-drying problems?

1. Rewashing2. Retouching3. Prevention4. Using a wetting agent

8-45. Film that is overdried can beidentified by what characteristic?

1. The film curls toward theemulsion

2. The film curls toward the base3. The base of the film turns pink4. The images on the film appear

faded

8-46. Film dryers use air impingementfor what reason?

1. To help harden the gelatin2. To cause the metallic silver

to “set”3. To prevent film curl4. To promote faster drying

Learning Objective: Recognizeequipment used in film processing.

8-47. Duckboards used in photographicprocessing sinks serve whatpurpose?

1. They rock trays and tanksto provide even agitation

2. They allow water to draincompletely

3. They allow tanks or traysto float in the water bath

4. They allow water to circulateunder and around tanks andtrays to maintain chemicaltemperatures

8-48. What factor has the greatestbearing on selecting a safelightfilter to use with a givenphotographic material?

1. The wattage of the light bulb2. The working distance from the

safelight to the light-sensitive material

3. The color sensitivity of thelight-sensitive material

4. The length of time the light-sensitive material must beexposed to the safelightillumination

8-49. It takes 6 minutes to process agiven light-sensitive material.To carry out the entire processof this material under theillumination of a safelight, youmust ensure the safelight does NOTcause any evidence of fogging forwhat minimum length of time, inminutes?

1. 62. 83. 124. 24

8-50. What type of roll film reelis used most commonly in Navyimaging facilities?

1. Thumb-feed plastic2. Center-feed plastic3. Thumb-feed stainless steel4. Center-feed stainless steel

8-51. A total of how many sheets of filmcan be washed properly at one timein a tray?

1. One2. Two3. Three4. Four

8-52. What is the most effective methodof washing film or paper in a tray?

1. Allow the water to falldirectly on the film

2. Dump or change the waterin the tray every 5 minutes

3. Rock the tray constantly4. USC a siphon system

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8-53. On board ships, a backflowpreventer must be installed in theplumbing system when potable wateris used to wash negatives andprints with a siphon system.

1. True2. False

Learning Objective: Recognizeprocedures used in processingphotographic film.

LIGHTING CONDITION

1. Dark

2. White light

Figure 8A

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 8-54 THROUGH 8-58,REFER TO FIGURE 8A. SELECT THE LIGHTINGCONDITION USED TO CARRY OUT THEPROCESSING STEP USED AS THE QUESTION.

8-54.

8-55.

8-56.

8-57.

8-58.

Fixing:

1. 12. 2

Drying:

1. 12. 2

Washing:

1. 12. 2

Developing:

1. 12. 2

Stop bath:

1. 12. 2

8-59. Which of the following factorsaffect film development?

1. Time2. Temperature3. Agitation4. Each of the above

8-60. Which of the following publicationsprovides complete processinginformation for all light-sensitivematerials used in your imagingfacility?

1. Navy Visual InformationManagement and OperationsManual

2. Manual of Photography3. Photo-Lab-Index4. Kodak Guide to Film Processing

8-61. For hand processing black-and-whitefilm, you should agitate the filmin what manner when (a) trayprocessing and (b) tank processing.

1. (a) constantly(b) constantly

2. (a) constantly(b) intermittently

3. (a) intermittently(b) intermittently

4. (a) intermittently(b) constantly

8-62. You are hand processing four rollsof 35mm film in a small tankdesigned to hold five 35mm reels.What action should you take beforeprocessing the film?

1. Place an empty 35mm reelin the bottom of the tankbefore placing the loaded reels

2. Place an empty 35mm reelon top of the loaded reels inthe processing tank

3. Place an empty 35mm reelin the center of the processingtank in between the second andthe third loaded reels

4. Process the film leavingempty space in the processingtank

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8-63. When processing roll film in thetank-and-reel system, you shoulddislodge air bubbles from rollfilm in what manner?

1. Roll the tank alongthe bottom of the sink

2. Invert the tankseveral times

3. Shake the tank4. Bang the tank on

the edge of a hard surface

8-64. Which of the following processes

8-65.

8-66.

is used to process color and somemonochrome negative film in Navyimaging facilities?

1. Kodak E-62. Kodak Flexicolor3. Kodak EP-24. Kodak RA-4

You are processing color negatives.During what processing step istemperature the most critical?

1. Color developer2. Bleach3. Fixer4. Stabilizer

The Kodak E-6 process has whatnumber of chemical steps?

1. Eight2. Seven3. Six4. Four

8-67. You are processing color reversalfilm in the E-6 process. Duringwhat step is your first opportunityto subject the film to white lightwithout fogging the film?

1. Final rinse2. Fixer3. Bleach4. Reversal bath

8-68. You are hand processing a roll ofEktachrome film. The entire rollof film was underexposed by onef/stop. What alteration to theprocess should you make tocompensate for the underexposure?

1. Increase the timein the first developer only

2. Increase the timein the first developer andthe color developer only

3. Increase the timein the bleach by 2 minutes only

4. Increase the time of allprocessing steps by 20 percent

Learning Objective: Identifyadvantages and disadvantages ofmachine processing.

8-69. Which of the following advantagesapply to photographic machineprocessors?

1. They can process a high volumeof production efficiently

2. They provide more consistentresults than hand processing

3. Both 1 and 2 above4. They require very little

maintenance

8-70. Which of the following factorsis an advantage of the Image Makerprocessor?

1. It requires no maintenance2. Operator error is impossible3. It is capable of processing a

number of different films andpapers

4. The chemicals can be easilyreplenished and usedindefinitely

8-71. What factor(s) determine(s) theprocessing time required on aroller--transport processor?

1. The depth of the processingtanks

2. The distance the filmmust travel

3. The machine speed4. All of the above

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8-72. You should consult which ofthe following publications forspecifications on installingan automatic film processor?

1. The U.S. Navy StandardInstallation Manual

2. The Kodak Processing StandardsManual

3. The manufacturer'sinstallation and service manual

4. The Photo-Lab-Index

8-73. What unit of measure is usedto express film processing timein an automatic roller-transportprocessing machine?

1. Feet per minute2. Time in/out3. Rate of travel4. Roller rack rotation

8-74. The roller assembly in the fixingtank of a roller-transportprocessor holds 18 feet of film.The machine is operated at 7.5 feetper minute. What is the fixingtime, in minutes?

1. 1.82. 2.43. 3.24. 4.1

8-75. The film exiting the dryer ofan automatic processor is curledexcessively. What action shouldyou take?

1. Increase the transport speed2. Decrease the transport speed3. Increase the dryer temperature4. Decrease the dryer temperature

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ASSIGNMENT 9

Textbook Assignment: "Image Processing and Control,” “Black--and-White Printing,” and “ColorPrinting.” Pages 10-31 through 12-17.

Learning Objective: Identifycharacteristics of high-qualitynegatives.

9-1. A black-and--white negative shouldmake a good print when printed withwhat contrast printing filter?

1. No. 12. No. 23. No. 04. No. 4

9-2. What areas have the most densityon a negative?

1. Highlights2. Shadows3. Midtones

9-3. The difference between thehighlight and shadow densitiesdescribes what characteristicof a negative?

1. Opacity2. Tonal gradation3. Density4. Contrast

9-4. Which of the following combinedfactors will produce a thinnegative?

1. Underexposure andunderdevelopment

2. Underexposure andoverdevelopment

3. Overexposure andunderdevelopment

4. Overexposure andoverdevelopment

9-5. Which of the following areas in aphotographed scene will produce themost density on a negative?

1. A shadow2. A red car3. A black sailor in winter

blues4. A white road sign

9-6. A processed black-and-whitenegative has good shadow detailbut lacks good contrast andhighlight densities. What isthe most probable cause of thesenegative characteristics?

1. Normal exposure andoverdevelopment

2. Normal exposure andunderdevelopment

3. Underexposure andunderdevelopment

4. Underexposure and normaldevelopment

9-7. Which of the following factorscontribute to the graininess ofa negative?

1. The type of emulsion2. Development3. Exposure4. Each of the above

Learning Objective: Recognizeequipment and the method used tomonitor photographic processes.

9-8. What instrument provides consist-ent, repeatable exposures and isused to produce test strips?

1. Densitometer2. Sensitometer3. Photo sensitizer4. Grier film exposer

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9-9. A step tablet provides a rangeof what number of f/stops?

1. 212. 113. 104. 7

9-10. On a 21-step tablet, the differencein density between each step iswhat number of f/stops?

1. One2. Two3. One half4. One third

9-11. What instrument is used to readdensities from photographic papersand film?

1. Sensitometer2. Densitometer3. Emulsion meter4. pH meter

9-12. You are reading the densities of aKodacolor test strip. The filtersetting should be set to whatstatus?

1. M2. K3. C4. A

9-13. When reading a control strip on adensitometer, you should take thereadings from (a) what area of thestep with (b) the emulsion facingin what direction?

1. (a) Center (b) down2. (a) Center (b) up4. (a) Edge (b) down4. (a) Edge (b) up

9-14. On a process control chart, whatdoes the symbol X represent?

1. The center line2. The mean3. The average4. Each of the above

9-15. You plotted a Kodacolor controlstrip at the beginning of theproduction day. The HD readingplotted 0.10 units above the UCL.What action should you take?

1. Process the film normally2. Speed up the processor by

10 percent3. Add 1000 ml of developer

replenisher4. Notify your supervisor

Learning Objective: Recognizefactors affecting the productionand quality of contact black-and-white prints.

9-16. The most familiar type of photo-graphic print has what type ofbase?

1. Paper2. Film3. Resin4. Ester

9-17. What are the two primary methodsof making photographic prints?

1. Positive and negativereproduction

2.3.

Contact and projection printingPrecision and fallaciousreduction

4. Enlargement and reductionprinting

9-18. What printing method(s) can be usedto produce print images that arethe same size as the negativeimages?

1. Contact2. Projection3. Both 1 and 2 above4. Precision

9-19. Variable-contrast photographicpapers are not sensitive to whichof the following colors of light?

1. Blue2. Green3. Red4. Cyan

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9-20. When hand processing black-and-white prints, you should use whatminimum number of trays?

1. One2. Two3. Three4. Four

9-21. What number of trays is recommendedfor hand processing black-and-whiteprints?

1. Five2. Seven3. Three4. Four

9-22. Contact printing produces whatnegative to print ratio?

1. 1:12. 2:13. 1:24. 2:2

9-23. What grade of glass should be usedwhen making color contact prints?

1. White2. Neutral3. Crystal4. Clear A1

9-24. When using a proof printer, youshould place the emulsion sideof (a) paper and (b) film in whatdirection?

1. (a) Down (b) down2. (a) Down (b) up3. (a) Up (b) up4. (a) Up (b) down

9-25. What is the main purpose ofa masking device in a contactprinter?

1. It protects the glass fromscratches

2. It allows the prints to beproduced with white borders

3. It holds the paper in place4. It separates the negative from

the glass

9-26.

9-27.

9-28.

9-29.

9-30.

When viewed under a light source,the emulsion side of (a) film and(b) paper have what appearance?

1. (a) Shiny (b) shiny2. (a) Shiny (b) dull3. (a) Dull (b) dull4. (a) Dull (b) shiny

What affect occurs when thematerial used to mask a contactprint is too thick?

1. The print requires an excessiveamount of exposure

2. The print image is reversed3. The image is blurred along the

edges4. The paper does not get exposed

What term describes the guide on acontact printer that aides quickand proper paper alignment?

1. Mask2. Goldenrod3. Paper stop4. Print border mark

Learning Objective: Identify stepsused to process black-and-whitepaper and control the contrast ofblack-and-white prints.

When hand processing black-and-white prints, the image on thepaper should appear in what lengthof time, in seconds?

1. 302. 153. 104. 5

You made a contact print with anumber 3 contrast printing filter,but the print lacks adequatecontrast. Which of the followingfilters should you use to make thereprint?

1. No. 12. No. 23. No. 1 1/24. No. 4

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9-31. In hand processing, the term "pull"refers to what action?

1. Pulling the print through theentire process

2. Removing the print from thedeveloper prematurely

3. Pouring chemical solutions4. Removing prints from the dryer

9-32. A negative with normal contrast wasprinted with a No. 4 printingfilter. Which of the followingstatements best describes theappearance of the prints?

1. The number of tones, reproducedmatches the original scenetones closely

2. The print shows an abundanceof middle tones with few shadowareas

3. The print is very flat4. The print has high contrast

9-33. When developing prints in a tray,you should ensure they are agitatedin what manner?

1. Frequently2. Intermittently3. Constantly4. Infrequently

9-34. Which of the following statementsis most accurate regarding printquality?

1. Print quality depends uponcorrect exposure only

2. Print quality depends uponcorrect development only

3. Print quality depends uponcorrect exposure anddevelopment

4. Print quality is governed bythe working characteristicsof the paper and developer

9-35. You are hand processing a singleblack-and-white print. The printshould be treated in the stop bathfor what number of seconds?

1. 202. 153. 104. 5

9-36. What is the most probable result ofa fixing bath that is diluted lessthan recommended?

1. The prints sink2. The prints float3. The prints blister4. The prints separate

from the base

9-37 . When hand processing photographicfilm and paper, it is commonpractice to work in what direction?

1. From right to left2. From left to right3. From top to bottom4. From bottom to top

9-38. You are hand processing 26 8x10-inch prints at one time in a tray.You should agitate the prints inwhat manner?

1. Move the bottom print to thetop of the stack

2. Move the top print to thebottom of the stack

3. Turn all the prints at onetime and fan them quickly

4. Remove each print in successionfrom the developer, drain itfor 5 seconds, then place theprint at the bottom of thestack

9-39. You are processing several black-and-white prints at one time. Youshould treat the prints in the stopbath for what number of seconds?

1. 152. 303. 604. 90

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9-40.

9-41.

9-42.

9-43.

9-44.

After you remove a series of black-and-white prints from the dryer,you notice several of the printshave white fingerprints on them.What is the most probable cause ofthese fingerprints?

1. Fingerprints on the negative2. Hands with developer on them

touched the paper emulsionbefore processing

3. Hands with fixer on themtouched the paper emulsionbefore processing

4. Dryer temperature was set toohigh and pressure from fingersmade an indentation in thesoftened emulsion

To economize on the quantity ofdeveloper, you should use onlyenough solution to barely coverthe paper.

1. True2. False

Learning Objective: Identifymethods used in projectionprinting.

“Dodging” and “burning in" areterms that best describe whattype of control?

1. Contrast2. Process3. Exposure4. Sensitivity

What method of printing allowsyou to correct for distortion?

1. Contact2. Projection

A 4x5-inch negative is enlargedso the entire negative image isreproduced on an 8x10-inch print.What is the image magnification ofthis print?

1. 1x2. 2x3. 3x4. 4x

9-45 .

9-46 .

9-47 .

9-48 .

All other factors being equal,what type of enlarger producesthe greatest print contrast?

1. Condenser2. Diffusion3. Condenser-diffusion

What type of enlarger should youuse to obscure negative defects?

1. Condenser2. Diffusion3. Condenser-diffusion

What type of black-and-whiteenlarger is used most commonlyfor general printing in Navyimaging facilities?

1. Condenser2. Diffusion3. Condenser-diffusion

Any high-quality camera lens canbe used on an enlarger to producehigh-quality prints.

1. True2. False

9-49. You are printing a 4x5-inchnegative. Which of the followingfocal-length enlarger lenses shouldyou use?

1. 50mm2. 75mm3. 105mm4. 150mm

9-50. With a lens-to-paper distance of24 inches and all other factorsbeing equal, which of the followingfocal-length lenses provides thegreatest image magnification?

1. 50mm2. 75mm3. 105mm4. 150mm

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9-51. When photographic enlargements arebeing made, the term "cropping" isused to describe what procedure?

1. Setting the timer2. Setting the aperture3. Composing the image4. Processing the prints

9-52. You made a test print without acontrast printing filter using anexposure of 10 seconds at f/11.The test print looks flat and youare going to make another testprint using a No. 4 IlfordMultigrade printing filter.Keeping the timer on 10 seconds,you should make the new test printat what f/stop?

1. f/162. f/113. f/84. f/5.6

9-53. Which of the following printingtechniques should you use to subduefacial blemishes;?

1. Dodging2. Burning in3. Diffusing4. Vignetting

9-54. A negative you are printing hasobjectional grain structure. Whichof the following techniques shouldyou use to minimize this affect tothe greatest extent?

1. Use a diffusion enlarger andglossy paper

2. Use a diffusion enlarger withmatte-surfaced paper

3. Use a condenser enlarger andglossy paper

4. Use a condenser enlarger withmatte-surfaced paper

9-55. In which of the followingcircumstances might you beconcerned with depth of fieldwhen making enlargements?

9-56.

9-57.

9-58.

9-59.

1. When using dodging techniques2. When using variable contrast

papers3. When printing a 35mm negative

of a tall building4. When the negative image shows

shallow depth of field

Learning Objective: Recognizebasic principles used in colorprinting.

What is the resulting color whenblue is removed from white light?

1. Yellow2. Green3. Red4. Magenta

What are the colors of the additiveprimaries?

1. White, gray, and black2. Cyan, magenta, and yellow3. Red, green, and yellow4. Red, green, and blue

What are the colors of the additivesecondaries and the subtractiveprimaries?

1. Red, green, and blue2. Cyan, magenta, and yellow3. Red, green, and yellow4. White, gray, and black

The middle emulsion layer ofcolor paper is sensitive to whatcolor(s)?

1. Yellow2. Red3. Green4. Each of the above

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COLOR

1. Green

2. Blue

3. Red

4. Orange

Figure 9A

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 9-60 THROUGH 9-62,REFER TO FIGURE 9A AND SELECT THE COLORTHAT RESULTS BY MIXING THE COLORS USED ASTHE QUESTION.

9-60. Magenta and yellow:

1. 12. 23. 34. 4

9-61. Cyan and yellow:

1. 12. 23. 34. 4

9-62. Magenta and cyan:

1. 12. 23. 34. 4

9-63. What filter is used to remove 1. Highlightsultraviolet radiation emitted 2. Shadowsby the light source of a color 3. Bordersenlarger? 4. Middle tones

1. CC red 9-68. The gray area in a color print has2. CP yellow a red cast to it. Therefore, the3. IR7 light used to expose the print was4. CP2B deficient in what color?

9-64. A color enlarger lamp is designedto operate on 115 volts but is onlyreceiving 95 volts. The colorchange of the output of the lamp isequivalent to what No. CC filter?

1. 052. 103. 154. 20

9-65. During exposure, the color paperreceived an excessive amount ofgreen light. The processed printhas what color cast?

1. Green2. Magenta3. Cyan4. Yellow

9-66. When you are evaluating a colortest print, the viewing lightsource should produce (a) whatKelvin temperature at (b) whatnumber of footcandles ofilluminance, and (c) what shouldthe CRI be?

1. (a) 3950 (b) 55 (c) 902. (a) 4000 (b) 195 (c) 1303. (a) 5000 (b) 100 (c) 954. (a) 5400 (b) 130 (c) 100

9-67. You are using color printingviewing filters to determine thecolor balance of a test print.On what areas of the print shouldyou base your judgment?

1. Yellow2. Red3. Cyan4. Blue

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9-69.

9-70.

9-71.

9-72.

A color test print has a yellowcolor cast. Using a subtractivetype of printer, you should makewhat modification to the filterpack?

1. Subtract yellow only2. Add yellow only3. Add blue only4. Add magenta and cyan

Your calculated color printingfilter pack is CC10Y + CC15M +CC05C. What should the actualfilter pack be for the reprint?

1. CC15Y + CC25M only2. CC15Y + CC25M + CC10C3. CC05Y + CC15M only4. CC05Y + CC15M +CC05C

A color test print has a blue colorcast. Using an additive type ofprinter, you should make which ofthe following adjustments?

1. Add blue2. Subtract blue3. Add yellow4. Either 2 or 3 above

What is the purpose of a standardnegative?

1. It is used as a comparisonof negative printing qualities

2. It serves as a tool to comparethe printing characteristicsof different emulsions

3. It can be used to programcolor analyzers and automatedprinters

4. Each of the above

9-73 . You took portraits of four sailors.Each sailor had distinctlydifferent skin tones; however,after the negatives were printed,all the skin tones were depictedalike. What is the most probablecause of error?

1. A skin tone was used fornegative evaluation

2. The studio lights were thewrong Kelvin temperature

3. The same portrait lights wereused to photograph all foursailors

4. The characteristics of thenegative-positive system aresuch that all skin tones arereproduced alike

9-74. You are processing color printsusing the RA-4 process. What isthe approximate total processingtime in minutes?

1. 2 3/42. 4 1/23. 8 1/44. 12

9-75. Which of the following charac-teristics apply to a minilabsystem?

1. It requires maintenance2. It is capable of producing

a high volume of prints3. It is operated under normal

lighting conditions4. Each of the above

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ASSIGNMENT 10

Textbook Assignment: "Motion Media," and "Job Control and Photographic Finishing." Pages13-1 through 14-13.

Learning Objective: Identifybasic principles of motion-picture photography.

10-1. What is the normal frames-per-second rate for motion pictures?

1. 122. 243. 484. 96

10-2. What characteristic of humanvision contributes to the illusionof motion in motion-picturephotography?

1. Persistence of vision2. Image perception3. Chromatic stimulation4. Visual frequency response

10-3. With normal persistence of vision,the "after image" lasts approxi-mately what length of time?

1. 1/22. 1/43. 1/104. 1/50

10-4. Each picture area on a strip ofmotion-picture film is referredto by what term?

1. Cut2. Shot3. Frame4. Clip

10-5. What is the standard projectionspeed for a motion-picture film?

1. 8 fps2. 16 fps3. 24 fps4. 36 fps

10-6. A motion-picture film shot atwhich of the following fps ratesproduces the illusion of slowmotion?

1. 6 fps2. 12 fps3. 24 fps4. 48 fps

10-7. What is the normal focal-lengthlens for a 16mm camera?

1. 50mm2. 35mm3. 25mm4. 16mm

10-8. What is the result when a motion-picture camera is panned with apolarizing filter over the lens?

1. Variable darkening of thesky as the camera is panned

2. The polarizing grids causethe image to flicker

3. Excessive sky contrast resultsfrom the inability of thefilter to rotate at the samerate as the camera is panned

4. Interference lines caused bythe polarizing grids and theframe lines being out ofsynchronization

10-9. Which of the following is NOTan exposure controlling factorin motion-picture photography?

1. Film speed2. Shutter speed3. f/stop4. Lens filter

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10-10. A motion-picture camera operat-ing at the standard speed witha shutter degree opening of168 degrees has what approximateshutter speed?

1. 1/500 second2. 1/250 second3. 1/100 second4. 1/50 second

Learning Objective: Recognizebasic principles of motion video.

10-11. Motion video has which of thefollowing advantages over motion-picture photography?

1. Film processing is notrequired

2. It is edited more quickly3. Videotape is easily duplicated4. Each of the above

10-12. In a color video camera, whatdevice separates white lightinto the three primary colors?

1. The color separator2. The beam splitter3. The automatic gain control4. The frequency generator

10-13. What is the aspect ratio ofa motion-video frame?

1. 2:12. 2:33. 3:44. 3:5

10-14. What term describes unwantedsounds or electrical interferencein an audio or video signal?

1. Dropout2. Capstan3. Dub4. Noise

10-15. What term depicts the smallestsingle picture element from whichan image is constructed?

1. Frame2. Field3. Pixel4. Composite

10-16. In a composite video signal,what does "Y" represent?

1. Yellow2. Luminance3. Color4. Sound

10-17. What is/are the main cause(s)of dropout?

1. Poor microphone connection2. Dirty heads3. Imperfections in the tape4. Both 2 and 3 above

10-18. What component in a video cameraserves the same purpose as filmin a motion-picture camera?

1. The cathode-ray tube2. The charged-coupled

imaging device3. The beam splitter4. The character generator

10-19. One complete television image iscomposed of what number of fields?

1. One2. Two3. Three4. Four

10-20. A complete charge-forming-and-scanning process within amotion-video camera occurs whatnumber of times per second?

1. 102. 203. 304. 60

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10-21. Information from what section ofa videotape allows the tape to beplayed on different but similartypes of video players?

1. Control track2. Video monitor3. Video synchronizer4. Helical control

10-22. The Hi8 system is completelycompatible with all otherrecording systems.

1. True2. False

Learning Objective: Identifyguidelines used when shootingmotion-picture photography.

10-23. You recorded a scene on acamcorder and the image appearsgrainy and flat. This appearanceprobably occurred due to which ofthe following causes?

1. A high-speed videotape wasused

2. The scene brightness levelwas too high

3. The scene brightness levelwas too low

4. The gain was accidentlyincreased during recording

10-24. In which of the followingsituations should you manuallyfocus a camcorder while recordinga scene?

1. When the subject is extremelybacklit

2. When the scene containslittle contrast

3. When moving objects passbetween the camera andthe subject

4. Each of the above

10-25. Which of the following focal-length lenses should you use whileshooting a motion-media scene froma moving boat?

1. 15mm2. 25mm3. 50mm4. 75mm

10-26. What is the first rule of panningwith a motion-media camera?

1. Pan from left to right2. Pan only when using a fast

shutter speed3. Pan only when necessary4. Pan with a short focal-length

lens

10-27. Primary movement refers to thevisual effect of motion that iscreated by what source?

1. Single camera2. Multiple cameras3. Computer graphics4. The subject

10-28. What motion-media shot is used totell where the action takes place?

1. ELS2. LS3. MS4. CU

10-29. What motion-media shot is used totell what action is taking place?

1. ELS2. LS3. MS4. CU

10-30. What motion-media shot is used topresent only action of primaryinterest?

1. ELS2. LS3. MS4. CU

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10-31. You made several shots of asubject using different cameraangles. However, in one shot thebackground appears much differentand looks as though it was shot ina different location. What ruleof videography did you violate?

1. Action match2. Shot variety3. Continuity4. Sequential shooting

10-32. The subject of a video is shownmoving directly toward the viewer.What type of screen direction isportrayed?

1. Forward2. Neutral3. Head on4. Nondirectional

10-33. What type of shot is made when thevideo camera is moved to follow asubject creating neutral screendirection?

1. Traveling abreast2. Constant screen direction3. Tracking4. Direction of travel

10-34. You are videotaping a baseballgame. During the game, you shotseveral scenes of a boy eating ahot dog. This is what type ofshot?

1. Reestablishing2. Establishing3. Cutaway4. Cut in

10-35. You are videotaping a soccer game.During the game, one of theplayers kicks the ball into theface of the referee. Duringhalftime, you shoot a reenactmentof the event. This is what typeof shot?

10-36. As a Navy Photographer’s Mate, youcan expect most of your motion-media work to be of theuncontrolled-action type.

1. True2. False

10-37. What is the purpose of slatingvideotape?

1. To identify the film2. To ensure the camera is

operating at the proper speed3. To take up slack in the

cassette4. To color balance the camera on

a neutral-gray colored object

10-38. A slate should be recorded forwhat minimum number of seconds?

1. 302. 203. 34. 10

10-39. What form must accompany all mediaproducts forwarded to a Still andMotion-Media Records Center?

10-40.

1. Video/film data sheet2. Visual information caption

sheet3. Photographic job order4. NAVAIR form 12700

Videotapes should be storedin what manner?

1. Upright only2. Horizontally but not

more than five high3. Horizontally but not

more than ten high4. It makes no difference

since videotapes areextremely durable

1. Reestablishing2. Establishing3. Cutaway4. Cut in

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10-41.

10-42.

Security-related informationpertaining to the Navy iscontained in what instruction?

1. OPNAVINST 5290.12. OPNAVINST 5510.13. SECNAVINST 3150.64. SECNAVINST 5212.5

Only those Photographer's Mateswith a security clearance areresponsible for safeguardingclassified material.

1. True2. False

10-43. Security classifications arecategorized in what number ofdesignations?

1. One2. Two3. Three4. Four

10-44. What is the highest securityclassification?

1. Cryptographic2. Cosmic3. Exclusion4. Top Secret

10-45. At a Las Vegas hotel, you shotseveral rolls of film aboutsailors conducting themselves inactions that are unbecoming.These photographs could bedetrimental to their careers andcause them much embarrassment.What classification, if any,should these photographs bear?

1. Secret2. Confidential3. For Official Use Only4. None

Learning Objective: Recognizesecurity procedures used in Navyimaging facilities.

10-46. A roll of film that containsimages of classified informationshould be marked in what manner?

1. On the emulsion side beneatheach frame

2. On the emulsion side at thebeginning and end of the roll

3. On the base side beneath eachframe

4. On the base side at thebeginning and end of the roll

10-47. Classified 8x10-inch prints shouldbe marked with the appropriateclassification in what number ofplaces?

1. One2. Two3. Three4. Four

10-48. A classified videotape should bemarked appropriately in whatlocation(s)?

1. At the beginning of thevideotape only

2. At the end of the videotapeonly

3. On the tape case only4. At the beginning and end of

the videotape as well as onthe tape case

10-49. As a Photographer's Mate, you mustprotect classified material bywhat means?

1. Censorship and transmission2. Cryptographic and transmission3. Censorship and physical4. Physical and cryptographic

10-50. A record of destruction of TopSecret material must be retainedfor what number of years?

1. 12. 23. 34. 4

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10-51. What type of security arearequires the strictest accesscontrol?

1. Restricted2. Controlled3. Limited4. Exclusion

10-52. What person is directlyresponsible for safeguardingclassified material in an imagingfacility?

1. The division officer2. The department head3. The commanding officer4. The security manager

10-53. Which of the following itemsshould NOT be stored in aclass A vault?

1. Top Secret2. Secret3. Confidential4. Imprest funds

10-54. The combination to a safe used tostore classified material must bechanged at an interval not toexceed what period of time?

1. 1 year2. 6 months3. 3 months4. 1 month

10-55. Which of the following combina-tions should NOT be used for asafe containing classifiedmaterial?

1. 6-37-502. 5-10-153. 22-47-94. 2-53-12

10-56. When a safe is taken out ofservice, it should be reset towhat combination?

Learning Objective: Recognizeadministrative procedures usedin Navy imaging facilities.

10-57. Navy imaging administrative andoperating procedures are containedin what instruction?

1. OPNAVINST 5290.12. NAVEDTRA 130143. SECNAVINST 3150.64. NAVAIRSYSCOMINST 10700.2

10-58. The job order number in the joborder log should be reset annuallyto 000001 on what date?

1. 1 January2. 1 April3. 1 August4. 1 October

10-59. The job order form serves whatpurpose?

1. As a customer receipt2. As an authority to perform

work3. As a record of expenditures4. Each of the above

10-60. A color negative is identifiedby what VIRIN code?

1. SCN2. VPS3. CLN4. CLR

10-61. You are preparing the VIRIN for anunclassified, color slide that wasshot on 10OCT93. Which of thefollowing examples is appropriatefor the slide?

1. N0341-SPT-93-0000202. N0341-SPT-94-0000203. N0341-SPT-93-000020-UC4. N0341-SCS-94-000020

1. 50-25-502. 25-50-253. 10-20-304. 5-10-15

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10-62.

10-63.

10-64.

10-65.

The VIRIN of a videotape cassetteshould be recorded at thebeginning of the tape for aminimum of what viewing time, inseconds?

1. 52. 103. 154. 30

All Navy imaging productsforwarded to a Visual InformationRecords Center for preacces-sioning must be accompanied bywhat form?

1. DD Form 107002. DD Form 25373. DD Form 13484. OPNAV 5290/1

Learning Objective: Identifymethods used to mount prints.

Normally, prints are mounted inwhich of the following ways?

1. With all borders equal2. With the top border being

the widest3. With the bottom border

being the widest4. With a mounting board that

has loud, contrasting color

Which of the following adhesivesshould you use to mount photo-graphic prints on a mountingboard?

1. Rubber cement2. Gum arabic3. Paste4. Glue

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