phylogenetic and phytochemical characteristics ch5 klein

8/13/2019 Phylogenetic and Phytochemical Characteristics Ch5 KLEIN

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CHAPTER 5

PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF ETHNOBOTANICAL LITERATURE

Introduction

Many traditional medicine remedies are employed specifically for fatigue, loss of memory and

rejuvenationall symptoms of the results of an inability to adapt to allostatic load. Most of these remedies

come from plants, but other natural substances also include deer antlers (Bensky and Gamble, 1986; Hsu,

1986), gems (Ahmad et al., 1998), insects (Costa-Neto, 2002), and fungi such as Ganoderma lucidum

(Shiao, 2003) and caterpillar fungi, Cordyceps sinensis(Koh et al., 2003).

Accounts that have characteristics familiar to adaptogenic effects are especially interesting and could

lead to potential adaptogenic species such as these below:

Dr. Pushpangadan discovered the properties of Trichopus zeylanicusby accident. On a scientific

expedition to the Agasthiar Hills in the Western Ghats in December 1987, he noticed that his

guides, belonging to the Kani tribe, were very energetic in sharp contrast to the scientists. They

had walked for several hours with the scientists the difference was that they ate the fruits of awild plant (Trichopus zeylanicus) as they walked. Dr. Pushpangadan found from the tribesmen

that it was indeed the fruits they were eating that made them energetic, a fact about the plant well

known to the tribe for ages (Krishnakumar and Katakam, 2002).

The Goldi hunters regarded the berries of Schizandra as a valuable means of strengthening

themselves; they reported (1895) taking the dried berries instead of other provisions on their sable

hunts; a handful of berries furnished enough strength to hunt sable all day (Komarov, 1937).

Methods

Ethnobotany and ethnomedicine has been successful in providing leads to drug research (Etkin, 2001).

To test whether adaptogenic species could be specifically located in the ethnobotanical literature using

search terms that were applied in this thesis a limited survey was undertaken. For this survey, I used five

main descriptions to characterize remedies relating to stress adaptation or dysfunctioning of the HPA axis

(see legend in Table 3). The parameters chosen may be considered too subjective, increasing the risk ofproducing false positives, or these parameters may be considered too limited, potentially missing valid

adaptogenic species. Rejuvenating, anabolic, and antidepressant properties could be hidden within other

remedies such as those for infectious or chronic disease. Future investigations could use broader

descriptions but would still require strict parameters and ultimately application of bioactive and chemical

studies for final differentiation. Most species in Table 3 are not sufficiently chemically described and none

have been included in human clinical trials. Therefore, this sampling can only provide potential leads for

further research, not assurance of an adaptogenic action.Sampling of the literature was limited to the Journal of Ethnopharmacology (Elsevier, 1997-2003), as

well as some books and reports, including Black Hills National Forest Preliminary Report on the

Medicinal Plants of the Black Hills Area of South Dakota (Byrnes, 2003), Thompson Ethnobotany:

Knowledge and Usage of Plants by the Thompson Indians of British Columbia (Turner et al., 1990),

Medicinal Wild Plants of the Prairie: An Ethnobotanical Guide (Kindscher, 1992), NorthAmerican

Ethnobotany (Moerman, 1998), and Medicinal Plants of the Pacific Northwest: A Digest ofAnthropological Writings about Native American Uses (Thie, 1999).

It should be noted that some of the taxa located in this ethnobotanical survey were also included in the

list of 183 plant species investigated (see Appendix A) because they seemed particularly intriguing in their

bioactive descriptions. These species were thus included in an extended search of the literature with others

found outside the ethnobotanical literature. Those remaining were not applied to further search efforts due

to either familiarity with the species (e.g., Ginkgo biloba) as being unlikely candidates, or unfamiliarity and

rare mention in any other published papers. Thus, decisions were biased, but made due to brevity and the

narrow purposes of the survey. Some species located in the ethnobotanical literature were subsequently

supported by enough evidence of adaptogenic activity to be included in the phylogenetic analysis in this

thesis. These species are bolded in Table 3.


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Results

The preliminary survey of ethnobotanical reports published between 1990 and 2003 resulted in 78

potential plant adaptogen species belonging to 50 plant families (see Table 3). Sixty-five species in 37

plant families are not those found in the phylogenetic analysis in Chapter 8. The families represented in

Table 3 are: Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Araliaceae, Arecaceae, Asteraceae, Basellaceae,

Bombacaceae, Boraginaceae, Brassicaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Celastraceae, Clusiaceae, Combretaceae,

Commelinaceae, Connaraceae, Convolvulaceae, Crassulaceae, Cyperaceae, Dioscoraceae, Dryopteridaceae,

Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Flagellariaceae, Ginkgoaceae, Hippocrateaceae, Lamiaceae, Lauraceae,

Liliaceae, Linaceae, Loranthaceae, Malpighiaceae, Malvaceae, Melastomataceae, Menispermaceae,

Myrsinaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Oleaceae, Pandanaceae, Poaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae,

Selaginellaceae, Schizaeaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Solanaceae, Thymelaeaceae, Tiliaceae, and Vitaceae.

Search terms resulting in the identification of most species related to the following actions: restorative,

rejuvenator, exhaustion, fatigue, enhancement of stamina, physical perfomance, promotes longevity, health

or well-being, debilitated, or degenerative conditions. Collection of the most species, however, does notnecessarily correlate to successful identification of adaptogens. These taxa first require in vitroor in vivo

testing and perhaps analysis of chemical constituents in comparison with constituents found in adaptogen

species. This survey suggests that these terms can result in many new lead species and that theethnobotanical literature contains potential new leads for adaptogenic species.

North American Ethnobotany Aspects

The results of the ethnobotanical survey shows a lack of taxa representing NorthAmerican indigenous cultures. A review of Turner et al. (1990), Kindscher (1992),

Moerman (1998), and Thie (1999), uncovered very little recognition of effects producedby adaptogens. Moerman (1998) suggests terms which could be related to stress

adaptation such as blood medicine, ceremonial medicine, heart medicine, love medicine,

panacea, preventative medicine, strengthener, tonic, witchcraft medicine, and protection.Yet, upon closer investigation it is difficult to ascertain either enhancement of the HPAaxis, increase in resistance to stress, nor a remedying of conditions resulting from

dysfunction of stress mediators (neurotransmitters and hormones). Moerman may haveinadvertently re-produced an artifact of the strengthening remedies. For instance,

Hawaiian tribes were the source of the more than 50 out of 65 strengthener remedies.These herbs were employed in a variety of ways such as placing the ashes of the plant in

an infants mouth, eating the fruit, chewing or drinking the tea. It seems unusual that theterm strengthening would only apply to these tribes. Native American tribes

commonly employed herbal baths to toughen an infant, child or adult. Many of theseherbs turned out to be vesicants or have powerful stimulating effects, nullifying their use

as adaptogens. The use of the stem ofDirca palustris(Thymelaeaceae) as an aphrodisiacand a strengthener by the Iroquois (Moerman, 1998). The tribe also employed this herb

to induce pregnancy and as a strong purgative. Further investigation revealed that thefresh bark is a vesicant and ingestion causes severe vomiting (Ramsewak et al., 2001).

Thus, this species does not meet the definition of adaptogen because it is not innocuous.


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Table 3. Potential adaptogens identified in ethnobotanical literature.

Species Family AB AD AS NO RS Reference

Abutilon indicum(L.) Sweet Malvaceae X Singh et al., 2002

Aegle marmelos(L.) Corra Rutaceae X Cheeptham and Towers, 2002Agelaea pentagyna (Lam.) Baill. Connaraceae X Novy, 1997

Albizzia lebbeck(L.) Benth. Fabaceae X Chintawar et al., 2002Amaranthus paniculatusL. Amaranthaceae X X Bhatia and Jain, 2003

Anacylus pyrethrum(L.) Lag Asteraceae X Lev and Amar, 2000

Anastatica hierochunticaL. Brassicaceae X Yoshikawa et al., 2003

Andrographis paniculata(Burm. F.) Nees Acanthaceae X Puri et al., 2000

Aquilaria agallochaRoxb. Thymelaeaceae X X Lev and Amar, 2000

Aralia mandshuricaRupr. & Maxim. Araliaceae X X Baranov, 1982

Aralia nudicaulisL. Araliaceae X Marles et al., 2000Aralia schmidtiiPojark Araliaceae X X Baranov, 1982

Asparagus adscendensRoxb. Liliaceae X Shinwari and Khan, 2000

Astragalus membranaceusMoench Fabaceae X Toda et al., 1999

Bacopa monniera(L.) Wettst. Scrophulariaceae X Vohora et al., 2000

Scrophulariaceae X X Sumathi et al. 2002Basella albaL. Basellaceae X Moundipa et al., 1999

Boerhavia diffusaL. Nyctaginaceae X Mungantiwar et al., 1999Bowdichia virgilioidesKunth. Fabaceae X Bourdy et al., 2000

Burasaia madagascariensisDC. Menispermaceae X Novy, 1997Cavanillesiasp. Ruiz & Pav. Bombacaceae X Bourdy et al., 2000

Cassia occidentalisL. Fabaceae X Novy, 1997

Cassia siameaLam. Fabaceae X Cheeptham and Towers, 2002Celastrus paniculataWilld. Celastraceae X Nalini et al., 1995

Centella asiatica(L.) Urb. Apiaceae X Babu et al., 1995;

X Zainol et al., 2003

X Kumar and Gupta, 2002Cinnamomum zeylanicumBlume Lauraceae X Cheeptham and Towers, 2002

Commelina madagascaricaC.B. Clarke Commelinaceae X Novy, 1997Conocarpus erectaL. Combretaceae X Roth and Lindorf, 2002

Convolvulus prostratusForssk. Convolvulaceae X Singh et al., 2002

Corchorus depressus(L.) C. Chr. Tiliaceae X Singh et al., 2002Dendropanax arboreus(L.) Decne. & Planch. Araliaceae X Bourdy et al., 2000


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Eleutherococcus senticosus(Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim. Araliaceae X X X X Baranov, 1982Eryngium yuccifoliumMichx. Apiaceae X Kindscher, 1992

Euphorbia hirtaL. Euphorbiaceae X Novy, 1997

Euterpe precatoriaMart. Arecaceae X Bourdy et al., 2000

Evolvulus alsinoides(L.) L. Convolvulaceae X Singh et al., 2002

Flagellaria indicaL. Flagellariaceae X Novy, 1997Galipea longifloraK. Krause Rutaceae X Bourdy et al., 2000

Ginkgo bilobaL. Ginkgoaceae X X Cheeptham and Towers, 2002

Heteropterys aphrodisiaca O. Mach. Malpighiaceae X Galvao et al., 2002

Hugonia castanea Baill. Linaceae X Novy, 1997

Hymenaea courbarilL. Fabaceae X Roth and Lindorf, 2002

Hypericum perforatum L. Clusiaceae X Khalifa, 2001

Jasminum fruticans L. Oleaceae X Said et al., 2002

Kyllinga brevifoliaRottb. Cyperaceae X X Hellion-Ibarrola et al., 1999

Lepidium meyeniiWalp. Brassicaceae X X Cicero et al., 2001Lygodium lanceolatum Desv. Schizaeaceae X Novy, 1997

Maesa lanceolataForssk. Myrsinaceae X Novy, 1997

Matteuccia struthiopteris(L.) Tod. Dryopteridaceae X Marles et al., 2000

Mauritia flexuosaL. f. Arecaceae X Roth and Lindorf, 2002

Mimosa pudicaL. Fabaceae X Novy, 1997

Morinda citrifoliaL. Rubiaceae X Cheeptham and Towers, 2002

Myosotissp. L. Boraginaceae X De Feo, 2003

Ocimum canumSims Lamiaceae X Lev and Amar., 2000Ocimumsp. L. Lamiaceae X Bourdy et al., 2000

Ocimum sanctumL. Lamiaceae X Archana and Namasivayam, 2000; X Medirrata et al., 2002

Oplopanax elatus(Nakai) Nakai Araliaceae X X X Baranov, 1982Ormosiasp. Jacks. Fabaceae X Bourdy et al., 2000

Paeonia mascula (L.) Mill. Ranunculaceae X Lev and Amar., 2000

Panax ginsengC. A. Mey Araliaceae X X X X Baranov, 1982 Lee et al., 2003

Panax notoginseng(Burkill) F.H. Chen ex C.H. Chow Araliaceae X X Cicero et al., 2000

Pandanus amaryllifoliusRoxb. Pandanaceae X Cheeptham and Towers, 2002

Pfaffia glomerata(Sprengel) Pedersen Amaranthaceae X de Paris et al., 2000

Rhodiola sachalinensisBoriss. Crassulaceae X X X Seo et al., 2001


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Rhodiola sacra(Prain ex Raym.-Hamet) S.H. Fu Crassulaceae X X Ohsugi et al., 1999Ruellia californica(Rose) I.M. Johnst. Acanthaceae X Felger and Moser, 1985

Salacia impressifolia(Miers) A.C. Sm. Hippocrateaceae X Bourdy et al., 2000

Selaginella bryopteris(L.) Bak Selaginellaceae X Singh et al., 2002Senecio ericaefoliusBenth. Asteraceae X De Feo, 2003

Spilanthes acmella(L.) Murray Asteraceae X Novy, 1997Stenotaphrum dimidiatum(L.) Brongn. Poaceae X Novy, 1997

Struthanthus haenkeanus(Presl) Standl. Loranthaceae X Felger and Moser, 1985T. longifolia(genus not given) (family not given) X De Feo, 2003

Tephrosia virginiana(L.) Pers. Fabaceae X Kindscher, 1992

Tinospora cordifolia(Willd.) Miers Menispermaceae X Singh et al., 2002Trichopus zeylandicusGaertn. Dioscoraceae X X Subramoniam et al., 1999Trigonella foenum-graecumL. Fabaceae X X Miraldi et al., 2001Vitis viniferaL. Vitaceae X Paul et al., 1999

Withania somnifera(L.) Dunal Solanaceae X X Archana et al., 1999 X X X Dhuley, 2000

X X Agarwal et al., 1999

Acronym definitions:

AB anabolic; increases synthesis of RNA and proteins; builds muscle tissue; antianorectic

AD relieves depression, anxiety, and insomnia

AS antistress, non-specific immune defense, adaptogen, nerve tonic, improve stress resistance

NO nootropic; brain tonic; enhances memory, learning and concentration,

RS restorative/rejuvenator; exhaustion/fatigue; enhances stamina and physical performance; promotes longevity, health or well-being; debilitated and

degenerative conditions


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The Kayenta Navaho in Southwestern United States used Frasera speciosa for alarm and

nervousness, as a life medicine, to clear the mind if lost and rubbed the infusion on hunters to

strengthen them (Moerman, 1998). Frasera speciosa is closely related to Gentiana lutea, an extremely

bitter herb used for dyspepsia and other digestive problems. Fraserais also very bitter and currently used

by modern herbalists as a digestive tonic for the elderly who often have slowed or congested digestion due

to a diet lacking fiber and insufficient exercise (Moore, 1979). The strong digestive effects of this herb,

along with a listing of constituent properties would not likely support an adaptogenic action for Frasera.

However, adaptogenic remedies are commonly used by elders in traditional cultures, and additionally,

recent scientific investigations show that the stress system may be interrelated with the gastric mucosa via

neural connections (Genton and Kudsk, 2003; Masood, 2003). In fact, it is taught among modern herbalists

today that the nervous system can be accessed through stimulation of the digestive system (Weiss, 1988;

Mills and Bone, 2000). Thus, it is possible that digestive tonics provide a secondary support to the stress

response system.

A common finding in the ethnobotanical literature that suggests an adaptogenic effect is for the

treatment of debility. This term appears to be associated with fever and was commonly applied to

conventional and irregular medicine in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the same time period of some

ethnobotanical publications upon which recent bibliographic reviews are based. The term debility is an

archaic term no longer used in conventional medicine nor in modern herbal medicine. Whether it really

confers the meaning of stress response dysfunction or relates to the effect of increasing resistance to stress

is unclear, but potentially useful.

The practice of smudging (burning) with Artemesia ludoviciana and other aromatic plants high interpenoid compounds were commonly used during afflictions to drive away bad spirits by Plains Indian

tribes (Moerman, 1998). There may be a scientific explanation such as inhibition of viral and bacterial

particles on contact with the smoke. This explanation would not describe an adaptogenic effect, however,

bad spirit could easily relate to amelioration of psychological stress factors involved in dysfunctional

stress adaptation.

It is possible that the literature has simply missed recording of adaptogenic remedies by Native

American tribes because of interviewer bias. A lack of appreciation of traditional therapeutic models either

through unfamiliarity or because the model was antithetical to the conventional medical and

pharmacological paradigm, could have caused a bias in reporting. Additionally, interviewers may have

been unfamiliar with medical conditions caused by dysfunction of stress adaptation systems. The

interviewer may have neglected crucial questions, did not understand responses, or even mistranslated clues

to adaptogenic remedies using instead terms that they themselves understood, but which were incorrect

(Moerman, 1998). It may be that crucial information has been lost to obscurity or held in confidencebecause of an association with sacred or magical use (Kindscher, 1992; Marles et al., 2000). Certainly,

indigenous tribes of North America experienced allostatic overload in response to diseases such as measles,

mumps and smallpox. Potential adaptogenic plant species could be found among remedies used to treat

these serious diseases. Such activity could also be hidden in the term tonic which is commonly used in

North American ethnobotanical reports.

Ethnobotanical reports are not likely to be good predictors for adaptogens found in North America.

Possible factors affecting this phenomena are explored further in Chapter 8 in the discussion of

phytogeography.

SUMMARY

A limited survey of the ethnobotanical literature resulted in two main findings. The search terms asdelinated in Table 3 did result in many new potential adaptogen plant species and plant families. The

second finding was that the ethnobotanical literature is of limited use and should not be relied upon solely

as a source for new leads for adaptogen activity in plant species, particularly for North America.

Robyn Klein 2006 www.rrreading.comPhylogenetic and phytochemical characteristics of plant species with adaptogenic properties

MS Thesis, 2004, Montana State University

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phylogenetic and phytochemical characteristics ch5 klein

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