Dr gayan agampody

Physical Development in Early Childhood

Physical Development in Early ChildhoodHow Does a Young Childs Body and Brain Grow and Change?

How Do Young Childrens Motor Skills Develop?

What Are Some Important Aspects of Young Childrens Health?

Body Growth and ChangeHeight and Weight:Average child grows 6 7 cm and gains between 7 pounds a year a year during early childhoodGrowth patterns affected by genetics, growth hormones, environmental factorsBoys gain muscle; girls gain fatty tissueGrowth Hormone Deficiency

The BrainBrain and head: fastest growth in body75% of adult size by age 390% of adult size by age 5Neuronal ChangesMyelination: nerve cells insulated36 age period: dopamine increase

The BrainStructural Changes Brain undergoes dramatic anatomical changes between ages of 3 and 15

Some areas almost double in size, purge of unneeded cells follows (up to age 4)

Frontal lobe growth (36 years of age)

Temporal and parietal lobes (6puberty)

The BrainThe Brain and Cognitive DevelopmentNeural networks: visual input is coded; output is languagePrefrontal cortexDopamine: key to information transmissionImportant in self-control and other skillsFunctioning mapped by diffusion tension imaging (DTI) a variation of MRI

The Prefrontal Cortex

Prefrontal CortexVisionIncreases during early childhood yearsPreschoolers are often far-sightedMost can focus eyes by 1st gradeVision problem signsAppearance of eyes (redness, sores, tearing, drooping lids, etc.)Should be screened, examined by age 3Treatment before age 6 prevents loss

Gross and Fine Motor SkillsPreschooler: highest activity level of any age in the life span

Need daily exercise; good programs with creativity and free movement

Exercise increases physical and visual awareness

Gross Motor SkillsAge 3: Enjoys simple movements such as hopping, jumping, and running

Age 4: Becomes more adventurous and climbs

Age 5: Runs hard, is adventurous, tries hair-raising stunts in climbing

Fine Motor SkillsAge 3: Still emerging from infant ability to place and handle things

Age 4: Coordination improved and more precise

Age 5: Hand, arm, and body move together under better eye command

Development of Fine Motor Skills in Early Childhood37 to 48 mos49 to 60 mos61 to 72 mos Approximates a circle in drawing Cuts paper Pastes using pointer finger Builds 3-block bridge Builds 8-block tower Draws 0 and + Dresses and undresses doll Pours from pitcher without spilling Strings and laces shoelace Cuts following a line Strings 10 beads Copies figure X Opens and places clothespins (one- handed) Builds a 5-block bridge Pours from various containers Prints first name Folds paper in halves and quarters Traces around hand Draws rectangle, circle, square, triangle Cuts interior piece from paper Uses crayons appropriately Makes clay object with 2 small parts Reproduces letters Copies 2 short wordsAssessing Motor SkillsDenver Developmental Screening Test

Used to diagnose developmental delay in children from birth to 6 years of age

Simple, inexpensive, fast

Includes gross and fine motor skills, language, and personal-social ability

Stages of Young Childrens Artistic DevelopmentStageAgeProgressPlacement Stage23Placement patternsShape Stage3Diagrams of 6 different shapesDesign Stage34Mix 2 basic shapes into more complex designPictorial Stage45Objects that adults recognize

HandednessOrigin and Development of HandednessGenetic inheritanceRight-handedness dominant in all culturesHand preference may occur in womb Many preschoolers use both hands; preference develops later

HandednessHandedness, the Brain, and LanguageApproximately 95% of right-handed individuals process speech primarily in left hemisphere Left-handed individuals Show more variation in processingMore likely to have reading problems

HandednessHandedness and Other AbilitiesLeft-handers more common among MathematiciansMusiciansArchitectsArtists

Sleep and Sleep ProblemsMost young children sleep through night and have daytime napTransitional objects (bedtime companions)Link between sleep and behavioral problemsNightmares: frightening dreamsNight terrors: sudden arousal, intenseSomnambulism: sleep walking; most outgrow

NutritionEnergy needs Calorie needs increase with ageNeeds vary by age, sex, and sizeDieting and eating behaviorDiets worsen as children ageChildren need healthy, balanced dietsFat and sugar consumptionAvoid excessive fat, sugars, fast foods

NutritionAllow child to develop tastes in foodExpose child to healthy food; limit sugar-based foodsPreschoolers Healthy mid-morning snack recommended; avoid giving sweets for snacks

NutritionOverweight young childrenCurrently a serious health problemBody mass index (BMI)Increased dramatically in recent decadesRates vary among ethnic groupsPreventionAvoid using food as symbol of love or rewardRoutine daily physical activity necessary

NutritionMalnutrition in Young Children from Low-Income FamiliesPoor nutrition linked to developmentNutritional supplement programsMay be linked to cognitive deficitsUnderfed children tend to receive less supervision, stimulation, educationLinked to aggressive, hyperactive behavior

Main Causes of death in children 1-4 years of age

Illness and DeathPoverty and ethnicityPoverty linked to health of young childrenMany health problems begin before birthUnsanitary conditions, crowded housing, inadequate supervisionHigher risk of exposure to lead poisoningInadequate medical insurance and care

Illness and DeathSafety at home and in child careCaregivers have important role hereVehicle safetyTobacco use; Close monitoring of childrenKeeping harmful products out of reachEffective communication with childEmotional support for childrens concernsUse of effective parenting strategiesThe State of Illness and Health of the Worlds ChildrenUNICEF: Under-5 mortality rate causesNutritional health and health knowledge of mothersLevel of immunizationDehydrationAvailability of maternal and child health services

Income and food availabilityAvailability of clean water and safe sanitationOverall safety of the childs environmentIncrease in HIV/AIDSCognitive Development in Early Childhood

Cognitive Development in Early ChildhoodWhat Are the Three Views of the Cognitive Changes That Occur in Early Childhood?

How Do Young Children Develop Language?

What Are Some Important Features of Early Childhood Education?

Cognitive ChangesPiagets Preoperational Stage (2-7):Children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawingsChildren form stable concepts and begin to reasonCognitions are dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefsPreoperational: child does not yet perform operations, or reversible mental actionsChildren can only do mentally what they can do physicallyOperations: internalized set of actionsContains 2 substages: symbolic function and intuitive

Symbolic Function StageFirst sub stage of preoperational thought

Occurs about ages 2 to 4Child gains ability to mentally represent an object not presentDrawings are imaginativeThought still imperfect, not well organized

Two limitations on preoperational thought

Egocentrism: inability to distinguish between ones own perspective and someone elses (having or regarding the self or the individual as the center of all things)

Animism: belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action (the belief that natural objects have souls that may exist apart from their material bodies.)

Intuitive Thought SubstageChildren begin to use primitive reasoning, seek answers to all sorts of questions Occurs about 4 to 7 years of ageLimits of preoperational thoughtCentration: focusing attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all othersConservation: realizes altering objects substance does not change it quantitativelyChildren may be able to conserve in one area but not anotherConservation may appear earlier than Piaget originally thought

Some Dimensions of Conservation: Number, Matter, and LengthType of conservationNumberMatterLengthInitial presentationTwo identical rows of objects shown to childTwo identical balls of clay shown to childTwo sticks are aligned in front of childManipulation

Child is asked which row has more objectsExperimenter changes shape of one ballExperimenter moves one stick to rightPreoperational childs answerYes, the longer rowNo, the longer one has moreNo, the one on top is longer

Vygotskys Theory of DevelopmentSocial constructionist approachChildren actively construct their knowledge and understandingWays of thinking, understanding develop primarily through social interactionCognitive development depends on tools provided by societyMinds shaped by cultural context

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)Range of tasks that are too difficult for the child alone but that can be learned with guidance

Lower limit: what child can achieve independently

Upper limit: what can be achieved with guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children.

Captures childs cognitive skills in process of maturing

Scaffolding and DialogueScaffolding: changing level of support over course of teaching session to fit childs current performance levelDialogueGuided participation: extend and support childrens understanding of skills

Language and ThoughtChildren use language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior

All mental functions have social origins

Private speech (self-talk): early transition to be more socially communicative; used more when tasks are difficult

Teaching Strategies

Use childs ZPDUse more-skilled peers as teachersMonitor and encourage private speechEffectively assess the childs ZPDPlace instruction in meaningful contextTransform classroom

Evaluating and Comparing Piagets and Vygotskys TheoriesBoth theories are constructivistVygotsky: emphasizes social opportunities for learning that Piaget ignoresPiaget: children construct knowledge by transforming, organizing, and reorganizingVygotsky overemphasized language; guidance has pitfallsBoth theories: teachers are facilitators

Information ProcessingEmphasizes how individuals: Manipulate informationMonitor informationStrategize about information

AttentionAttention ability Greatly improves during preschool yearsDeficits of childs control of attentionSalient versus relevant (young children will pay attention to flashy, attractive stimuli even when it is not relevant)Planfulness (young children do not tend to engage in systematic plans for analysis)Childs ability related to achievement-related skills and social skills

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(b)(a)JThe Planfulness of Attention

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(b)(a)JIn three pairs of houses, the windows were different.In three pairs of houses, all windows were identical.By filming the reflection in childrens eyes, one could determine what they looked at, how long they looked, and the sequence of their eye movements. Children under 6 were different from older children in this study.MemoryMemory: retention of information over timeImplicit memoryallows people to remember how to tie their shoes or ride a bicycle without consciously thinking about these activitiesExplicit memory comes in many formsremembering the time of an appointment or recollecting an event from years agoShort-termLong term

Short-term memoryUp to 30 seconds without rehearsalSpan increases during early childhood2 digits at ages 2 to 35 digits at age 7Individual differences at different agesSpeed of repetition is powerful predictor of memory span

Developmental Changes in Memory SpanIn one study: memory span increased from 3 digits at age 2 to 5 digits at age 7 Adults80123456762810412Age (years)Digit SpanHow Accurate Are Young Childrens Long-Term Memories?Young children remember large amount of information with appropriate cues and promptsAge and individual differences linked to susceptibilityChildren as eyewitnesses in court: accuracy affected by number of factorsThere are individual differences in susceptibilityLow self-concept, low support from parents, and mothers insecure attachment in romantic relationships leads to increased suggestibility

Strategies and Problem SolvingStrategies deliberate mental activities to improve processing informationToddlers can learn a strategyEarly childhood: stimulus-driven changes to goal-directed problem solvingSome cognitive inflexibility in ages 3 to 4 due to lack of understanding

Theory of mindTheory of Mind: awareness of ones own mental process and the mental processes of othersAge 18 months 3 years: children begin to understand three mental states perceptions, desires, and emotions

Age 3 to 5: children understand false beliefs, and that people can be mistakenChildren demonstrate an inability to think about thinkingPotential problems with false belief studies

Theory of mindOnly beyond preschool years (5 to 7 years of age) do children have a deepening appreciation of the mind itself

In middle and late childhoodchildren understand beliefs are interpretive and that the mind is an active constructor of knowledge

In early adolescencechildren begin to understand that people can have ambivalent feelings or experience conflicting feelings at the same time

Theory of mindGender Differences in Theory of Mind:Some research suggests that girls understand false beliefs earlier than boysParents tend to discuss emotions more with daughters than with sonsGirls tend to have better overall language ability

Theory of Mind And AutismAutism Can be detected before age 3Linked to genetics, brain abnormalitiesIndividual differences vary greatlyAutistic children haveSocial interaction, communication problemsDifficulty developing theory of mind

Early Childhood EducationChild-centered kindergarten: focus on whole child; concern for childs physical, cognitive, socioemotional developmentConsiders needs, interests, learning stylesPlay is very important to total developmentMontessori: cognitive skill emphasisConsiderable freedom and spontaneity to choose activitiesEncourages self-regulationCriticisms:Deemphasizes verbal interactionRestricts imaginative play

Developmentally Appropriate PracticeFocuses on typical child development within age span and uniqueness of each child Age appropriateness Individual appropriateness

Diversity in Childrens DevelopmentJapanSome kindergartens attached to universities that have elementary, secondary schoolsCulture: being a group member, not an individualTeacher-centered education: China, Thailand, Jamaica, Kenya, TurkeyChild-centered education:Mexico, U.S., Singapore, Korea, Hong Kong

Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood

Socioemotional Development in Early ChildhoodWhat Characterizes Young Childrens Socioemotional Development?

What Roles Do Families Play in Young Childrens Development?

How Are Peer Relations, Play, and Television Involved in Young Childrens Development?

The SelfInitiative versus guilt

Third of Eriksons eight stages ( others)

Initiative: enthusiasm for new activities; governed by conscience

Guilt: results when childrens efforts result in failure or criticism; lowers self-esteemDuring early childhood, children must discover who they areThey often identify strongly with their parentsChildren use their perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happenGuilt can lower self-esteem

Self-UnderstandingChilds representation of self; substance and content of childs self-conceptionsSelf-recognition begins about 18 monthsYoung children view self in physical termsActive dimension is central part of the selfTraits and emotions included by age 4 to 5

Emotional DevelopmentSelf-conscious (evaluative) emotions Pride, shame, guilt, and embarrassmentFirst appear at about 2 yearsPride and guilt more commonHeavily influenced by parents responsesInfluenced by gender differences

Emotional DevelopmentParents play an important role in childs emotional regulationEmotion-coaching: parents monitor their childs emotions, view them as opportunities for teaching, and coach them in how to deal with emotions effectively

Emotion-dismissing: parents view their role as to deny(to refuse to agree), ignore, or change negative emotions

Ability to manage ones emotions is important in determining the success of a childs peer relationships

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development: The development of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other people

Moral DevelopmentMoral Feelings:Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes feelings of anxiety and guiltChildren identify with parents to reduce anxiety and avoid punishment

Other, more positive emotions contribute to childs moral developmentExample: empathy, which involves perspective-taking

Moral DevelopmentMoral Reasoning (Piaget):4 to 7: heteronomous moralityJustice and rules are unchangeable properties of the worldBehavior is judged based on its consequences onlyImmanent justice: if a rule is broken, punishment will be given immediately7 to 10: transitional phase10 and older: autonomous moralityRules and laws are created by peopleActions and intentions should be judged

Moral DevelopmentParenting and Moral Development:Research suggests that both parents and peers contribute to childs moral maturityRelational quality, parental discipline, proactive strategies, and conversational dialogue are particularly importantParents should proactively avert potential misbehavior before it takes placeUse of diversionsConversations about values and beliefs

GenderSocial Theories of Gender:Social Role Theory: gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men Psychoanalytic Theory: the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent

GenderSocial Cognitive Theory: gender development occurs through observing and imitating what other people say and doReward and punishment for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior

GenderParental Influences:Mothers Socialization Strategies:Mothers socialize daughters to be more obedient and responsible than sonsMothers place more restrictions on daughters autonomyFathers Socialization Strategies:Fathers show more attention to sons than daughters, engage in more activities with sons, and put more effort into promoting sons intellectual development

GenderPeer Influences:Peers extensively reward and punish gender behaviorGreater pressure for boys to conform to traditional gender rolesChildrens Groups:Children show preference toward same-sex playmates by age 3From age 5 onward, boys are more likely than girls to form large groups and participate in organized group gamesBoys engage in rough play, competition, conflict, etc.Girls engage in collaborative discourse(conversation)

GenderCognitive Influences:Social cognitive theory: gender develops through observation, imitation, rewards, and punishmentGender schema theory: gender typing emerges as children develop gender schemas of appropriate and inappropriate behavior within their cultureSchema: network of associations that guide an individuals perceptionsGender schema: organizes the world in terms of male and female

ParentingBaumrinds Parenting Styles:Authoritarian: restrictive style in which parents demand obedience and respectParent places firm limits and does not allow discussionParent rigidly enforces rules but rarely explains themChildren are often unhappy, fearful, and anxious

Authoritative: encourages children to be independent while placing limits and controls on actionsExtensive verbal give-and-takeParents expect mature, independent, age-appropriate behaviorChildren are often cheerful, self-controlled, and self-reliant

ParentingBaumrinds Parenting Styles (continued):Neglectful: parent is very uninvolved in childs lifeChildren feel that other aspects of the parents life are more important than they areChildren tend to be socially incompetent, immature, and have low self-esteem

Indulgent: parents are highly involved but place few demands or controls on the childChildren never learn to control their own behavior and always expect to get their way

ParentingCorporal Punishment:Cross-culturally, U.S. and Canada are among those most favoring corporal punishment

Correlational research shows use of corporal punishment is:Associated with higher levels of immediate compliance, aggression, and antisocial behavior in childrenAssociated with lower levels of moral internalization and mental health

Alternatives include use of time-outs, reasoning with child, positive reinforcement, loss of privileges

Child MaltreatmentTypes of Child Maltreatment:Physical abuse: infliction of physical injuryChild neglect: failure to provide for the childs basic needsCan be physical, educational, or emotionalSexual abuse: fondling, rape, incest, intercourse, sodomy, exhibitionism, commercial exploitationEmotional abuse: acts or omissions by caregivers that have caused, or could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems

Child MaltreatmentContributing factors:CultureFamilyDevelopmental characteristics of child

Child MaltreatmentDevelopmental consequences of abuse:Poor emotional regulationAttachment problemsDifficulty in school and peer relationsOther psychological problems, such as depression and delinquencyChild victims show difficulty in establishing and maintaining healthy intimate relationshipsAlso display increased violence in adult relationships

The Changing FamilyDivorced Families:Children from divorced families generally show poorer adjustment than children from intact familiesDivorce can be advantageous if marital problems are affecting the well-being of the childrenConflict in non-divorced families is associated with emotional problems in childrenAdjustment for children improves when parents relationship is harmonious and when they use authoritative parenting

Child Risk and Vulnerability Factors:Childs adjustment prior to divorceChilds personality, temperament, and genderCustody situation

The Changing FamilyGay Male and Lesbian Parents:20% of lesbians and 10% of gay men are parentsChildren may have born to their natural parents, now divorced (and with a gay partner), some through donor insemination and surrogates; some are adoptedResearch has found no evidence that children growing up with lesbian mothers or gay fathers are any different from those living with heterosexual parents

The Changing FamilyCultural Variations:Important cross-cultural variations in parentingMany cultures are changing due to increased globalizationTrend toward greater distances between family members

Ethnic Variations:Families within different ethnic groups differ in size, structure, composition, reliance on kinship networks, and levels of income and educationLarge and extended families are more common among minority groups than among WhitesSingle-parent families are more common among Blacks and Latinos than among WhitesEthnic minority parents tend to be less educated and are more likely than Whites to live in low-income circumstances

PlayPlay: a pleasurable activity that is engaged in for its own sake

Theorists have focused on different aspects of play:Freud and Erikson: play helps child master anxieties and conflictsPlay therapyPiaget: play advances cognitive development; childrens cognitive development constrains the way they playVygotsky: play is an excellent setting for cognitive development

PlayTypes of Play:Sensorimotor play: Behavior by infants to derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor schemes

Practice play: The repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or mastered

Pretense/symbolic play:Occurs when the child transforms the physical environment into a symbol

PlaySocial play: Play that involves interaction with peers

Constructive play: Combines sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation

Games: Activities that are engaged in for pleasure and have rules

TelevisionChildren watch an average of 24 hours of television each dayNegative influence

Positive influenceMakes children passive learnersPresents motivating educational programs

Distracts them from homeworkIncreases information about the broader world

Teaches stereotypesProvides models of prosocial behavior

Provides violent models of aggressionPresents an unrealistic view of the worldTelevisionEffects of Television on Childrens Aggression:Research demonstrates that exposure to TV violence can cause increased aggression in childrenWatching television violence as a child has been linked with aggression years laterIncreased concern about realistic violent video gamesTelevision can also teach children about positive, prosocial behavior

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