physical activity & sport issuesphysical activity & sport issues chapter 20 sport books...
TRANSCRIPT
Physical Activity& Sport Issues
Chapter 20
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DefinitionsModern sport is a reflection of our society– Example: winning at all costs
Sociology is the study of the functioning of human society in various environments (e.g., workplace, church, school)
Sport sociology is the study of the functioning of society within the modern sport environment
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Important Issues in Sport Sociology
Specifically, we will discuss:– Aggression and violence in
Sport – Cheating in sport– Gender and sport– Race and ethnicity in sport– Racism in sport– Other victims of discrimination– Future sporting trends
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Aggression and Violence in Sport
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Violence in sport parallels the reality of violence in society as a whole– We see examples of societal violence
watching the evening news– Sports news isn’t much different
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Examples of Violence in Sport
Hockey– 2004: Todd Bertuzzi punched Steve Moore in the
back of the headBasketball– 2004: Ron Artest and Stephen Jackson charge
into stands to confront abusive fansBaseball– 2000: Roger Clemens throws the jagged piece of
a broken bat at Mike PiazzaExamples can be found in almost every sportCan you think of any recent examples?
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Definitions
Violence = extreme aggression
There are three distinct components of aggressive behavior:
1. Hostile Aggression2. Instrumental
Aggression3. Assertive Behavior
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm
The intent is to cause harm
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm
The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harm
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm
The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harm
The goal is to achieve some external award
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm
The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harm
The goal is to achieve some external award
Anger is usually involved
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm
The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harm
The goal is to achieve some external award
Anger is usually involved
No anger is involved
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm
The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harm
The goal is to achieve some external award
Anger is usually involved
No anger is involved
Performed outside the rules of the game
e.g., fist-fighting in hockey
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Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression
The intent is to cause harm
The goal is to cause suffering
The intent is to cause harm
The goal is to achieve some external award
Anger is usually involved
No anger is involved
Performed outside the rules of the game
Performed within the rules of the game
e.g., fist-fighting in hockey e.g., aggressive checking meant to hurt the opponent
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Assertive Behavior
Often confused with aggression
Increased effort and energy expenditure
No intent to harm
No anger involved
May result in harm, but any resulting harm is incidental to the game
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What Causes Aggressive Behavior in Sport?
The following are the most popular and likely instigators of aggression
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1. Parents and coaches
Often unknowingly Through comments, e.g., “Bob can really take care of himself.”By demonstrating interest in televised sporting event fights
Recommendations:1. Every effort should be made to convey a
negative reaction to aggression2. Others?
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2. Outcome of the contest and league standing
More aggression occurs after losing contest– FrustrationTeams lower in league standing demonstrate more aggression
– Frustration and little to lose
Recommendations:1. Coaches need to refocus the teams efforts into
more productive channels, e.g., a new game plan2. Others?
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3. Point spread
The larger the point spread, the more aggression occurs
– Nothing to lose because game is perceived to be out of reach
Recommendations1. Coaches and players should try out a new play
to refocus attention from point spread2. Others?
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4. Physical contact
Sports with a lot of physical contact result in more aggression
– Perceived intent of the opponent– If player believes that an opponent intends bodily harm
there is an increased likelihood that aggression will occur
Recommendations:1. Encouraging athletes to increase effort versus aggressive
acts2. Victory (versus harm) is the ultimate way to get back at an
opponent3. Others?
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5. Fan Reaction
More aggression occurs when a team plays away from home
– Linked to fan reaction (i.e., unfriendly crowd is likely to anger the visiting team)
Recommendations:1. Players must learn to “tune out” this fan reaction
and focus on the game2. Others?
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Cheating in Sport
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Cheating = behavior aimed at getting around the rules or simply breaking themWhy do athletes engage in cheating?
1. The win-at-all-costs mentality2. Cheating results from the sport ethic
Ben Johnson’s world record in the 100-meter dash at the 1988 Summer Olympics before he was stripped of his win for using anabolic steroids.
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The Sport Ethic
A cluster of norms that many individuals in power and performance sports have accepted as the definition of an athlete
Four specific norms make up the sport ethic
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1. An athlete makes sacrifices for the game
An athlete must love the game and meet the demands of competition without question
– Must make sacrifices– Willing to pay the price to
play their sports
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2. An athlete strives for distinction
“Citius, Altius, Fortius = “swifter, higher, stronger”
– Constantly seeking improvement
– Pursuit of perfection
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3. An athlete accepts risks and plays through pain
Athlete does not give in to pressure, pain, or fearSuccess comes with: – Overcoming the fear and challenge of
competition– Accepting the increased risk of failure and
injury
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4. An athlete accepts no limit in the pursuit of possibilities
Obligation to pursue one’s dream to succeed without questionAnything is possible if a person is dedicated enough
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Cheating occurs when the norms of the sport ethic are accepted without question
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The Most Common Forms
of Deviance
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Athlete Recruitment
Rules are often bent in order to sign promising talentExample: “getting around” the rules regarding athletic scholarshipsExample: “ignoring” the required admission average standardsOthers?
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Academic Cheating
Athletes have their course work written by “academic support” staff
However, athletes are NOT more likely to engage in academic cheating than other students
Pressure to maintain a certain GPA has the potential to cause athletes, like other students, to consider cheating
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Cheating in Games
Modification of equipment– Fencing: rewiring athletes– Baseball: using cork-filled bats, applying Vaseline
on the ballModification of play– Basketball: using the slightest amount of physical
contact to throw off an opponent’s jump shot when out of the referee’s sight lines
Others?
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Performance-Enhancing Drugs
To gain a winning edge or to stay competitiveExample: Tim Montgomery and Chryste Gaines; American SprintersIOC considers certain performance-enhancing drugs illegal because:
• They give one an unfair advantage• They have serious health side effects
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Drug Physiological Effect Performance Effect
Amphetamines ↑ muscle tension, HR, BP
To “get up” for competition
Cocaine Physiological stimulant
Help overcome fear
Rectal Air Injections
↓ body density ↑ swimmer’s buoyancy
Alkalines Neutralize accumulation of acids in the blood
Postpone fatigue
Blood Doping ↑ oxygen carrying capacity
Postpone fatigue
Beta-adrenergic receptors
Sedative To steady the hands and slow down heart rate
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Gender and Sport
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What Prevented Women From Participating in Physical
Activity in the Past?
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1. Lack of rightsWomen were not allowed to vote, get education, make own decisions, etc.
This prevented them from making decisions with respect to their participation in physical activity
1948 Olympics – 400 m relay
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2. Emphasis on reproduction
Women were described almost exclusively by their biology as reproducing organisms
Physical exertion was thought to destroy a woman’s potential to have children
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3. Societal expectationsWomen were expected to act “lady-like”– Female athletes were negatively labeled because
they did not act in accordance with these norms
Many sports were discouraged because they prevented women from acting “lady-like”– Example: bicycling
Female athletes were expected to emphasize their femininity – Example: by wearing feminine clothes, which
impaired performance
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Access to Sport for Women
Single most important change in the world of sport over the past generation was INCREASED PARTICIPATION OF FEMALES
Women can now freely participate in sports that were not available to them a few decades ago
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What Led to the Increased Participation of Females in
Sport?
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1. New OpportunitiesDevelopment of new teams and programs since the late 1970s linked with increased participation– Unfortunately, women still
don’t receive an equal share of opportunities in today’s society - Examples?
These new opportunities have resulted from political changes
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2. Political Pressure and Equal Rights Legislation
Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972– A federal law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in all
educational programs and activities receiving federal funds
Major impacts of Title IX:– Dramatic increase in girls’ and women’s sports participation at
high school and college levels– Sports not traditionally offered in schools and colleges are now
offered to female athletes– Increased sport participation for women of color
Remaining inequalities as of today– Women’s sports are not usually promoted as mass sports– Male athletes still enjoy greater financial rewards than female
athletes
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3. The Global Women’s Rights Movement
Over the past 30 years:– Emphasized that females excel as human beings when they are
given the opportunity to develop their intellectual and physical abilities
– Played role in redefining occupational and family roles for women, providing more time and resources they need to participate in sports
In the official Platform for Action of the U.N.’s Fourth World Conference on Women called for:– Increased efforts to provide sports opportunities– New efforts to promote education, health, and human rights for
females all over the world
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4. The Expanding Health and Fitness Movement
Since the mid-1970s research highlighted the many health benefits of regular participation in physical activity
Today, well-toned muscles and cardiovascular fitness are no longer seen as desirable only in the male population
More women are pursuing the goal of developing physical strength and sport competence
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5. Increased Media Coverage of Women In Sport
Today, there are increased opportunities for girls and women to follow female athletes in media– Example: WNBA
This provides them with role models and encourages them to be active athletes themselves– Example: Nadia Comaneci (gymnastics)– Example: Mia Hamm and Brandi Chastain (soccer)
Unfortunately, women’s sports are still not covered as often or with the same detail as men’s sports– Examples?
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In Summary
The preceding factors have: – Collectively fostered
increased interest in sport participation for females
– Emphasized that gender equity in sports is an important and worthwhile goal
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Race and Ethnicity in Sport
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DefinitionsRace– Involves reference to physical traits– BUT it is based on meanings that people have given to
those particular physical traits
Ethnicity– Not based on physical traits– Based on characteristics associated with cultural traditions
and background
Minority group– A socially identified group that experiences discrimination
and suffers social disadvantages
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The Black Athlete
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View of the PastOnly white athletes were allowed to play on major league baseball teams
Black athletes played in Negro Leagues
Jackie Robinson – first black baseball player to play in the major leagues (1946)– Verbally taunted– Received death threats– Had balls thrown at his head
consistently
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ProgressProgress has been made leading to a significant increase in black athlete representation
However, the majority of people in power (e.g., team owners) are white, so the possibility of unequal access still exists
– NBA and NFL 100%– MLB 97%
Black Athlete Representation Trends in Three Professional Sports
0102030405060708090
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000Year
Perc
enta
ge (%
)
Baseball
Football
Basketball
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Other Victims of Discrimination
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North American First NationsConcerns of native peoples with respect to sports:
– Equity• Bottom of the social ladder• Lack resources, coaching, and support
– Cultural • Maintenance of cultural values in sports• Maintenance of traditional sports; e.g. snow snake • Value placed on of inclusion and sharing (versus competition)
These concerns have been ignored, but may be addressed by governing bodies in the future
The Arctic Winter Games– Since 1970, held every 2 years– Objectives
• To allow circumpolar North athletes to compete on their own terms and turf
• To involve as many athletes as possible• To provide competitive exchange below elite level of competition
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Disabilities and Sport
Traditionally people with disabilities have been viewed as “crippled” or “handicapped”
Recently, there has been a change in social attitudes toward those who cannot participate in “regular” sports, as a result of the following factors:– Determination and commitment shown by Terry Fox, Rick Hansen,
and others has led to highlighted attention of achievements of disabled athletes
– More attention now being paid to disabled athletes– More sporting events are being offered– More accessibility options that provide independence– Others?
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Gay Athletes and the Gay Games
For the most part, professional sport is highly male, heterosexual, and homophobic
“Coming out” in a sporting environment puts individual’s social status, family, fan affection, and even success at risk
Dave Kopay (1976) - First North American athlete to “come out”
Martina Navratilova
Greg Louganis
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Gay Games– Formed in 1982, since then continued to
grow– People of all sexual orientations are
welcomed– To enable gay athletes to participate in
their own culturally defined sports– Key philosophy: PARTICIPATION,
SUPPORT, INCLUSIVENESS, AND ENJOYMENT
– This philosophy is opposite to conventional international competitions, which stress exclusion and ranking
Gay Athletes and the Gay Games
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Older Adults in Sport
Older adults were discouraged from participating in sport due to:1. Developmental theory2. Old Medical practice
Today:– Physical activity = part of an overall healthy lifestyle in persons of all
ages– Sports for older adults = social activities– Older people put more stress on sports being inclusive
The World Masters Games– Participants 27 to 90 years of age– 1st games in 1985 in Toronto– Every four years
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Physical Activity and Sport Trends
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Heath and Fitness Concerns Will Continue to Increase
Greater emphasis on illness prevention versus treatment– Physical activity will become an integral part of illness
prevention
Wellness movement in North America– Emphasis on involvement in participation sports versus
performance sports
Educational curricula– Aggressive promotion of health and fitness – More emphasis on physical activities that involve lifetime
skills versus performance sports
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Groups Seeking Alternative Sports
Rejection of traditional performance sports for alternative sports
Youths will continue to form own sport in order to avoid the constraints of traditional sports
Less attention on commercialization and competition
Maintaining alternative sports as overall participation increases will be a challenge
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Spectators and Spectator Sports
More people will choose to watch versus participate in sports leading to:– Increased rates of obesity in North America– Increase in professional athletes’ salaries
Unexpected shifts in interests– Example: more soccer, less baseball
Increasing variation in the sports to watch– Example: alternative sports, fishing channel
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Virtual Sports
Television and the Internet will help to shape how sports are imagined, created, and played around the world
More fans in fantasy leagues
More virtual sports in video game format
Less actual physical participation