physical and cognitive development in middle and late childhood chapter 9 © 2013 by mcgraw-hill...

Physical and Cognitive

Development In Middle and Late

ChildhoodChapter 9

© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.

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Chapter Outline

• Physical changes and health• Children with disabilities• Cognitive changes• Language development


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Physical Changes and Health

• Body growth and change• The brain• Motor development• Exercise• Health, illness, and disease


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Body Growth and Change

• Growth averages 2–3 inches per year• Weight gain averages 5–7 pounds a year


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The Brain

• Brain volume stabilizes• Significant changes in structures and regions

occur, especially in the prefrontal cortex• Increases in cortical thickness• Activation of some brain areas increase while

others decrease


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Motor Development

• Motor skills become smoother and more coordinated

• Boys outperform girls in gross motor skills involving large muscle activity

• Improvement of fine motor skills during middle and late childhood due to increased myelination of the central nervous system


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Exercise

• Higher level of physical activity is linked to:– Lower level of metabolic disease risk based on

measures :• Cholesterol, waist circumference, and insulin levels

• Aerobic exercise benefits:– Children’s attention– Memory– Effortful and goal-directed thinking and behavior– Creativity


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Exercise

• Ways to get children to exercise– Offer physical activity programs school facilities– Improve physical fitness activities in schools– Have children plan community and school

activities– Encourage families to focus more on physical

activity


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Health, Illness, and Disease

• Middle and late childhood is a time of excellent health

• Accidents and injuries– Motor vehicle accidents are most common cause

of severe injury


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• Overweight children– Causes of children being overweight• Heredity and environmental contexts

– Consequences of being overweight• Diabetes, hypertension, and elevated blood cholesterol

levels

– Intervention programs


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• Cardiovascular disease– Uncommon in children but risk factors are present

• Cancer– 2nd leading cause of death in children 5–14 years

old – Most common child cancer is leukemia– Children with cancer are surviving longer because

of advancements in cancer treatment


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Figure 9.2 - Types of Cancer in Children


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Figure 9.3 - U.S. Children with a Disability Who Receive Special Education Services


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Children with Disabilities

• The scope of disabilities• Educational issues


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The Scope of Disabilities

• Learning disability: Difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, and spelling– Dyslexia: Severe impairment in the ability to read

and spell– Dysgraphia: Difficulty in handwriting– Dyscalculia: Developmental arithmetic disorder


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• The scope of disabilities– Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD):

Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity • Number of children diagnosed has increased

substantially• Possible causes

– Genetics– Brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development– Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development– Low birth weight


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Figure 9.5 - Regions of the Brain in Which Children with ADHD had a Delayed Peak in the Thickness of the Cerebral

Cortex


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• Emotional and behavioral disorders: Serious, persistent problems that involve:– Relationships, aggression, depression, and fears

associated with personal or school matters– Inappropriate socioemotional characteristics


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• Autism spectrum disorders (ASD): Range from autistic disorder to Asperger syndrome– Autistic disorder: Onset in the first three years of

life • Deficiencies in social relationships, abnormalities in

communication, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior

– Asperger syndrome: Good verbal language skills• Milder nonverbal language problems• Restricted range of interests and relationships


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Educational Issues

• Individualized Education Plan (IEP): Written statement that is specifically tailored for the disabled student

• Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): Setting that is as similar as possible to the one in which non-disabled children are educated

• Inclusion: Educating a child with special education needs full-time in the regular classroom


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Figure 9.7 - Percentage of U.S. Students with Disabilities 6 to 21 Years of Age Receiving Special Services in the General

Classroom


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Cognitive Changes

• Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory• Information processing• Intelligence• Extremes of intelligence


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Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory

• Concrete operational stage – Ages 7 to 11– Children can perform concrete operations and

reason logically, and are able to classify things into different sets

– Seriation: Ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension

– Transitivity: Ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions


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• Evaluating Piaget’s concrete operational stage– Concrete operational abilities do not appear in

synchrony– Education and culture exert strong influences on

children’s development


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• Neo-Piagetians: Argue that Piaget got some things right but that his theory needs considerable revision– Elaborated on Piaget’s theory, giving more

emphasis to:• Information processing, strategies, and precise

cognitive steps


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Figure 9.9 - Working Memory


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Information Processing

• Long-term memory: Increases with age during middle and late childhood– Knowledge and expertise• Experts have acquired extensive knowledge about a

particular content area


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• Strategies: Deliberate mental activities that improve the processing of information– Elaboration– Engage in mental imagery– Understanding the material– Repeat with variation– Embed memory-relevant language


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• Fuzzy trace theory: Considering two types of memory representations: – Verbatim memory trace– Gist

• Thinking– Critical thinking: Reflectively and productively,

and evaluating evidence• Mindfulness: Being alert, mentally present, and

cognitively flexible


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• Creative thinking: Ability to think in novel and unusual ways– Come up with unique solutions to problems– Convergent thinking: Produces one correct

answer • Kind of thinking tested by standardized intelligence

tests


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– Divergent thinking: Produces many answers to the same question • Creativity

• Scientific thinking– Asking fundamental and identifying causal

relations questions about reality


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• Metacognition: Cognition about cognition– Metamemory - Knowledge about memory

• Executive functioning– Self-control/inhibition– Working memory– Flexibility


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Intelligence

• Ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences– Individual differences: Stable, consistent ways in

which people differ from each other– Binet tests• Mental age (MA): Individual’s level of mental

development relative to others


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Intelligence

• Intelligence quotient (IQ): Person’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100• Normal distribution: Symmetrical distribution

– Most scores falling in the middle of the possible range of scores

– Few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range

– Wechsler Scales


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Figure 9.11 - The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores


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Figure 9.12 - Sample Subscales of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (wisc-iv)


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Intelligence

• Types of intelligence– Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence• Analytical intelligence• Creative intelligence• Practical intelligence


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Intelligence

– Gardner’s eight frames of mind:• Verbal• Mathematical• Spatial• Bodily-Kinesthetic• Musical• Interpersonal• Intrapersonal• Naturalist

– Evaluating multiple-intelligence approaches


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Intelligence

• Culture and intelligence• Interpreting differences in IQ scores– Influences of genetics– Environmental influences– Group differences– Culture-fair tests: Designed to be free of cultural bias


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Figure 9.13 - Correlation Between Intelligence Test Scores and Twin Status


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Figure 9.15 - Sample Item from the Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test


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Intelligence

• Using intelligence tests– Avoid stereotyping and expectations– Know that IQ is not the sole indicator of

competence– Use caution in interpreting an overall IQ score


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Extremes of Intelligence

• Mental retardation: Limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ and has difficulty adapting to everyday life– Organic retardation: Caused by a genetic disorder

or brain damage– Cultural-familial retardation: No evidence of

organic brain damage• IQ is generally between 50 and 70


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Extremes of Intelligence

• Gifted: Above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something– Three criteria• Precocity• Marching to their own drummer• A passion to master

– Nature-nurture– Domain-specific giftedness and development– Education of children who are gifted


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Language Development

• Vocabulary, grammar, and metalinguistic awareness

• Reading• Writing• Bilingualism and second-language learning


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Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness

• Middle and late childhood– Changes occur in the way children’s mental

vocabulary is organized

• Similar advances in grammar skills• Metalinguistic awareness: Knowledge about

language– Understanding what a preposition is – Being able to discuss the sounds of a language


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Reading

• Whole-language approach: Reading instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning

• Phonics approach: Reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds


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Writing

• Parents and teachers should encourage children’s early writing – Not be concerned with the formation of letters or

spelling


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Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning

• Second-language learning– Bilingualism has a positive effect on children’s

cognitive development• Subtractive bilingualism

• Bilingual education– Research supports bilingual education


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