physical activities for prevention and health promotion · 2019. 6. 10. · physical activity is a...
TRANSCRIPT
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Physical Activities for Preventionand Health Promotion
Print version
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Created in cooperation with the MU E-Learning Service Centre
Faculty of Informatics, Masaryk University, Brno 2017–2019
Published on the MU E-Learning Portal (http://elportal.cz/)
© 2019 Masaryk University
http://elportal.cz/
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Table of contents Table of contents ..................................................................................................................................... 3
The role of physical activity in people’s lives .......................................................................................... 5
Motor skills and physical activity in individual life stages ....................................................................... 7
Health promoting physical activities ..................................................................................................... 10
Health-oriented fitness – one of the indicators of physical health ....................................................... 12
Muscle fitness .................................................................................................................................... 12
Aerobic fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness) ........................................................................................ 16
Body composition .............................................................................................................................. 19
Testing health-oriented fitness ......................................................................................................... 28
Physical activities for prevention and health promotion – summary ................................................... 30
Physical activities in the gym and on the sports ground ....................................................................... 33
Physical education and free-time activities ...................................................................................... 33
Compensation exercise ..................................................................................................................... 34
Fitness training using aids ................................................................................................................. 36
Physical activities in water environments ............................................................................................. 41
Swimming and games for babies and toddlers ................................................................................. 41
Swimming and games for pre-school and school children................................................................ 42
Swimming and aquafitness in adulthood and old age ...................................................................... 42
Physical activities in natural environments ........................................................................................... 44
Hiking, cycling and water sports ........................................................................................................ 44
References ............................................................................................................................................. 45
Printed resources .............................................................................................................................. 45
Internet resources ............................................................................................................................. 46
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The role of physical activity in people’s
lives
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The role of physical activity in
people’s lives Physical activity is a basic physiological need of both children and adults. Even though we do not
perceive a lack of physical activity as intensively as we perceive a lack of food or liquids (hunger, thirst),
physical activity is indispensable for the right development and functioning of human organs.
From birth a child’s muscular system develops thanks to natural movement (crawling, climbing etc.)
thus building the muscle corset which is necessary for the correct development of the skeleton and
good body posture in different natural positions: sitting, standing, walking, running, etc. Body
movement enhances the functioning of internal organs and accompanies almost every mental activity
of a child.
The amount of physical activities in pre-schoolers often takes up several hours a day. Yet according to
the recommendations of many authors including American sources (e.g. NASPE), the minimal
requirement regarding spontaneous physical activity is merely 60 minutes a day, which we consider as
insufficient. However, experts recommend supplementing spontaneous physical activities with
directed ones, lasting at least 60 minutes.
Following the beginning of compulsory school attendance, children’s spontaneous activity quickly
disappears and a sedentary way of life starts to prevail: sitting at the school desk, over their homework,
in front of the television, at the computer, on different means of transport, etc. This excessively lowers
the physical strain on the organism, weakens the muscle apparatus and worsens the child’s overall
physical fitness. The lack of physical activity leads, apart from other things, to muscle imbalance, which
at the beginning shows itself in a slouched body posture causing progressive development of
orthopaedic problems later. Such weakening is currently a serious health problem in primary school
children, and, according to the latest research, it concerns 50% of the child population.
The absence of aerobic strain (i.e. a longer lasting strain on big muscle groups) contributes to the
development of cardiovascular, respiratory as well as endocrine diseases and adds to being overweight
and obesity, i.e. it negatively affects body composition.
Therefore physical activity is an essential part of human life and an investment for the future for both
children and adults. It is not necessary to assign excessive importance to the level of physical
performance or achieved sports results. We should rather focus on the development of positive
attitudes and interest children take in physical activity, which should result in lifelong physical activity
as part of their healthy lifestyle. To achieve this we need to understand the basic requirements
regarding the physical strain on a human organism and comprehend the significance of health-oriented
fitness. To make this concept clear for teachers who do not have specialised instruction in physical
education, the following text presents some examples relevant to both children and adults.
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Motor skills and physical activity
in individual life stages
In every life stage a person is able to use their
motor skills and abilities in different ways. Also,
motor skills manifest themselves in each life
stage differently. At a young age, there is a
growth in the development of gross and fine
motor skills, whereas later in adulthood the skills
stagnate and in old age the motor skills capacity
decreases. The choice of particular physical
activities corresponds to individual stages of
human life.
Neonatal stage In the neonatal stage (0 – 1 month), the baby needs to adapt to life outside the mother’s body. It
interacts with the environment through reflexes and innate behaviour modes. All activities aim at
meeting its biological needs. Given an adequate number of stimuli, auditory, visual and kinaesthetic
perception develops (differentiation of various sound stimuli, distinction of shapes within 20 – 30cm
distance, perception of touches, temperature, changes of position). Movements occur unintentionally.
Infancy In infancy (from 1 month to 1 year) individual differences in the development, behaviour and
perceptions of each baby can be observed. Motor skills development is closely related to the child’s
general development – the competences develop in the cephalocaudal direction, i.e. from the head
towards the lower limbs, and in the proximodistal direction, i.e. from big movements of the whole limb
to more subtle movements of its extremities. The child usually lifts their head in the first month, sits
up approximately in the sixth month and in the period between 9 – 12 months attempts their first
independent locomotion (crawling, later followed by the first steps). Thanks to the changing position
of the head followed by the upright position of the body, the child’s visual and auditory perception
becomes easier and the interplay of motor and cognitive processes brings about not only further
cognitive development, but also improved manipulation with objects.
Toddler years In the toddler years (1 – 3 years) the child becomes more independent, is very active and their whole
personality develops (depending on individual dispositions). The child finds physical activities
interesting on their own, tests their physical limits and gains new physical skills which are subsequently
repeated, practised and improved. Thanks to independent locomotion (crawling, walking, running,
overcoming obstacles, etc.), the toddler can reach further into the broader surroundings and find their
way round, which motivates them to engage in other physical activities. Movements which at the
beginning are imprecise gradually gain in precision, the child becomes more confident and attempts
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more complex physical tasks. If the child does not have enough stimuli for physical activities or for
activities which would motivate the child to move, their further motor skills development can be
negatively affected.
Pre-school age At pre-school age (from 3 to 6 or 7 years of age) children become even more independent, asserting
themselves and adapting to the company of adults as well as their peers. Children process information
intuitively and using their imagination. They need to be challenged thus confirming their own qualities.
They use their abilities in practice, coordinate their movements better, the dexterity of their hands,
legs and torso improves (standing on one foot, hopping on one foot). Children become more skilful,
fine motor skills develop (stringing beads, cutting with scissors, or doing up shoelaces). Games are the
dominant element of every activity and as such they influence the further development of physical
abilities and skills, thinking, learning, emotions and imagination.
Younger school age Younger school age (prepubescence, from 6-7 to 11-12) is a relatively calm period without any
dramatic developmental changes. A breakthrough in physical and social development comes when the
child starts school, when the child faces new reality and requirements – school duties, classmates, and
teachers. Laterality should be settled. Motor skills improve – gross motor skills are highly developed
(throwing and catching a ball, jumping, riding a bike, kicking a ball, overcoming obstacles, balance, self-
care skills), while fine motor skills are still not very precise (writing). A huge development occurs in
speed, movement, dexterity and coordination. Children seek spontaneous physical activities, which
should be supported in both natural physical activities and sports activities.
Older school age In the older school age (pubescence, from 11-12 to 15) the differences in physical activities from the
point of view of sex deepen. The performance of all organs and muscle coordination increases, the
child is very active. However, due to the dramatic physical development (growth in height, increase in
weight, sexual maturation, lengthening of limbs, etc.) the neuromuscular coordination often worsens.
Hormonal changes affect the psyche and people at this age are emotionally unstable, uncertain, lacking
confidence and increasingly anxious.
Adolescence Adolescence takes place as a sign of maturation and the development of motor skills gradually
culminates. At the age of 18 in girls and 20 in boys the speed of growth slows down, and the body is
completely differentiated from the point of view of sex. Boys demands regarding physical strain
increase, their performance grows and they prefer physical activities which can become part of their
free-time activities. Girls at this age prefer exercising to music as well as physical activities which affect
their appearance. Their performance starts to stagnate. Adolescents frequently quit performance
focused sports activities or do them as a form of recreation. Their interests go beyond the area of
physical activities (e.g. interest in culture).
Adulthood Adulthood is a long period of life which can be divided into shorter stages. In early adulthood (up to
35) motor skills capacity is at its best, and sports activities culminate. Performance differences in
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people of the same age are given by their level of fitness, somatotype, lifestyle and also their
background (e.g. job or family). If the person leads a mainly hypokinetic way of life, a significant drop
in performance takes place as early as at this age.
In early middle age (up to 45) some motor skills naturally worsen (dexterity, agility, speed), but the
level and speed of the fall can be influenced by regular training. The strength and endurance can be
maintained by training at an appropriate level up to old age. In this period the subjective age (how
people feel, tends to be 10 – 15% lower than their real age) is important. People are at their prime and
their main aim is to keep a satisfactory work position and a stable family. Physical activities are a form
of recreation. There is a growing tendency to think about oneself (inner world), a tendency to take
stock of one’s life. Currently, there is an increasing requirement to maintain young looks and the same
performance as at a young age.
Late middle age (up to 65) is connected with the awareness of gradual, irreversible worsening of
physical and mental fitness. Physical power and coordination decrease, speed and promptness of
reactions lower, health problems appear. The person is slower, less efficient, and less flexible. Sensual
perception worsens (eye-sight, hearing) and tiredness is more frequent. In the course of the period,
typical signs of old age start appearing – wrinkles, grey hair, changes in proportions, changes in
pigmentation, loss of skin elasticity, and uneven storage of fat. The speed of aging is rather individual
and depends on internal as well as external factors. The speed of loss of motor skills efficiency can be
influenced by suitable physical activities.
Late adulthood Late adulthood (over 65) or rather aging is a natural process in one’s life. It is very individual and
variable. Two people of the same calendar age can have a different biological age. The latest research
shows that 60 – 70% of life expectancy is genetically given and 30 – 40% is influenced by external
factors. Aging is manifested by physical limitations and diseases, which leads to lower physical activity,
psychological problems, weight loss, etc. The most frequent problems of the musculoskeletal system
are osteoporosis and arthritis of joints, especially in lower limbs, which reduces the range of motion
of the joints. Apart from the problems of the solid components of the musculoskeletal system, changes
occur also in the active components (reduction in muscle tissue, decrease of muscle power, weakening
and shortening of muscles, worsened coordination, worsened muscle imbalance and therefore also
poor body posture, old-age kyphosis can also appear, etc.). Diseases of the musculoskeletal system
manifest themselves as the most frequent cause of the loss of self-sufficiency of old people. To prevent
the above listed health problems, specialists recommend physical activities of an appropriate intensity
and focus. A well-chosen physical activity can, up to a certain point, slow down the aging of a human
organism. Thanks to regular exercise one can influence the quality and amount of muscle tissue, basic
motor skills and capacity, endurance, slow down the development of osteoporosis, etc. Apart from
physical indicators regular physical activity can also positively influence the psychological and social
areas – it improves stress resistance, positively influences the quality of sleep, has therapeutic effects
in the case of mild depression and anxiety, improves the ability to learn (especially short-term
memory), and broadens opportunities to make social contacts with people of the same age category.
Video: Physical activities in individual life stages
https://is.muni.cz/do/rect/el/estud/pedf/js19/pohybove_aktivity/web/video/pa_napric_generacemi_en.mp4
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Health promoting physical
activities Let’s ask ourselves a question which physical activity best promotes human health. To put it simply,
the human organism does not care whether we participate in a sports contest, engage in a recreational
physical activity or work physically. Disregarding the emotional aspect and appeal of sports contests
as well as their socializing and other effects, the main indicators important for health are known under
the initialism FITT: frequency, intensity, time (duration) and type of physical strain. The type or kind of
physical activity to fit these FITT indicators is not prescribed, therefore we can include among suitable
physical activities any common everyday activity including walking. In other words, physical movement
is important for everybody, including people who are not gifted at sports. The decisive thing is that
every physical activity of higher intensity strain lasts for at least 1 hour a day for children and at least
30 minutes a day for adults. This more intensive exercise should be supplemented with activities of
lower intensity strain, such as ordinary walking. Short-term high intensity of strain enhances a number
of bodily functions; however, it is not necessary to maintain good health.
When judging the level of physical strain, we can in general rely on the following overview:
• Low intensity exercise o ordinary kind of work done around the house or in the garden, slow, ordinary
walking, riding a bike on flat terrain, an intensive walk with a dog, sports recreation activities (volleyball, badminton, etc.).
• Moderate and higher intensity exercise o harder work around the house or in the garden, quick walking, jogging, faster cycling,
fitness exercise, sports recreation activities (basketball, table tennis, skating, downhill skiing, cross-country skiing, swimming shorter distances, aerobics, etc.).
• High intensity exercise o hard manual work (forest, construction site, etc.), intensive cycling, intensive long-
distance run, running with a coach, racing sports activities.
Personal intervention exercise programmes, which take into consideration everybody’s specific
abilities and preconditions, are extremely important for one’s exercise routine. In order to be effective
they have to meet two basic criteria:
1. affect the main components of physical fitness, 2. include individually acceptable and suitable physical activities.
Assuming that a school staff is composed mostly of women, a more detailed and precise manual
focused on the design of personal exercise programmes can be found for example in the book Fit
Programmes for Women. However, this book is rich in information and inspiring ideas also for men.
Children can understand the requirements regarding daily exercise routine and the FITT indicators for
instance using the Pyramid of Physical Activities for children (Fig. 1):
• Frequency is represented through everyday completion of the whole pyramid of physical activities.
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• Intensity of strain is differentiated by the division into individual floors of the pyramid. Children can understand the concept of intensity of exercise in analogy with their effort and breathlessness.
• The length of the physical activity is represented by cubes which stand for 15 - 30 minute portions of exercise. The whole pyramid thus represents approximately 45 – 90 minutes of low intensity exercise and 45 – 90 minutes of moderate or high intensity exercise.
• Types of activities are represented by various physical activities on the cubes, i.e. portions of activities.
• The pyramid is completed with a little roof which represents short-term high intensity exercise.
The pyramid corresponds to the internationally recognised requirement of at least one hour of more
intensive exercise a day.
Fig. 1: Pyramid of physical activity for children as presented in the programme Physical activity and
nutrition
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Health-oriented fitness – one of the
indicators of physical health Physical activity and its influence on the human
organism is usually connected with the term
fitness. This terms has not been precisely defined
and in everyday life it is ascribed various
meanings. Fitness often means efficiency,
dexterity or hard work, but can be understood
more broadly as physical fitness or resistance to
bio-psycho-social demands on the organism.
In the area of physical activity the term fitness
usually denotes a physical state of a person; we also speak about physical fitness, which is understood
as a necessary prerequisite for the efficient physical functioning of an organism. At present research
emphasises more and more frequently the difference between health-oriented fitness related to one’s
state of health and performance-oriented fitness which is conditioned on physical performance
especially in sports specializations.
The concept of health-oriented fitness expresses the idea that the level of fitness is individual and each
person needs a different level of fitness for a healthy and active way of life. It enables people to cope
with their workload and other challenges of everyday life and to engage sufficiently in physical
activities within their free time. The level of health-oriented fitness is not given by performance norms,
but takes individual differences into account. A sufficient level of fitness of an ordinary person does
not have to correspond to the fitness of a top sportsman.
Regarding the influence on human health, we are mainly interested in the significance of the basic
components of health-oriented fitness:
• muscle fitness and flexibility, • cardiorespiratory fitness), • body composition.
Muscle fitness Muscle power, muscle endurance and flexibility (the range of movement, the range of movement of
joints and flexibility) are generally called muscle fitness. Optimal muscle fitness is an important
prerequisite for muscle balance which is necessary for the correct functioning of the musculoskeletal
system. At first sight muscle balance is evident in the correct body posture and ability to move.
One of the major causes of a slouched or incorrected body posture is a sedentary way of life of children
as well as excessive mental strain. To put it in a nutshell, these are the reasons for flabby phasic
(kinetic) muscles and for shortened postural (tonic) muscles. As a consequence people suffer from
spine weakness and spine disorders, respiratory diseases, etc.
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Tab. 1: Muscles according to function
MUSCLES ACCORDING TO FUNCTION
PREDOMINANTLY POSTURAL MUSCLES (TONIC) PREDOMINANTLY PHASIC MUSCLES (KINETIC)
act to sustain posture act to enable movement
prone to tightness/shortness prone to weakness
NEED STRETCHING NEED STRENGTHENING
Postural (tonic) muscles which predominantly act to sustain static body postures (i.e. standing, sitting,
position of the head, etc.) excessively shorten when the phasic muscles weaken. These muscles
significantly influence the body posture, especially in the thoracic region, lumbar region, front side of
hip joints and thighs (hip flexors) and the back side of thighs and calves (knee flexors). These muscles
need stretching.
In the postural (tonic) group of muscles we can find a number of muscles and groups of muscles the
representation of which is available in many electronic as well as printed resources:
1. scalenes 2. levator scapulae 3. upper trapezius muscle 4. back extensors (especially lumbar and cervical) 5. pectoralis minor muscle 6. teres major muscle 7. thoracolumbar fascia 8. two-headed biceps brachii (biceps) 9. quadratus lumborum muscle 10. iliopsoas 11. piriformis muscle - lateral hip rotator (pear-shaped muscle) 12. tensor fasciae latae muscle 13. hamstrings (semimembranosus, semitendinosus and two-headed biceps femoris) 14. rectus femoris muscle 15. adductor muscles of the hip (adductors) 16. triceps surae muscle
Phasic (kinetic) muscles predominantly act to enable movement. In the case of a lack of movement
these muscles weaken and leave their function to postural muscles. These muscles are located mainly
in the area of the scapulae, thoracic spine, abdomen and gluteus. These groups of muscles need to be
toned up and strengthened.
Graphic representation of these muscles can be found in many electronic as well as printed resources.
Among phasic muscles we can rank the following:
1. neck and head flexors 2. spine rotators 3. thoracic spine erector muscles 4. deep neck flexors
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5. interscapular muscles (rhomboids and middle and lower trapezius) 6. front serrate muscle 7. upper horizontal fibres of broad back muscle 8. posterior part of the delta muscle 9. lateral rotators of the arm (infraspinatus muscle and teres minor muscle) 10. triceps brachii (three-headed arm muscle) 11. upper fibres of pectoralis major 12. abdominal muscles (rectus abdominis, obliquus abdominis internus, obliquus abdominis
internus) 13. gluteal muscles (gluteus maximus, medius and minimus) 14. vastus medialis and vastus lateralis of the four-headed muscle of the femur (quadriceps
femoris) 15. tibialis anterior muscle
We consider a body posture as correct when the interplay between the deep stabilising muscle system
and the superficial muscles (postural and phasic) takes place. We can define it also as interplay
between individual body blocks without an unnecessary waste of energy. Body posture is individual
and up to a certain extent it is given by the person’s body parameters.
A healthy person’s muscles are balanced, body posture is straight and aesthetic (Tab. 2). As a
consequence of muscle imbalance the head protrudes, the shoulders round forward, the abdomen tips
forward, the curve in the lower back becomes bigger and the pelvis tilts forward. This lowers the
capacity of the lungs, causes respiratory diseases, spine weakening and disorders as well as
gynaecological problems in girls and women.
Tab. 2: Body posture
Area Signs of ideal (optimal) body
posture
Deviations of poor body
posture
Motivation for good body
posture in children ☺
whole
body
noble posture; spinal
curvature is natural, without
major rounding
weak posture, spinal
curvature forwards and
backwards is more
prominent or otherwise
deformed
we are princesses and
princes; puppet on a string
head –
neck
axis of the neck is
perpendicular to the ground;
the chin and neck create a
90°angle
axis of the neck is tilted
forward; the chin protrudes,
the head is backswept
push the head backwards
with a finger; we “close the
drawer”
shoulders
shoulders are widely spread
pending downwards, both
shoulders at the same height
shoulders pulled upwards or
pushed forward, at different
height
a trickling drop of water
chest,
scapulae
chest (upper part) stretched
forward; scapulae do not
protrude/stand away
flattened chest; thoracic
spine rounded backwards;
scapulae protrude
a lit light: stick the scapulae
to the ribs with a glue
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abdomen,
pelvis,
hips
flat abdomen; the upper part
of the pelvis is tilted
backwards (slightly tucked
in), edges of hip joints at the
same height; the hip line is
symmetric
weak abdomen; pelvis tilted
forward, slanting; the hip
line is asymmetric
clench a five-crown coin or a
bead in between the
buttocks
lower
limbs
axis of the ankle, knee and
hip lie on one axis; insteps
are properly arched
axis of the ankle, knee and
hip are not on one axis –
most often knock-knees or
bow legs, everted ankle
joint; flat feet (longi-tudinal,
transverse)
there are two beautiful
straight trees growing from
the ground which have
healthy and deep roots
(stretch the legs naturally, do
not bend backwards, weight
on the whole feet)
Fig. 2a: Good body posture Fig. 2b: Poor body posture
One possible way of influencing the formation of the habit of correct body posture and maintaining
muscle balance is making compensation exercises part of one’s daily routine. For children, in the time
they spend at school, not only regular P.E. lessons are important, but also short exercise times and
recess containing a sufficient amount of physical activity. A bank of exercises and all the necessary
detailed theory of compensation exercises can be found in many specialist publications, for example
in the book Exercise time (Tělovýchovné chvilky) published in 2006 or Exercises for health and pleasure
(Cvičím pro zdraví a baví mě to) published in 2009.
As stated above, fatigue and stress negatively influence one’s body posture. They can be of physical or
psychological origin. Fatigue is characterised as a lower-level response to stimuli and stress as a
reaction of the organism to changed conditions in the form of a defensive reaction. The main
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symptoms of fatigue are lowered performance, aversion towards further work, weakness, worsened
breathing, shoulders pulled up towards the head, being flushed, etc. The main causes of fatigue in
children is a lack of sleep, health problems, incorrect nutrition, psychological problems (usually
problems in the family) and also a lack of activities, i.e. a lack of appropriate movement and activities
which the child enjoys and is interested in.
Aerobic fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness) The capacity of the organism to accept, transmit and use oxygen efficiently (especially while engaging
in physical activities) can be defined as aerobic fitness. The main effects of this capacity are manifested
in the ability of the muscles to perform and endure. A significant side-effect is more efficient
cardiovascular activity and, under certain circumstances, also reduction of excessive fat.
If we are to maintain or improve aerobic fitness, it is necessary to engage regularly and for a sufficient
time in a physical activity involving big muscle groups (e.g. brisk walking, running, cycling, swimming,
cross-country skiing, aerobics, movement activities or sports games). The effort invested in these
activities should be reflected in the heart rate (HR), which ranges between 60 – 80% of the maximal
heart rate (HRmax). This can be counted using the following formula:
HRmax = 220 pulses/min. minus a person‘s age
The strain within the range of 60 – 80% HRmax, when we are forced to breathe deeply and quickly, is
called a medium intensity strain (often also aerobic strain). The activity should be at least 10 minutes
long, in total the whole-day activity should reach at least 60 minutes for children and at least 30
minutes for adults.
The above mentioned medium intensity strain should be supplemented with an everyday activity of
lower intensity (under 60% HRmax), following at least the above stated time limits (60 minutes for
children, 30 minutes for adults). Ordinary everyday walking is also very important. The World Health
Organisation suggests that adults should take at least 10 thousand steps a day, and children at least
12 thousand steps a day.
During high intensity strain (anaerobic strain) the heart rate achieves values over 80% HRmax (in
children usually more than 170 - 180 pulses/min.). Such strain in less adapted individuals can result in
quick lactate accumulation in muscles, quick muscle fatigue as well as muscle pain and lack of oxygen
(we cannot “catch our breathˮ). This state usually occurs in less fit people after 15 - 20 seconds of
intensive activity (e.g. sprinting, running up the stairs, riding a bike up a steep hill). Because such a
strain can even be dangerous for weak individuals we do not advise children or unfit adults to maintain
the maximum intensity of strain for longer than the above mentioned 20 seconds. It must be followed
by some rest or physical activity of moderate strain. If we follow this principle, high intensity and lower
intensity strain can alternate, which is typical for example in movement games (e.g. playing tag), relay
competition games, or sports games done as recreation, etc.
The table below (Tab. 3) illustrates approximate values of the heart rate of a person during physical
strain:
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Tab. 3: Approximate values of the heart rate during physical strain
Age Max. HR
(pulses/min.)
High anaerobic strain
(above 80% HRmax)
Recommended aerobic
strain (60–80% HRmax)
Low strain (below
60% HRmax)
10 210 170-210 125-170 < 125
20 200 160-200 120-160 < 120
30 190 150-190 115-150 < 115
40 180 140-180 110-140 < 110
50 170 130-170 100-135 < 100
60 160 120-160 95-130 < 95
Any physical activity but also other bodily functions (e.g. maintaining body temperature) require a
certain amount of energy which is continuously released into the human body. The organism therefore
needs a regular supply of food, i.e. of chemical compounds which are able to release energy during
splitting. The conversion of substances and energies in a living organism is called metabolism.
The immediate source of energy for muscle contraction comes from adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
whose chemical energy transforms into mechanical energy. ATP is converted in the process called
hydrolysis to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine monophosphate (AMP). This process can be
expressed by this equation:
ATP → ADP + AMP + energy
In the process of splitting ATP releases energy necessary for the function of muscle fibres (filaments of
actin move into the filaments of myosin). Because the amount of ATP in the muscle is available only
for a few seconds (depending on one’s adaptive capacity), ATP must be continuously renewed
(resynthesized). Energy for the renewal of ATP comes from burning of substances rich in energy, such
as glucose, fats and in a smaller amount also proteins.
Unlike other organs, muscles have immediate access to another stock of energy in the form of creatine
phosphate (CP) which supplies energy immediately after ATP splits for its resynthesis. At the same time
ADT enters the reaction:
CP + ADP → ATP + C
This way energy output can be covered for up to 20 seconds of intensive physical activity when a new
supply of ATP and creatine (C) is being formed.
For the renewal of ATP other energy sources are available. The process during which sugars are burnt
(glucose and glycogen) in the chemical reaction without the presence of oxygen is called anaerobic
glycolysis:
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G + ADP + AMP → ATP + LA
Apart from ATP this reaction also generates lactate (LA) whose energy can be used either for direct
burning in a muscle cell or, after being transported through the blood circulation system, for the
activity of the cardiac muscle, respiratory muscles and other less active muscles. A smaller part of LA
(about 40 %) is resynthesised in the liver into glucose and glycogen, which can be reused as a source
of energy.
Anaerobic glycolysis starts immediately after the beginning of intensive physical activity. The strength
of this reaction gradually grows and culminates between the 20th and 60th second. Anaerobic glycolysis
allows for several tens of seconds of intensive physical activity, but during this process in less adapted
individuals LA accumulates in the muscles and blood circulatory system, which results in muscle fatigue
and pain that is very difficult to overcome. Therefore we do not recommend very intensive physical
activities (with high heart rate) for a period longer than 15 - 20 seconds for pre-primary or primary
school children.
Unless the maximum physical performance (i.e. anaerobic process) is maintained by a person’s will on
the edge of endurance (as is the case of athletes in the 400 and 800m run), a spontaneous drop in
intensity occurs and the organism gradually changes to the aerobic process. This process makes less
intensive and longer-lasting physical activities possible, which is beneficial for the cardiovascular
activity. These are chemical processes during which substances split with the presence of oxygen. In
the process of burning glucose (G), LA, and fats - which are actually free fatty acids (F), the end products
generated with the presence of oxygen are phosphates and some proteins, esp. ATP, water and carbon
dioxide. The basic chemical reaction is as follows:
G (nebo T) + AMP + ADP + O2 → ATP + CO2 + H2O
We need to stress that it is not possible to isolate aerobic processes from anaerobic processes in the
human body. In fact, the body is a system where aerobic and anaerobic processes simultaneously take
part in the process of releasing energy, especially in long-term and more intensive activity. In less
intensive activity the aerobic process prevails, whereas in more intensive activity the anaerobic process
predominates.
When sugars are burnt during a particular physical activity, it is possible regarding their low stock in
the organism to perform the activity (depending on its intensity) for about 30 minutes. As sugars get
consumed gradually, fats increasingly become the major source of energy. Compared to glycolysis
(oxidative sugar splitting), these are more complex chemical reactions, which is the reason why the
intensity of physical activity decreases, but thanks to large supplies of fat in the body the activity can
last for several tens of hours. Unless the intensity of the physical activity is too high, the movement is
not accompanied by any stronger negative perceptions (muscle fatigue or pain) and is beneficial for
human health.
Proteins can also be used as a source of energy, but are primarily assigned the task to build and renew
tissues. They can be used as a source of energy on a larger scale only when the supplies of sugars and
fats are consumed.
For more detailed information see specialist literature.
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Body composition The third indicator of fitness and limiting factor of physical strain is body composition, which is given
by the balance between the amount of fat tissue, muscle tissue and the remaining body tissues. An
excessive amount of body fat has a negative impact on other components of physical fitness, especially
on aerobic fitness (an overweight person has difficulty to move and gets faster into the anaerobic
phase).
The contemporary population suffers from excessive weight (being overweight and obesity), which
must be regulated. In the aerobic phase we burn sugars first (they usually suffice for 30 minutes of a
more intensive physical activity), and later mainly fats. Therefore we can regulate body composition
by a continuous strain of moderate intensity longer than 30 minutes (e.g. brisk walking, cycling, doing
aerobics), and especially by intake with lower nutrition value than the output. The basic principle is:
“Balance the energy in and out!”
Tab. 4: Approximate use of energy per hour
Activity kJ/h kcal/h
sleep, relaxation in bed 200–300 50–70
sitting, mental work while seated 350–450 85–110
standing 400–500 95–120
walking 1.6 km/h, typing, driving 500–630 120–150
walking 3.25 km/h, cycling 8 km/h, playing the piano, cleaning 630–1000 150–240
walking 4 km/h, cycling 10 km/h, volleyball, badminton, cleaning the
windows 1000–1250 240–300
walking 5 km/h, cycling 13 km/h, table tennis and tennis, social
dancing, painting, decorating 1250–1500 300–360
walking 5.6 km/h, cycling 16 km/h, slow swimming, skating 15 km/h,
digging the garden, light shovelling 1500–1750 360–415
walking 8 km/h, cycling 17.5 km/h, chopping wood, folk dancing,
moderate shovelling 1750–2000 415–475
jogging 8 km/h, cycling 19 km/h, basketball, digging a ditch 2000–2500 475–595
running 9 km/h, cross-country skiing 6.5 km/h, moderate intensity
swimming 2500–2800 595–665
running faster than 10 km/h, cross-country skiing faster than 8 km/h,
very intensive swimming, heavy shovelling nad 2800 Nad 665
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Fig. 3: Main risks connected to obesity
Children: physical strain
for the growing
organism – strain for
the whole skeleton,
more frequent knocked
knees, arthritis, etc.
Children: strain for the
growing organism– high
cholesterol levels,
changes in insulin levels
and in sugar
management– diabetes
mellitus type 2
Children: psychosocial
difficulties – social
deprivation linked to
obesity, lack of
motivation for physical
activity, “class clown”
Adulthood: cardiovascular
system (atherosclerosis,
IHD, hypertension, high
level of cholesterol and
high blood sugar levels
Adulthood: metabolic
disorders (diabetes
mellitus type 2,
dyslipidemia)
Adulthood: tumour
diseases (womb cancer,
breast cancer, large
intestine cancer, gall
bladder cancer, pancreatic
and kidney cancer)
Adulthood: digestive
disorders, gall bladder
diseases
Adulthood: diseases and
difficulties related to
respiratory and excretory
system
Adulthood: psychosocial difficulties:
depression, disadvantaged in job selection,
choice of partner, position in a team etc.
Adulthood: degenerative
disorders of the
musculoskeletal system
(esp. joints and ligaments)
Adulthood: increased physical fatigue, limited
performance and sexual life, more frequent sick
leave, early retirement due to disability
Main risks connected to obesity
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Methods in the evaluation of being overweight and obesity can be divided into two groups. In the first
group there are laboratory methods, which provide exact results. The disadvantages of these methods
are high demands on material conditions, complexity of execution and expert knowledge. The other
group is represented by field methods, which are a lot easier but less precise.
The most frequently used of the field methods is Body Mass Index (BMI) expressed as a quotient of
weight (in kilograms) and the second power of height (in metres).
BMI = weight (kg) / height (m)2
Even though BMI is currently the most frequently used method, it can sometimes be misleading,
because the calculation does not take into consideration other factors (body composition, i.e. skeleton,
muscle tissue, fat tissue, etc.). These differences in body composition in two people with the same BMI
are shown in the picture (Fig. 4) and the table below (Tab. 5).
Tab. 5: Differences in body composition with the same BMI
Body composition A Body composition B
Height 178 cm 178 cm
Weight 87 kg 87 kg
BMI 27,5 27,5
Amount of fat 15 % 24 %
Fig. 4: Differences in body composition with the same BMI
Fat
Muscles
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BMI provides only basic information about body composition, but to get a more detailed evaluation it
is necessary to determine the proportion of fat in the total weight. This function is currently available
through various digital scales and body composition analysers (e.g. Tanita, InBody and others).
However, it needs to be operated by a specialist (physicist, anthropologist, etc.)
In the course of life BMI changes its values. The lowest BMI is at the end of the pre-school age and
from that moment on it increases up to adulthood. BMI values used for children and adolescents differ
from those used for adults (they are often labelled BMI-for-age). In children BMI above the 97th
percentile of the norm is evaluated as obesity and BMI between the 90th – 97th percentile is evaluated
as being overweight (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5a BMI values for children and youth according to the resources of the National Institute of
Public Health (Girls)
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Fig. 5b BMI values for children and youth according to the resources of the National Institute of
Public Health (Boys)
Another important aspect is also fat distribution. Experts distinguish android type (male, also called
“apple type”) where fats are distributed in the area of the torso. This type is considered more
dangerous regarding health than the gynoid type (female, also called “pear type”) where fat is stored
in the area of buttocks and thighs (Fig. 6). Fat distribution shows significant hereditability of up to 60%.
To identify the particular body type WHR index (waist – hips ratio) and waist measurement is used.
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Fig. 6: Types of fat distribution
Somatotype
If two people of the same height stand next to each other, differences in the proportions of individual
body segments can be noted. General physical appearance is based on height, weight, skeleton
structure, muscles, fat tissue and other space parameters, which are to a great extent influenced by
hereditability. A particular shape of human body is called a somatotype.
To identify one’s somatotype Sheldon’s typology, which is primarily designed for men, is now most
frequently used. For the female population the same labelling of body types is used along with the
specification of places where under skin fat is distributed. It is difficult to identify the somatotype in
children, because they are still growing and their individual body parts and proportions are only being
formed. Yet, we can often recognise at an early age in which direction the body is being formed.
Sheldon identified three extreme somatotypes – endomorph, mesomorph and ectomorph, whose
characteristics are given in the table below (Tab. 6). Most of the population is a mix of types in which
the individual somatotypes appear in various combinations.
android type gynoid type
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Tab. 6: Basic characteristics of the somatotypes
Somatotype – basic characteristics
Endomorph Mesomorph Ectomorph
• narrow shoulders • wide hips • short limbs • small amount of muscle
tissue • big amount of fat mass
Type "A" (Endomorph)
• wide shoulders • narrow hips • long limbs • big amount of muscle
tissue • small amount of fat mass
Type "V" (Mesomorph)
• narrow shoulders • narrow hips • long limbs • small amount of muscle
tissue • small amount of fat
mass
Type "I" (Ectomorph)
The exact somatotype can be determined only by a specialist (e.g. physician, anthropologist, specialist
in physical education) based on measurements of body proportions. Based on calculations three basic
numerical components are determined, which are then used to place the evaluated body in Sheldon’s
somatotype chart (Fig. 7).
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Fig. 7: Sheldon’s somatotype chart
Even a simple optical estimation of the somatotype helps distinguish a person’s physical dispositions
and regulate his physical activity. For the mesomorph type with their dominance of muscle tissue
strength or strength and speed focused physical activities are well suited (sports games, gymnastics,
etc.), for the ectomorph type endurance sports (long-distance running, cycling, etc.), for the
endomorph type activities which do not put excessive strain on joints and do not require excessive
strength (swimming, cycling, Nordic walking, etc.). The picture below (Fig. 8) clearly shows that the
endomorph and partly also the ectomorph type are rarely suited to racing sports activities.
Mesomorp
h
Ectomorph Endomorph
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Fig. 8: Somatotypes of top sports people in the CR (based on materials provided by FSS UK)
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Testing health-oriented fitness To monitor and evaluate one’s physical fitness motor
skills tests are used – standardised examinations of a
person’s level of physical dispositions. A set of several
tests with clearly given rules forms a test battery. An
important requirement regarding motor skills tests is
their standardisation – the test must be valid, reliable
and objective and in the course of the test it is necessary
to observe prescribed standard procedures and
conditions (e.g. the same aids, instruments, apparatus
and equipment, the same environment and precise
instructions).
From a number of motor skills tests and test batteries we
would like to draw attention to the best known physical
fitness test battery:
For a basic assessment of motor skills performance and selected characteristics of body composition
the Czech test battery Unifittest (6 - 60) is used. It tests standing long jump, sit-ups, aerobic endurance
(alternative: shuttle run, 12 minutes run, 2 km walking) and optional tests depending on pupils’ age
(shuttle run 4 x 10m, deep seated forward bend, pull-ups - boys, flexed arm hang - girls).
A similar test battery is Eutofittest, which tests single leg stands, hand reach, the range of seated
forward bend with legs together, standing long jump with feet together, sit-ups, pull-ups, running 10
x 5m or 50 m sprint, endurance shuttle run – Leger test and manual dynamometry.
Compared to other test batteries Fitnessgram, designed in the USA, has one unique feature: the person
is not assessed for his best possible performance but based on the result is placed in a “target health
zone” and provided with an explanation on how well he did in the test and what he can do to maintain
or improve his health-oriented fitness. Fitnessgram contains several options of motor skills tests in
each tested area (Tab. 7).
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Tab. 7: Fitnessgram test battery
FITNESSGRAM
Aerobic fitness
choice of one test
endurance shuttle run (preferred test)
1 mile run
1 mile walking
Body composition
choice of one test
skinfold thickness testing
body mass index
bioelectrical impedance test or automated caliper
Muscle
fitness and
flexibility
strength and
endurance of
abdominal muscles
chest curl-up (lying)
strength and
flexibility of torso
extensors
trunk lift (lying on stomach)
strength and
endurance of the
upper torso
choice of one test
90° press ups (preferred test)
inclined pull-ups
pull-ups
flexed arm hang
flexibility choice of one test
head to knee forward bend (one leg bent) sit and reach test
A more detailed description of test batteries is provided, for example, in the appendix of the material
Movement and Nutrition (Pohyb a výživa), but test descriptions are available from many other
resources. The aim of physical fitness testing is not to assess pupils and students at schools but to
evaluate and reflect on one’s own health-oriented fitness.
Video: Testing health-oriented fitness - Fitnessgram
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Physical activities for prevention
and health promotion – summary Which kind of physical activities can we consider
as health promoting? Those which help to
optimize one’s bio-psycho-social well-being.
From a biological (physiological) point of view
activities which positively affect the components
of health-oriented fitness should be chosen.
The primary aim of muscle fitness and flexibility
is not maximum muscle strength, muscle
endurance or above-standard range of
movement, but flexibility of joints and optimal firmness of muscles and insertions, which manifest
themselves in muscle balance. That is why we should choose appropriate toning and stretching
exercises focused on those groups of muscles which have a tendency to weaken and shorten. Activities
which evenly engage muscles in the whole body are also suitable as well as particular strengthening
and stretching exercises for which we need only 10 to 15 minutes a day.
The main aim of aerobic fitness is an optimal transfer of oxygen into all organs of the human body. It
has been proved that the transfer of oxygen and healthy functioning of all the organs which take part
in this transfer support aerobic activities, i.e. activities in which big muscle groups participate (brisk
walking, running, cycling, cross-country skiing, etc.). It is desirable to keep the heart rate between 60
– 80% HRmax when engaging in a continuous physical activity longer than 10 minutes. In total the
aerobic activity should last for at least 30 minutes a day (i.e. three times 10 minutes, twice 15 minutes).
For children even 5-minute continuous physical activities are sufficient (e.g. a busy moving game), but
in total these activities with higher intensity should last for at least 60 minutes a day. Any activity which
makes us breathless and lasts long enough is suitable.
The choice of suitable physical activities is limited by genetically given somatotype and the overall body
composition, which can be significantly influenced by a particular lifestyle. The aim of physical activities
in this component of fitness is to optimize body composition, especially the muscle-fat ratio to be able
to do physical activities which affect muscle and aerobic fitness. On the one hand, an excessive amount
of fat (obesity) significantly limits one’s physical capacity, but on the other hand, an excessive amount
of muscle tissue can put excessive physical strain on the body and can be limiting when doing effective
aerobic activities.
Many physical activities are beneficial for one’s mental health and social well-being. Most sportspeople
cannot imagine life without sports contests and without the inner satisfaction such a performance
brings. Others find contests stressful and seek psychological well-being in non-competitive physical
activities, such as intensive walking, Nordic walking (spring-loaded sticks), health running, recreational
cycling, swimming, aerobics, psychomotor exercises or dancing. These activities done in a group (with
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family, classmates, friends, etc.) can positively influence not only the mental but also social well-being
of a person and contribute to his overall bio-psycho-social well-being.
The following practical examples of health-oriented physical activities were chosen to illustrate the
theory presented in this chapter and to serve as an activity bank for both teaching practice and
personal life.
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Practical examples of health-oriented physical activities
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Physical activities in the gym and
on the sports ground Physical education and free-time activities Physical activities for both children and adults
should bring, apart from physical strain, also
pleasure and a positive experience. In a
methodologically well-structured class (P.E.
lessons, free-time outdoor and indoor physical
activities, etc.) games and activities for the
development of one’s physical skills and abilities
can be employed. At the same time health-
oriented fitness should be enhanced (health-
oriented games and exercises).
In physical education classes there should be a sequence of exercises and games which complies with
the requirements regarding individual stages of a class. These requirements are different for the initial,
busy, preparatory part of the class and for the closing part. During free-time physical activities (e.g. in
sports clubs, after school clubs) the sequence of the unit can be different, but the basic principles are
very similar.
Games and activities in the busy part of the class should serve as a warm-up for muscles and
preparation of the organism for activities in the main part of the class.
In the preparatory part pupils should use joint-mobilising, stretching, toning and coordination
exercises of a static-dynamic character to warm up the main muscle groups and those muscle groups
which will be worked on in the main part of the class. Inspiration for warm-ups used with young school
children (modified exercises can also be used with other age groups) can be found in the following
electronic publications: Ideas for Warm-Ups without Equipment for Young Learners, Ideas for Warm-
Ups with Equipment for Young Learners a The Busy and the Preparatory Part of a PE Class at Primary
School.
In the main part of the class we use games aimed at the development and use of particular physical
skills and abilities. In the video recording below the games are presented according to their focus on
individual physical skills – speed, strength, dexterity (coordination) and endurance.
Speed ability allows for completion of a physical task in the shortest possible time.
Strength ability requires some external resistence to be overcome.
Dexterity (coordination abilities) allows for exact completion of a physical task in the space and time
provided. Among these abilities we can rank movement coordination, flexibility, balance, ability to
change position and direction quickly, spatial orientation, rhythm or kinaesthetic differentiation ability.
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Endurance ability allows us to perform a physical activity for a long time. Depending on the number of
muscles engaged, endurance can be of global or local character. From the point of view of metabolic
processes in the organism we distinguish two types of endurance: aerobic (when the muscles are well
supplied with oxygen) and anaerobic (when there is a lack of oxygen). Regular aerobic activity is
beneficial for the correct functioning of the cardiovascular system, i.e. for aerobic fitness.
At the end of the class we use slower activities which calm the pupil’s organism down. Here we can
include relaxation, massage, stretching, psychomotor exercises, games focused on sensomotor skills,
breathing exercises, etc.
Video: Physical activities in PE classes and in free-time activities
In physical education classes but also in free-time physical activities collective exercises or exercise
stations are used, which can focus on varied physical tasks. Individual sports stations can include
games, stretching, strengthening, endurance, balance, gymnastic or athletic exercises and other
exercises with or without training aids.
At present circuit training is very popular in the area of fitness. It is based around a set of stations, but
has its own rules which are aimed at the development of particular physical abilities.
Compensation exercise Compensation exercise is a set of exercises which
help us influence the musculoskeletal system in
order to improve its functions (e.g. flexibility,
coordination, muscle tone and strength, length
of muscles, etc.).
These exercises help us repair muscle weakness
(flabby muscles), shortening of muscles, muscle
imbalance, poor body posture, incorrect
movement patterns, etc. Compensation
exercises are also used to prevent the
musculoskeletal system from weakening. The basic groups of compensation exercises involve stiffness
relieving, stretching and strengthening exercises which are supplemented with breathing, endurance,
balance and relaxation exercises as well as exercises for the development of the correct movement
and postural patterns (correct body posture). It is necessary to adjust the content of exercises to a
particular kind of weakness, state of health, age and sex, physical fitness and experience, functional
fitness, interests of the people and the environment. For effective and correct exercise it is necessary
to procede from the simplest versions in low positions (lying position, lying position with bent knees,
lying on stomach) to more demanding versions in higher positions (sitting position, cross-legged sitting
position = tailor seat, sitting position with knees bent, kneeling, press-ups from kneeling position,
standing position). Every exercise has to be done with precision and in coordination with breathing.
The aim of stiffness-relieving exercises (also joint-mobilisation execises) is to enhance flexibility of
joints. When exercising regularly, the blood supply in the muscles around the joints increases, muscle
tone and muscle imbalance are adjusted and, as a result, the functioning of the joints improves.
Movements are done in all directions, slowly, with minimal muscle strain, up to extreme positions,
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without swinging movements. Stiffness-relieving exercises include slow circling, swinging a relaxed
limb, shaking out, passive movement up to extreme positions, and active movement up to extreme
positions. If the movement is active, we speak about automobilization – most frequently related to the
muscles around the spine (e.g. spinal exercises).
Stretching exercises are characterised as deliberate stretching using directed, guided and fully
controlled movement, especially in muscles prone to shortening (postural muscles) or muscles already
shortened. If we are trying to achieve a physiologically correct muscle length, regular exercise is
absolutely necessary. After 48 hours the effects of stretching disappear. Stretching muscles can also
increase flexibility of joints, which needs to be kept within an appropriate physiological norm –
increased flexibility of joints (hypermobility) is for the musculoskeletal system more dangerous and
more difficult to adjust than decreased flexibility of joints (in the case of hypermobility static stability
worsens).
Stretching exercises always precede strengthening exercises.
The aim of strengthening exercises is to increase the functional fitness of muscles, especially phasic
muscles (prone to lower tone, and weakness). We prefer dynamic exercises, first of all without a load,
and only after correct habits are formed can we start using appropriate equipment (e.g. big balls, soft
balls, light dumb-bells, resistance bands, etc.). Before we start strengthening the muscles we always
stretch the antagonistic muscles first and do not hold our breath when exercising. When strengthening
the abdominal muscles, we lift the torso slowly and keep it in an arched shape. When exercising in the
basic press-up position on our knees and its variants, we must not exercise with the lumbar spine
curved. It is possible to insert some relaxation exercises between individual strengthening exercises.
Strengthening exercises done in the position lying on one’s back when the lower limbs are stretched
low above the ground are considered ill-suited (e.g. writing numbers). The lying position on our
stomach with a simultaneous backward bend of both lower limbs is considered unsuitable too
(undesirable increased strain on the back muscles, especially in the lumbar part).
Exercises for a healthy back
It is not unusual to encounter back problems as early as in young children. These fully manifest
themselves as painful later in adulthood. It is very often a functional disorder in the area of the back
related to the current lifestyle. Incorrect body posture, muscle imbalance, a sedentary way of life and
a lack of movement bring along the risk of pain developed in the area of the back.
Making compensation exercises a regular part of one’s schedule works as an effective prevention
method. Simple exercises can be done with or without training aids in any kind of environment – at
work during breaks, at schools, in commercial courses and in the comfort of your home.
Video: Compensation exercises on the carpet
Video: Compensation exercises on chairs
Pilates
Pilates is an exercise method oriented towards the physical and mental formation of an individual.
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It aims at the development of strength, flexibility and coordination, lowering stress levels and
improving mental well-being. The technique of this exercise starts in the centre (a point a few
centimetres above the navel and the adjacent abdominal and back muscles; also called the core or
powerhouse) and is aimed first of all at the area of the torso – abdomen, back, hips and gluteus. It uses
six basic principles (breath, concentration, core-centration, control, precision, and fluency), which
need to be observed in the course of exercises. One of the key principles is the synchronisation of
breathing and movement (in the video in Czech „nádech“ = in English “breathe in”, in Czech „výdech”
= in English “breathe out”). During the exercise it is necessary to check the body posture (pelvis in the
neutral position, torso upright, shoulders and spatulae pushed backwards and downwards, in the
standing position the feet form the letter “V” – heels together, tips apart).
Most exercises are done in low positions on a
mat; we can exercise with or without training
aids (soft balls, resistance bands, big and small
balls, rings, etc.). The method is suitable for
people of all age categories and is frequently
used in physiotherapeutical programmes in post-
traumatic states and illnesses. The
recommended frequency of the exercise is 2 – 3
times a week.
Video: Compensation exercises - Pilates
Fitness training using aids Fitness training is a term used for a regular physical activity thanks to which we can (with an
appropriate amount of strain) maintain and develop physical abilities and skills. It is a set of exercises
aimed at training individual muscles and joints, which can be done at different speeds, intensity and
ranges. Individual exercises can be arranged into a series of exercises. Gradually increasing the
difficulty of exercises helps us develop the basic components of fitness.
Fitness training can be done with or without aids, indoors or outdoors.
Big balls and soft balls
The big ball (also called gymball) was originally used as a therapeutical aid, and later it appeared as a
training aid in the commercial sphere. Thanks to its characteristics it gradually started to be used in
school and home environments. It is usually used in fitness and health training, or in a sedentary job
to sit on and as a relaxation aid.
The correct size is the basic requirement for correct use of the big ball. When sitting on the ball, the
angle between the axis of the torso and the thigh and between the axis of the thigh and the shinbone
should be bigger than 90°. The size of the ball for young school children depending on their height is
somewhere between 42 – 55 cm in diameter, while for adults a size of 65 or 75 cm is usually suitable.
The maximum load is usually 300 kg. One of the basic qualities is the elasticity of the material, which
must be taken into consideration when choosing the ball (too soft does not provide enough support
for correct sitting and exercising).
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Correct sitting position on the ball:
• the head is upright, the chin pushed slightly backwards, • the chest is open (“little light”), • the spatulae pressed towards the chest (“we do not have any wings”), • shoulders downwards and wide (“dripping drops of water”), • the stomach tucked in (“as if somebody wanted to hit us in the stomach”), • pelvis in the neutral position (hands on the spatulae of the hip bones, check the tilt of the
pelvis), • thighs, knees and feet on one axis, legs slightly apart, shin vertical to the ground, feet loosely
placed on the ground
Video: Fitness exercise - Big ball (gymball)
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Soft ball (also called overball, softball, softgym
etc.) was originally used in physiotherapy and
later was found useful in commercial sphere and
homes. It is made of soft elastic material, is light
and easily portable. The maximum load is about
100 -120 kg. The diameter of the original ball is
25 cm, balls of smaller or bigger diameter are also
available. It can be bought at a reasonable price.
The use of the soft ball is rather varied. Apart
from its most frequent use - stiffness relief,
stretching and strengthening of body muscles – it can be used as a toy or a sports aid of different focus
than its original one (e.g. as a base, as a regular ball, as a psychomotor aid, etc.), stress-relieving or
seating and positioning equipment.
Video: Fitness exercise - Softball (overball)
Resistance bands
Resistance bands are simple training aids with a
wide range of use in stretching the whole body.
We can use them in stretching, strengthening
and other kinds of exercises.
Resistance bands can be of different shapes and
tension levels (colour-coded bands of different
resistance level are produced – fairer colours
mean lower resistance and are designed for
beginners or lighter exercise). The bands are
easily portable, easy to store and their price is
usually low.
At present flat elastic bands made of latex or other rubber material, 1.5 – 5.5 m long, are used most
often. They are generally known as Thera-Band (after the producer), aerobic band (based on the most
frequent use), or Elastikband, Powerband, etc. Other frequently used resistance bands are
RubberBands (popularly called “canning jar rubber seals”) – shorter ring-shaped resistance bands,
often tied in the middle so that they form the shape of a figure 8.
Resistance bands can be used in gyms, when doing exercises at schools and at home, in physiotherapy,
in group lessons or for individual training.
Video: Fitness exercise - Resistance bands
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Balance hemisphere – BOSU
Balance hemispheres are modern training aids
suitable for any age category. They were
originally used in physiotherapy, but later they
made their way into gyms, sports clubs and
homes. The most frequently used hemispheres
bear the BOSU® brand. Its shape resembles a
hemisphere (some producers make also elliptical
domes) and both the inflated part as well as the
flat base are used for exercise. Exercises on
balance hemispheres focus not only on
superficial muscles but also on the muscles of the deep stabilization system. It also has a positive
impact on the coordination of movement, physical fitness, musculoskeletal system, cardiovascular
system and human psyche.
Video: Fitness exercise - BOSU
Balance pads
Balance pads (also called balance air pads) are
another kind of balance training aids used in
physiotherapy, sports, schools, workplaces and
homes. They are suitable for toning muscles of
the whole body, and are used in strengthening
and coordination exercises, balance exercises
and in the development of spatial perception.
They are also used as a massage aid (e.g. feet
massage), chair mat (health-promoting effects,
helps fight backache) or as a piece of games
equipment for individual and collective games. When exercising with or sitting on a balance pad the
deep stabilization system, which participates in the correct body posture and body coordination, is
activated.
Balance pads are often made of soft elastic material of different colours. One side of the pad is smooth,
and on the other there are massage nubs.
Video: Fitness exercise - Balance pads
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Skipping rope
The first historical mention of the use of skipping ropes dates
back to Ancient Egypt. For centuries skipping ropes were
made of natural materials, most often by weaving stems of
herbs. Nowadays, skipping ropes are made of all sorts of
materials. There are ropes made of hemp, synthetic ropes,
bead ropes, leather and cabel ropes, or skipping ropes made
of cords and ropes of a different kind, diameter and type. The
end of the rope can be equipped with wooden or plastic
handles or there can be a nod tied at the end.
The right length of the skipping rope is set in the following
way: when standing in the middle of the rope, the ends reach
one’s armpits (or between the chest and the armpit). A too
long or too short skipping rope does not allow for the correct
execution of jumps.
In fitness training we usually use the skipping rope for jumping, but it can also be used as an aid for
compensation exercises (most often stretching and strengthening). When jumping with our feet
together, on one foot or alternating both feet over the rope swinging forward, we have to bear in mind
the correct technique of the execution. In the basic position the body is upright, shoulders are wide
and pushed downwards, arms bent – elbows next to the body, forearms straight and slightly forward,
and the end of the rope is in the palms. The legs are slightly apart (the width of the pelvis) and slightly
bent at the knees. The rope is behind the body. The first arch “starts in the arms” (slightly bent arms
make a big arch forward, the movement starts in a crouching position with the arms sideways, not
crouching with the arms raised – a frequent mistake) which gives the rope enough energy to move
forward. The arms return to the previous position (i.e. elbows next to the body) and the following
swing is generated by swinging the wrists and small circular movements of the forearms (not by
swinging the whole arms – a frequent mistake). During the jump the legs are straight (legs bent forward
or backwards is a frequent mistake), the torso is firm, and the lumber spine is not bent. The jump is
light and elastic (stiff, elasticity-lacking landing on the whole foot is a frequent mistake, which causes
a shock to the spine and quick fatigue to the lower limb muscles). The rope during the jump moves just
above the ground.
Video: Fitness exercise - Skipping rope
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Physical activities in water
environments A water environment brings along new conditions for physical activities. Thanks to the unique physical
properties of water the musculoskeletal system is relieved, the speed lowers and exercises and
movement change because of the water resistance. Therefore these physical activities are suitable also
for disabled people. Aquatic activities are beneficial for the whole organism: regarding health-oriented
fitness, musculoskeletal system, cardiovascular system, respiratory system, thermoregulation as well
as movement coordination, endurance, spatial orientation, flexibility, psyche, etc. Right above the
water surface the air is saturated with water vapour and contains only a few dust particles, which is
beneficial for the upper air passages and therefore suitable for people with some respiratory disorders.
A water environment is used for sports, recreational, physiotherapeutical or relaxation purposes.
Swimming and games for babies and toddlers The views of experts and laymen regarding
swimming for babies and toddlers differ. Among
the frequently cited positive aspects of
swimming at this age we can mention
improvements to psychomotor development, to
the fine and gross motor skills, appropriate strain
on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems
and their enhanced function, strengthening of all
components of the musculoskeletal system
without a strain being put on joints, development
of strength, endurance and coordination,
improved body defences and resistance to cold,
lowered fear of water and, last but not least, positive effects on social development (tight bond with
parents, movement in a group).
Children who attend swimming courses sleep better and eat better. Among the negatives we can name
potential development of allergies or asthma as a reaction to chemical substances dissolved in the
water, skin and digestion problems caused by the polluted water, inflammation of the air passages as
a consequence of poor drying after swimming or the cold water in the pool (should be 28°C).
Swimming with babies is usually done in bathtubs and pools (best without chlorinated water), whereas
toddler classes take place in pools. The duration of a lesson is 30 minutes at most.
Video: Swimming for babies and toddlers
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Swimming and games for pre-school and school children For pre-school and school children physical
activities in water environments are associated
with games. Games are usually connected to
motivation (fairy-tales – e.g. Moving water tales
(not only) for pre-schoolers, poems and
imagination) and are aimed at training and
development of basic swimming skills and
strokes. Depending on the age and skills
achieved, children are placed into ability groups.
A lesson is 30 – 60 minutes long.
Examples of games and activities:
• Games to get acquainted with water - games aimed at getting rid of the fear of water and submerging the head (e.g. playing tag – individual children, pairs, threes, groups; diving games; splashing games; games using equipment, etc.)
• Games for getting around in water – games for the development of spatial orientation above and under water (e.g. hunting for objects; identifying numbers underwater; swimming under something; jumps and falls, etc.)
• Games for breathing – games aimed at forming basic habits of directed breathing for swimmers
• Games for floating – the target skill is to put and maintain the body in the horizontal position on the water surface (e.g. a little star with a swimming board under the body; a little star; a mushroom; sending “little boats”, etc.)
• Elements of swimming and coordination – separate practice of lower and upper limb movements and subsequent coordinated practice of a particular stroke
Video: Prepration for swimmers and beginners before learning how to swim
Swimming and aquafitness in adulthood and old age In adulthood physical activities focused on fitness
or health-oriented swimming and aquafitness are
preferred.
Fitness-oriented swimming counts as a cyclic
aerobic activity which can be done by anybody
regardless of sex, age or fitness. It is also suitable
for physically challenged people (e.g. for people
with problems of the musculoskeletal system,
obesity, etc.). The basic position is lying on the
stomach or on the back (depending on the
chosen stroke), which puts a balanced strain on
the whole organism, in a position favourable for the cardiovascular and respiratory system. Thanks to
the properties of the water environment aquatic activities lack hitting and shocks and there is little
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strain put on the lower limb joints. It is said that when swimming a person uses twice to five times
more energy and strength than on land and burns 1 800 – 2 000 kJ / hour.
Back stroke is considered the healthiest stroke. The swimmer is in a horizontal position on his back,
the head in line with the torso. Considering the fact that the face is directed upwards and there is no
problem regarding breathing, it is often the first stroke taught to children. However, in fitness
swimming it is not widely used.
The opposite is true. The most frequently used stroke is the breast stroke. It is the slowest stroke. The
swimmer lies on his stomach. Demanding coordination of the movement of the limbs and breathing
out under water makes this stroke difficult for many swimmers. In swimming complexes we can usually
see people doing breast stroke without submerging their heads and breathing into the water, which in
the long run negatively affects the neck and shoulders (head bent back, fatigue, pain).
Crawl is the fastest stroke done in a floating position on the stomach. The head is in line with the torso,
and the limbs move fluently. The biggest problem is breathing into the water, which must be practised.
Crawl is the second most frequently used stroke in fitness swimming.
The second fastest is the butterfly stroke. The basic swimming position is on stomach, and the wavy
movement engages the whole body. It is a demanding swimming stroke in terms of coordination and
physical fitness, which is why it is not frequently used in ordinary fitness swimming.
Aquafitness encompasses different forms of movement in the water. One of the many kinds of group
exercises done in water and accompanied by music is aqua aerobics. It is a fitness activity focused on
the cardiovascular, respiratory and musculoskeletal system. People exercise in different depths
(shallow water – reaching the chest, transition – reaching the shoulders, deep – no contact with the
bottom, using floating equipment), with or without training equipment (e.g. dumb-bells, pool noodles,
gloves, aqua belts, aqua steps, etc.). The body is often in the upright position, and modified steps,
running, jumping and variations are used.
Video: Aqua aerobics, fitness swimming
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Physical activities in natural
environments Movement in fresh air undoubtedly brings along many health benefits. One’s physical activity
increases, which puts more strain on the musculoskeletal and other body systems. When exercising in
the woods or other kind of greenery, stress levels and mental fatigue decrease. Children who spend
more time outside in the countryside are less frequently ill. In the course of school attendance,
movement in fresh air is considerably reduced by the morning (but also afternoon) spent in the school
building. Integrated field education is consider