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SKINFOLD MEASUREMENT AND BODY COMPOSITION VARIABLE OF
MALE PARTICIPANT OF HOCKEY AND FOOTBALL GAME
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I INTRODUCTION
Statement of the ProblemObjectivesHypothesisDilimitionLimitionDefinition and Explanation of TermsSignificance of the Study
II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
III METHOD AND MATERIAL
Selection of SubjectsSelection of VariablesReliability of dataAdministration of test and Collection of DataStatistical Design
IV ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
V MAIN FINDINGS, SUMMARY, CUNCLUSION AND
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE FURTHER RESEARCH
SummaryDiscussionConclusionSuggestion for the Further Research
BIBLOGRAPHY
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CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCATION :
In last few decades sports have gained tremendous
popularity all over the globe. The popularity of sports is
still increasing at a fast pace and this happy trend is likely
to continue in the future also. When one looks at the
history of modern Olympic games one sees that the
number of sports for which competitions are held at
Olympic games has increased steadily. The total number
of participating countries and sportsmen has also
increased steadily. In addition to Olympic sports,
indigenous sports has also popular in each country.
Several new sports like sky diving, skating, motor racing.
Having also come into existence and are quite popular
with the masses. The television and press are giving much
more coverage to sports have become effective medium
to carry sports to millions and millions have become an
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important social or cultural activity of the modern world
which is being given the right place it deserves by the
nation and societies of the world.
History reveals that as man become more civilized,
he become more scientific and in the process invented
better ways to record the measurement of various aspects
in Physical Education. In America, the history of
measurement in Physical education parallels the growth
and developments in research and elevates Physicals
Education to a more respected position in the educational
spectrum. Like medicine, Physicals Education has also
gained a place of prominence and prestige only in
proportion to the development and refinement of its
measuring techniques.
Sports by their vary nature are enjoyable,
challenging all absorbing and require a certain amount to
skill and physical condition” Sports holds a prominent
place in the modern life. Millions of people participate in
sports activities, watch and read about them and spend
billions of dollars annually on sports related activities and
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equipments. This has lead to the competitive element in
sports as now sports man participate to win and achieve
laurels for them well as for country to earlier philosophy of
participation in sports competition for sake of
Participation.
Under modern conditions especially related to
training for sports and games with a focus on superior
performance, adequate emphasis is given for the physical
structure and body build of each individual participant for
each sports or games. Therefore it is very evident that the
body build properly known as ‘physiognomy’ gets primary
emphasis at the time of selection of players for concerned
sports where superior competition is involved. Hence the
trend in the field of games, sports and physicals education
is to assess the related components scientifically as a part
of the total body build and size of each players and also to
interpret how far these components are helpful in the
performance in games and sports under competitive
condition.
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The performance of sportsman have become a
subject matter of national importance and prestige
particularly owing to the acceptance of international and
national competition. Sportsmen are a group of people
who have been subjected to a selection process through
various competitive tests resulting in their identity, the
best physically fit. There fore they provide suitable group
for role in this regard. At present, sportsman for superior
fatty tissue, mesmorph by large muscles and bones and
ectmorph by frail skeleton and small stringy musculature.
The Anthropometric examination is a supplement to,
and a substitute for the medical examination. It may,
however, and frequently does indicate incipient physical
disorder that are not sufficiently advanced to the detected
as a specific pathological state by the physicians, the
anthropometric measurement can be administered by
trained administrator in determining appropriate medical
follow ups. Anthropometic measurements have
contributed to knowledge in physical and health education
in relation to body build and physical growth.
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Weight for the body is a matter of universal interest.
Apart from its relation to personal appearance, emaciation
or obesity, it may have an important bearing on health. It
is generally accepted that good health is a great
importance for fruitful abundant life.
Early standard for weight were, in most cases, based
upon averages of measurements taken on persons of all
types of body builds with race, sex, age and perhaps the
nationally held constant. The same standard connot be
validly used for both the slender and stocky type of body
build, a race horse and draft horse many be of same
height and the same length of the leg, but they do not
weight the same amount or have the same amount of
strengh.
Anthropometric measurements were central
concerns of the first phase of the scientific era of
measurement, which began in the 1860’s. Current interest
in anthropometric measurements focuses on three areas :
growth measures, body type and body composition. The
uses of such measures include classification, prediction of
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growth patterns and prediction of success in motor
activities as well as assessment of obesity.
Physical Education objectives tend to include
composition and posture. By measuring body dimensions,
physical educators may estimate the effectiveness of
scientific programme. Body composition involving percent
body fat, may by estimated through the use of skinfold
calipers to determine the degree of obesity of the person.
Through the use of a posture rating scale, persons may be
identified who may need remedial work.
Body comosition is concerned in part with the obesity
of the individual. In measuring this aspect of body
composition, the total body weight is divided into two
components : lean body weight and fat body weight. Lean
body weight include muscle, bone and vital organs. the
underlying assumption is that total weight equals lean
body weight plus fat body weight. The higher percentage
of fat body weight in relation to lean body weight, the
higher the degree of obesity.
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Skinfold measures are considered to be a superior
indicator of obesity than is over weight as determined
from weight tables. Skinfold thickness gives an estimation
of total body fat in as much fifty percent of the total fat
lies immediately under the skin.
Age-height-weight tables have traditionally been
used to determine whether an indi vidual is under weight
or over weight. However research has shown that
individuals of the same height, weight and age can vary
significantly in body shape and body compo sition. for
example, most football player are over Weight according
to typical age height-weight tables, but most are not
obese. Each trained football players is compared with less
developed individuals of the same age, height and weight,
differences in the body shape and composition are
obvious, because of the emphasis of physical fitness in
today’s society, various method of assessing body
composition have been popularised.
A more appropriate evaluation of a person’s weight
can be made if measurements of body composition are
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used. Various methods of evaluating body composition
can be useful in assessing obesity and physical fitness, in
classifying students into homogeneous groups and for
prediction of success in motar activities especially those
that require strength and endurance.
Taking into account into characteristic nature of the
games/sports – soccer and athletics, and differences in the
amount and the nature of demands made by each on
various body part, it may be logically deducted that
individuals participating in these games will exhibit
differential growth in their body size and body
composition. this study was under taken to test this
deduced conclusion by comparing various anthropometric
measurements and body composition of players from
individual game.
OBJECTIVES :
The following are the objectives of the present
study :
1. To determine difference in the skinfold
measurements between Hockey and Football players.
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2. To determine difference in to Body Composition
between Hockey and Football players.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM :
Comparison of skinfold measurement and body
composition variable of male participant of Hockey and
Football games of difference universities
HYPOTHESIS :
It was hypothesized that there would not be any
significant differences between the Hockey players and
Football players in selected skinfold measurements and
body composition variables.
DELIMITATIONS :
1. The study was delimited to the 50 male players of
Hockey and Football (25 subjects of each discipline).
2. The study was delimited to the male players in the
age group of 18 to 24 years.
3. The study was confined to men Hockey players and
Football players of North zone Inter University.
4. Estimation of skinfold measurements was delimited
to
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a) Biceps skinfold
b) Triceps skinfold
c) Subscapular skinfold
d) Suprailiac skinfold
e) Mid Axilary skinfold
f) Thigh skinfold
g) Calf skinfold
Taken on the right side of the body.
5. Estimation of body composition was delimted to
skinfold measurements of
a) Total body weight
b) Lean body mass
c) Fat percentage
LIMITATIONS :
1. Non availability of the sophisticated instruments for
measuring certain anthropometric measurements
and body composition variables were accepted as
limitation for the study.
2. The effect of uncontrollable factors such as subjects
diet and their participation in various activities as a
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part of their professional preparation which might
have had influenced the selected variables was
recongnised as limitations of the study.
DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS :
The various terms which are used in the present
study have been defined as under :
ANTHROPOMETRY :
The measurement of structure and proportion of the
body is called Anthropometry. Mathew’s (1978) is
Anthropometric variables are dimension of the structure of
the human body taken at specific sites to give measure of
length, girth and width.
BODY COMPOSION :
Body composition generally refers to the type and
amount of tissues which make up the body. The most
widely accepted model is two component scale, lean body
mass and fat weight. The lean body mass consists of
skeleton, organs and other tissues which are
approximately 40 to 50 percent muscles mass and is used
to represent the active energy fat (Behuke, 1963).
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Karpovich (1971). “The study of body composition can be
approached in number of ways : organ system, fluid
compartments, kinds of tissue and so forth.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY :
1. The findings of the study will be helpful to the
coaches and teachers to construct their training
programe according to their physical and body
composition characteristics.
2. Result of the study would provide a criteria for
selecting talented players for various game.
3. The findings of the study will be helpful for the self
assessment of physical characteristics and body
composition of various games and sports.
4. The study man motivate others to take up a similar
type of study in other sports or events – which will
help us in gathering more and more scientific
information in sports.
Objectives: To evaluate the effectiveness of a discriminant
function that predicts risk of pathogenic eating in
comparison with a standard self report measure (EAT) and
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a clinical interview. In addition, to determine the
effectiveness of this discriminant function using a variety
of collegiate athletes.
Methods: A total of 319 participants were asked to
complete a series of self report measures that assessed
dietary practices. In addition, anthropometric measures
were obtained, and a random sample of 15% participated
in a structured clinical interview.
Results: Correlational analyses indicated that the
discriminant function categorisation of risk was
significantly related to both the clinical interview and EAT
(p 0.05). The discriminant function was accurate in
predicting risk category in this diverse group of athletes,
particularly with respect to those at low risk (83.1%) and
those at high risk (72.7%).
Conclusion: This information may be helpful in the
development of a simple, accessible tool to identify
athletes at risk of engaging in pathogenic eating
behaviours.
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CHAPTER – 2
REWIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE :
“As the competent Physician must constantly be
abreast to latest discoveries in the field of medicine, the
successful lewyer must be able to locate the information
pertaining to the care in hand, obviously the careful
student and investigator should become familiar with the
location and use of sources of educational information.”
Good Barr and Scates For any investigation, a review of
related studies in the field of investigation is of great help
to the investigator. These studies reveal as to how much
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work has already been done in a certain field which
methods have been used to collect and analyze data and
what have been their findings, suggested solutions and
recommendations etc.
Survey of related literature avoids the risk of
duplication, provides, theories, indeas, explanations of
hypotheses valuable in formulating the problems and
contributes to the general scholarships of investigator.
The review of the literature may assist the researcher by
pointing out deficiencies in existing research. It may help
the researcher to avoid errors that played other
researchers studying the same or similar variables. It
helps the researchers to develop a theoretical framework.
The researcher using questionnaires, check-lists,
observation, schedules as interview often is uncertain of
what should be asked, observed or recorded and review of
literature may help him. In short, review of literature helps
the investigator have clear graps of meaning and scope of
subject of study with all its variations and implications.
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Goods, Barr and Scates analyzed the reason for
survey of related literature as :
1. To provide ideas, theories, explanation or hypothesis
valuable information of problem.
2. To suggest method of research opporpriate to the
problem.
3. To show whether the evidence already available
solve the problems adequately without further
investigation and thus to avoid the risk of duplication.
4. To located comparative date successful in the
interpretation of results.
5. To contribute the general scholarship of investigator.
So, seeing the importance of related literature, the
investigator conducted a survey of it.
The review of the literature is for the present study
has been given as under.
THE LITERATURE RELATED TO PRESENT
STUDY :
Thomson, Bushkirk and Goldman (1956) summarized
the result of number of studies that had to do with
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athletes in respect of skinfold thickness and body density.
In their sudy, they found that body fat, particularly
subcutaneous fat could be altered by strenuous training
and that body density usually increased even if no loss in
body weight occurred.
According to Behnke et al (1963) Keys and Brozek (1953)
and Navak (1968) in the proportion of organism. The
relative proportion of these components, while different in
male and females through much the life span are
dynamically dependent on development level and thus
one of interest to those concerns with human growth and
development. Further more the significant interaction
between body composition and energy turn over is among
others things, closely related to the functional capacities
of the consequence in physical fitness and performance of
children and adults.
Parizokova (1963) investigated that impact of age,
diet and exercise on men’s body composition and
observed that the proportion as well as the absolute
amount of lean body mass increased-significantly at the
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expense of fat. Trained adolescent body were found to
have a higher lean body mass also slightly increased
creatinine exertion than untrained youth. Cross sectional
comparison, however, did not bring into clear focus the
change in body composition and physique which were
attributed to in intensive muscular exercise.
Leedy and Others (1965) established that physical
performance items, where the whole body of an individual
is in motion, are dependent on the percent lean body
weight rather than the absolute (L.B.W.) lean body weight.
Novak (1985) conducted a study on high school
Football and Basketball boys and concluded that their
average total body fat amounted to be 7.2% and lean
body mass 92.8%.
Navak (1968) in his study, “Body composition and
psychological fitness of athletes.” Concluded that
collegiate athletes 20 year old on an average, showed
13.8%, 12.2%, 4%, 3.3% and 3 of body fat respectively for
Football players, Basketball players, Swimmers, trackman
and Gymnasts.
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Kal, Fukunaga and Toheda (1969) studied body
compositon of Judosists of age varying from 18 to 21. The
following results were obtained.
1. The cross-sectional area of the upper and forearm
was photographed by mean of ultrasonic radiation.
2. The maximum muscle strength of the arm flexor was
observed about 26 per cent higher in Judosists. No
significant difference was observed in strength per
unit cross-sectional area of the arm flexor between
both group 6.4 0.1 kg/cm2 in Judosist, 6.7 1.1
kg/cm2 in non-judosists could be improved by 30 per
cent through intensive strength training.
3. That total mass of b body fat, solid and body water
was about 18 per cent higher in Judosists. No
significant difference were observed between both
groups.
Nemour (1971) did a comparative study of
anthropometric measurement of causasion and Negro
bodys and girls to find out the difference in performance in
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anthropometric measurements of the body and girls of
both races. A total of 900 subjects were taken. Subjects
were of difference age groups of six to ten years.
Anthropometric measurements were, standing height,
sitting height, weight, length of arm, a length of fore arm,
length of the hand length of the upper extremity, length of
the thigh, length of the leg and length of the lower
extremity. He found that age of six to eight and ten year,
boys differed from girls in most anthropometric
measurements. However, there was no difference on
standing height, leg and lower extremity length. Negro
boys and girls had longer appendages and were taller than
Caucasians.
Willmore and Haskell (1972) conducted a study on
body composition and Endurance capacity of professional
Football players and concluded that the professional
Football backs and wide receivers were lean (% fat 8.1)
but had a much greater amount of fat free weight
Brongdon (1973) compared the physical fitness and
anthropometric measurement of pre-adolescent Maxican-
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American and Anglo-American males. 300 subjects were
tested from each group of AAHPER Youth fitness test and
thirteen anthropometric measurements were made. The
findings revealed significant difference between the
Maxican American and Anglo-American in certain physical
fitness and anthropometric measure, few significant
difference were evident. The result indicates that the
Anglo American males are larger in gross body size and
they were superior in performing selected physical fitness
items. Both groups exhibited higher body measurements
and fitness scores at each succeeding age level. That
denoted a relationship between age, physical, fitness and
physical growth. Age as a predictive factor is equally
important to Anglo American Students.
Martin (1976) conducted a study by comparing the
selected anthropometric measurements and physical
performance between Maxican-American and Anglo-
Amercian adolescent boybs. Also comparisons of body
size, body structure, and physical performance were
between the subjects at adjacent age levels within each
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individual recial groups. The Body size was as sessed by
standing height and body were measurements. Body
structure was interpreted as upper arm girth, chest girth,
abdominal girth, thigh girth and calf girth measurements.
The physical performance was determined by selected
motor ability tests. It was concluded that excluding
standing height. The Maxican and Anlgo-American subject
did not differ in body size and body structure and also
there two reces did not differ in body size and body
structure and also these two races did not differ in
physical performance.
Bhatnager (1980) conducted a study on 23 rural
sportsman (Athletics-8), Kabaddi-7, Volleyball-8) of
Madhya Pradesh (India) pertaining to their weight, height,
sitting height and subcutaneous tissue fold at biceps,
triceps, suprailiac and subscapalar region. They have been
found to be lighter. Shorter with less amount of fat as
compared to normal urban Punjabis. Morephological
differences pertaining to sportive activities indicate that
Volleyball player are lightest, shortest with maximum
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amount of fat compared to Kabaddi players and athletes,
whereas Kabaddi players are heaviest and fallest among
all the rural sportsman of Madhya Pradesh.
Kansal and Others (1980) conducted a research on
the physique and body composition of Indian University
Soccer player. The zonal champions of the all Indian Inter
University Football Tournament and the runner-up of the
North Zone were taken as the subject. The concluded that
defense line player were significantly taller and heavier
and higher value to most of the parameters examined.
The femur bicondylar diameter accompanied by better
development of thighs and calf’s was seen in comparison
to the defensive player. The forward line players had also
slightly less fat and more of lean body mass.
Baacke conducted a study to find out the three
anthopometric and eight physical performance measures
by correlation methods to the performance of eighty
seven secondary school boys in the running hop, step and
jump. All variables showed a significant relationship with
the criterion beyond the .05 level of confidence. The
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criterion could be employed as measure of motor ability :
the running broad jump (r = .889), 50 yards dash (r
= .815), and standing broad jump (r = .778), there were
significant beyond the 0.01 level of confidence. A
regression equation developed from the optimal set of
variables that was considered to be feasible for
administration in school system consisted of two items for
the Youth Fitness Test Manuals : The standing broad jump
and 50 yards dash.
Terral studied the relation of re and post puberty
anthropometic measurements and physical fitness tests
scores of American Negroes and Caucasian females. to
measure physical fitness AA PHER Youth fitness Test was
used. Anthropometic measurement and physical fitness
scores of 50 pre and post puberty Negro females of junior
high school, age were the date used for determining
relationship between anthropometic measurements and
physical fitness. Negros have significantly longer legs,
longer arms and hands, longer feet ,a wider shoulder
girdle and narrower pelvic girdle than Caucasians and
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therefore they proved better in 50 yards dash and soft ball
throw for distance.
Nemour did a comparative study of anthropometric
measurements of Caucasian and Negro boys and girls to
find out the differences in anthropometric measurements
and at the same time difference in standing board jump
medicine ball put and zig-zag run performance of the boys
and girls of both races. A total of 900 subjects were taken.
Subjects were of different age group of 6 to 10 years.
Anthropometric measurements were standing height,
sitting height, weight, length of arm, length of fore arm,
length of the had, length of the upper extremity, length of
the lower extremity. It was found that at the age of 6 to 8
and 10 years, boys differed from girls in most
anthropometric measurements.
However there were no difference in standing height,
leg and lower extremity length. Negro boys and girls had
longer appendages and well taller than Caucasians. Still
Negro boys and girls were not superior in the event of
power and agility.
27
Yoest investigated the relationship between cardio
vascular fitness and selected anthropometric
measurements in eight grade boys and college male
subjects. He concluded that age, height, Lean body mass
and body surface area did significantly limit performance
in Ohio State University Step Test. However, body
composition representing bodyfat, limited the
performance of college men only. In adolescent scores in
the step test improve larger percentage of lean body
tissue.
Cureton and other determined the relationship
between total body density, total body potassium, skinfold
thickness measurements and AAHPER Youth Fitness Test
performance on 49 pre pubescent boys, 8 to 11 years of
age. Zero-order correlation between body composition
measures and performance scores were low as moderate
however, using multiple regression analysis it was found
that body composition measures significantly (p .05)
increased the variance accounted for above that explained
by age, height and weight in predicting all performance
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items except sit ups. It was concluded that not only
variation in body size, but also variation in body
composition should be considered when interpreting
results of the AAHPER Test for individual children and for
comparison of groups of children who differ in body
comparison of groups of children who differ in body
composition.
Hall studied the anthropometric estimation of body
density of women athletes in selected athletic activites.
Twenty two anthropometric measurements were
evaluated to determine there relationship to body density
of women varsity athletes on four inter collegeiate teams.
Hydro static weighing was used to determine body
density, with residual volume determined by nitrogen
wash out technique. A step-wise regression analysis of the
data indicated that women athletes must be considered as
distinct population by sports.
Slanghter and Others determined the association of
somatotype and body composition to physical
performance measures in seven through eleven years old
29
girls. Somatotype were measured by Heath and Carter’s
anthropometric method. Body composition was estimated
as fat and lean body mass from 40 km measurement
using a whole body counter. Physical performance
measures consisted of three tests of running a mile run,
600 yards run and 50 yards dash, and two test of
jumping : standing broad jump and vertical jump.
Moderate relationship was found between somatotype
components, measures of body size and measures of body
composition with the physical performance variables of
running and jumping. The first and third components were
more closely related to physical performance than second
component. Percent fat and first component when each is
combined with age , height and weight accounted for a
similar amount of the variation in running and jumping
performance. Lean Body Mass when combined with age,
height and eight accounted for significantly more of the
variation in running and jumping performance than the
second component when combined with, age, height and
weight.
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Woodward and Associates observed in their study
relating to maximal Oxygen consumption, body
composition and anthropometry on selected Olympic male
athletes. They observed that the latest rowers and water
polo players had significantly larger skeletal width and
length measurement. The skinfold measurements showed
larger fat folds on the trunk and extremities in water polo
Player compared to the other three groups leanness of the
upper extremity was significantly larger in rowers and
water polo player, while that of the lower extremities was
significantly larger in rowers only. Total body fat in
absolute values was found significantly higher in water
polo players, percentage wise there was no significant
differences between the groups even throughout water
polo players the highest percentage of body fat.
Cascell measured and compared the moter abilities
and physical characteristics of collegiate soccer players of
the four position of play : forwards, half backs, full back
and goal keepers, by taking 111 college soccer players in
the Ohio State. Each subject was somatotyped and his
31
percent body fat was estimated. The motor ability items
included an agility test, a leg power test, a soccer ability
test and an upper body strength test. Somatocharts were
made for different positions with all the subjects being
plotted. The results showed that differences do exist in
relation to motor abilities and physical characteristics
between some of the positions. A difference existed in
endomorphic component of somatotype with half backs
significantly (p .05) lower than all other positions. No
differences were found in the other components of
mesomorphy and ectomorphy. Differences (p .05) were
also found in height, with goal keepers and full backs were
also found be heavier than forwards. There were no
differences found in leg power, with full backs more
powerfull than forwards. Soccer ability with half backs
were more skillfull than goal keepers. No differences were
evident in the abilities of agility, upper body strength and
endurance.
Benny (1988) conducted a study of anthropometric
measurements and body composition variables on judo
32
players. Nine anthropometric measurements and three
body composition variables were taken for this study. Judo
players ability was taken as the criterion measure and all
the variables were taken as the independent variables.
Pearson’s product correlation was used to find our the
relationship between anthropometric measurements and
criterion measure. A multiple correlation was compound to
find the combined effect of the anthropometric
measurements to judge performance. He concluded that –
1. Performance in Judo is positively and significantly
related to chest girth.
2. Judo performance is negatively and significantly
related to Ponderal Index which means that for
better Judo performance Judeka should possess
greater body weight in proportion to body height.
3. Lean body mass, upper arm/force arm ratio and
sitting height are the most important predicting
variables under the limitation of the study.
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CHAPTER – 3
METHOD AND MATERIAL :
In this chapter the investigator explained the
selection of subjects. Selection of variables, reliability of
measurement, administration of test, collection of data
and statistical design job analysis of data.
34
Selection of Subjects :
For this study the investigator selected 25 subjects of
each discipline i.e. Football from Srinagar Garwal and
Hockey from A.M. University, during North Zone Inter
University Championship, for particular games.
Selection of Variables :
The following variables were selected for the
investigation.
Independent variables :
1. Age
2. Body Weight
Skinfold Measurement :
1. Biceps skinfold
2. Triceps skinfold
3. Subscapular skinfold
4. Suprailiac skinfold
5. Mid Axilary skinfold
6. Thing shinfold
7. Calf shinfold
35
Body Composition :
1. Body density
2. Fat percent
3. Fat weight
4. Lean body mass
Reliability of Data :
The reliability of data was insured by establishing the
instrument reliability.
Instruments Reliability :
Skinfold caliper, weighing machine and sketch pen
used in the sudy were obtained form research laboratory
of physical education, L.N.I.P.E. Gwalior and Department
of Physical Education Gurukul Kangri University Haridwar.
All the instruments were calibrated and reliable.
Tester Competency & Reliability :
To ensure that the investigator was well versed the
techniques of conducting the test, the investigator had a
number of practice session in the testing procedure under
the guidance of expert Mr. Vivek Pandey, Testes
competency was evaluated to gather with the reliability of
36
tests. Reliability of tests wasestablished by test-re-test
method using person’s product movement of correlation.
TABLE – 3.1
Reliability of Skinfold Measurements :
Sr. No. Variables Cofficient of Correlation (r)
1 Biceps .91*
2 Triceps .96*
3 Subscapular .88*
4 Suprailiac .89*
5 Mid Axilary .91*
6 Thigh .92*
7 Calf .89*
N = 20
Df = 18
* Significant at .01% level.
37
From the table it is evident that this reliability was
significantly at 1% level. This establishes the competency
of the scholar to administer the test.
Subject Reliability :
The above test retest coefficients of correlation
method also established that subject reliability was
significant at .01 level of confidence, as the same subjects
were used under similar conditions by the same tester and
zero motivational techniques were used nor any training
was given.
Administration of tests and collection of data
All the test were administered at the sports Stadium
of, A.M. University, Aligarh and Srinager, Garwal. The
anthropometric measurements, where side was involoved
were taken on the right side of the individual. Standard
technique decribed by Weiner and Lourie (1969) was
followed for measurements. The necessary anatomical
landmarks and sites for skinfold were marked with a
sketch pen. The body weight was recoded to the nearest
of half a kilogramme and all other measurement were
38
recorded to the nearest of a millimeter. Skinfold
Measurements
The most widely used a practical method for
determining obesity is based on the thickness of skinfolds.
Skinfold have several advantages :
1. The necessary equipment’s is inexpensive and need
little space.
2. The measures can be obtained quickly and easily.
3. The measures when performed correctly have a high
correlation (r-o.80+) with body density from
underwater weighting. Skinfold variables provide
more accurate estimates of body fat then the various
high-weight ratios do.
Body fat was estimated through skinfold
measurements, which were taken with the help of a Indian
version of Lange’s skinfold caliper, manufactured by Una
and company, New Delhi.
The measurement of skinfold are based on the
knowledge that approximately 50 percent of the depot fat
is a stored in special cells within thesubstaneous areas.
39
Skinfold is a fold consisting of two layers of skin and
subcutaneous structures, which can be picked up with the
help of thumb and index finger.
The thickness of the field will depend upon the
amount of stored fat and can be measured with a special
instrument called a skinfold caliper. A caliper is designed
to excert a pressured on caliper face of 10 gm, per square
millimeter.
The calipers are actually designed for measured the
thickness between indisured on caliper face of 10 gm, per
square millimeter. The calipers are actually designed for
measured the thickness between individuals in the
thickness of the skin, so he resulting value in an indirect
estimate of individual differences in the thickness of
subcutaneous fat. When measuring skinfold thickness, it is
essential to determine precisely location of the site. Like-
wise, it is important to hold the skinfold firmaly and
maintain a constant distance between the caliper and
thumb and finger holding the site. The number of sites at
which skinfold can be measured are practically limitless,
40
but only a few have been found to be of value in
estimating body density, percent fat, fat weight and lean
body mass. In the present study following sites were
selected for skinfold measurement :
1. Biceps
2. Triceps
3. Subscapular
4. Suprailiac
5. Mid axilary
6. Thigh
7. Calf
All measurements were taken with subjects in the
standing position and taken on the right side of the body.
1. Biceps : Front of the upper arm :
The subject was directed to stand in anatomical
posture with arm dangling freely and relaxed. A point on
the biceps mid way was located and skinfold
measurement was taken with the caliper.
41
2. Triceps : Back of the upper arm :
The subject was asked to stand in anatomical posture
with both arm freelydangling beside he was asked to flex
the arm at elbow at 90 degress. A point on the triceps mid
way between the acromiale process of the shoulder and
aberenon process of the ulna was located an skinfold
measurement was taken:
3. Subscapular :
It was measured by picking up the skinfold just
beneath the inferior angle of scapula of scapula in a
direction which is obliquely downwards and outwards. The
measurement was determined was determined with the
help of skinfold caliper.
4. Suprailiac :
The subject was made to stand in anatomical
posture. A site on the abdo men (one side of trunk) above
the iliac crest at the level of ambebious was selected. The
thick ness of the skinfold was measured as per desription
given above.
5. Mid axillary :
42
It was vertical fold on the mid axillary line
approximately at the level of fifth rib. The fold was held
firmly between the thumb and finger and the
measurement was taken with the help of skinfold caliper.
The measurement was recorded in millimeters. Two
consecutive measurements were taken and mean was the
taken the final score.
6. Thigh :
The front of the thigh skinfold was recorded while
standing keeping equal weight on both feet and then one
foot was placed on a 20 cm. Step with knee slightly flexed
and thigh raised. The skinfold was raised midway on the
anterior of the thigh between the trochnterion and the
proximal border of the patella. The fold was lifted parallel
to the long axis of the thigh. The skinfold caliper was
applied about 1 cm. From the fingers holding the skinfold
and at a depth that was about to the thickness of the fold.
The reading was recorded in millimeter.
7. Calf :
43
The skinfold was measured at the level of the
maximum circumference at the calf on the medial border
at the leg. The reading was recorded in millimeter.
Estimation of Body Composition :
The four skinfold measurements were used to
estimate the density, percent fat, lean body mass and fat
weight as the main constituents of body composition. The
description of these variables and the methods of their
estimation are given below :
1. Body Density :
This indicates the weight in grammes per cubic
centimeter of body tissues. Body density is estimated from
the sum of four skinfold measurements biceps, (triceps,
subscapular and suprailiac). In the present study, body
density was estimated according to Durnin and Rehman’s
equation (1967). The formula is given below :
Body Density Y = 1.1533 – 0.0643 X
X – Sum of four skinfold in millimeters converted into
logarithms
2. Percent Fat :
44
This is the amount of fat in 100 kilogrammes of body
weight. Percent fat is calculated from body density. The
Siri’s (1951) formula used by Durnin and Rehman was in
estimating the percent fat in the present study. The
formula is given as under.
Percent Fat = (4.95/Body density)-4.50) 100
3. Fat weight :
This is the weight of the overall body fat, which is
deposited in the subcutaneous area (under the skin) of the
body. Fifty per cent of the deport fat is stored in
specialized cells under the skin, the thickness of which
depends upon the amount of fat in the body. This is
calculated from the weight of the body and percent fat.
The formula of Durnin and Rehman was used to estimate
fat weight. The formula is given below :
Fat weight = Body weight percent fat/100
4. Lean Body Mass :
This is the amount of muscle mass in the body. Lean
body mass is considered to be divisible into biological
constant proportions. These would include water
45
(70.72%), minerals (7%) and organic substances including
an undermined but probably constant percentage (2-3%)
of essential liquids in bone marrow, the central nervous
systems and other organs. In other words, the lean body
weight includes the weight of the essential fat (Behnke
and Wilmore, 1974). This is calculated y subtracting the
fat weight from the total body weight. Again Durnin and
Rehman’s formula is used in the present study to estimate
the amount of lean body mass.
Lean Body Mass = Body Weight – Fat Weight.
Statistical Design :
The data has be presented analysed and interpreted
by a suitable statistical technique for a comprehensive
understanding of the inherent facts. In present study,
investigator wanted to compare the skinfold measure
ments and body composition variable of Hockey and
Football players of North Zone Inter University, at Aligarh
and Srinagar.
The collected data were tabulated and statistically
analysed. Mean, Standard Deviation, Standard Error
46
Deviation and ‘t’ ratio were used as a statistical technique
and tools.
To compare skinfold measurements and body
composition of Hockey and Football player ‘t’ test was
used as devised by Garrett (1981). (Independent T-Ratio
as two groups are comparing different sets of Players).
i.e. ‘t’ = M1 M 2
SED
Where M1 = Mean score of Ist group.
M2 = Mean score of IInd group.
SED = Standard Error of the difference
Where SED = (SD1)2 + (SD2)2
N1 N2
Where SD1 = Standard deviation of Ist group
SD2 = Standard deviation of IInd group
N1 & N2 = Total number of subjects of both
group.
47
The statistical parameters and test was computed by
using the electronic computers available at computer
center of Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar. The
computer programmers fist developed, tested and verified
and then applied to the present data. The ‘t’ test values
where however computed with the help of the electronic
computer.
48
CHAPTER – 4
ANALYIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA :
In the present chapter the investigator made an
attempt of make the group comparison of Hockey and
Football players on selected skinfold measurements and
Body Composition. In order to present these findings
clearly and systematically the chapter has been divided
into different parts.
Analysis of the Study :
Finding of the present study was analysed and
interpreted in different table as follow :
TABLE 4.1
Comparison of Skin fold Measurement between the Hockey and
Football players
VariablesHockey Football
SED t-RatioMean-I SD-I Mean-II SD-II
49
Biceps
Skinfold 3.44 1.44 4.12 1.26 .32 2.11*
Triceps
Skinfold 4.01 1.12 5.15 2.13 .44 4.46**
Subscapular
Skinfold 4.28 1.28 4.88 1.76 .51 0.76
Suprailiac
Skinfold 5.17 2.08 6.00 2.58 .43 1.51
Mid axilary
Skinfold 6.10 2.71 7.04 3.19 .72 1.44
Thigh
Skinfold 5.11 2.03 6.11 2.18 .61 3.46**
Calf
Skinfold 6.19 2.21 6.23 2.23 .68 3.12**
** Significate at .1 % = 2.68
* Significant at .5% = 2.01
N = 50 df = 48
Table 4.1 indicated mean, SD’s, SED and ‘t’ ratio’s of
Hockey and Football player. It shows comparison of
skinfold measurement variables between Hockey and
Football players.
50
Table 4.1 (Row-1) Shows the mean scores of the Biceps
skinfold measurements. The calculated ‘t’ ratio (2.11) is
found significant at .5% level of confidence. This mean
that difference in mean scores of Biceps skinfold
measurements of found between the players of Hockey
and Football. The mean score of Football players is (4.12)
where score of Hockey players is (3.44). It means that
Football players have more Biceps skinfold measurements
than that of Hockey players.
Table 4.1 (Raw-2) Indicates the mean scores of the
triceps skinfold measurements. The calculated ‘t’ ratio
(4.46) is found significant at .1% level. This mean that
difference in mean scores of triceps skinfold
measurements is found between the Hockey ball and
Football players. The means score of Football players is
(6.15) whereas mean score of Hockey players is (4.01). It
means that Foot ball players have more triceps skinfold
measurements than that of Hockey players.
Table 4.1 (Raw-3) Illustrates the difference in mean
score of subscpular skinfold measurements of Hockey and
51
Foot ball players. The ‘t’ value (0.76) is not found
significant. It manes that there is no significant difference
is subscapular skinfold measurements between the
players of Hockey and Foot ball.
Table 4.1 (Raw-4) Indicates the difference in means
cores of suprailiac skinfold measurements of Hockey and
Foot ball players. The ‘t’ value (1.51) skinfold
measurements between Hockey and Foot ball players.
Table 4.1 (Raw-5) Shows the difference mean scores of
midaxilary skinfold measurements of Hockey and Foot ball
players. The ‘t’ value (1:44) which is not significant. It
means that there is no significant difference in midaxilary
skinfold measurements between the players of Hockey
and Foot ball.
Table 4.1 (Raw-6) Illustrates the mean scores of the
thigh skinfold measurements. The calculated ‘t’ ratio
(3.46) have found significant at .1% level of confidence.
This means that difference in mean scores of thigh
skinfold measurement is found between Hockey and
Football players. The mean scores of Foot ball players is
52
(6.11). Where as mean score of Hockey players is (5.11). It
means that Football players have more thigh skinfold than
that of Hockey players.
Table 4.1 (Raw-7) Indicates the mean scores of the calf
skin fold measurement. The calculated ‘t’ ratio (3.12) is
found significant at .1% level. This means that difference
in mean scores of calf skin fold measurement is found
between Hockey and Foot ball players. The mean score of
Foot ball players is (6.23) where as mean score of Hockey
players is (6.19). It means that Foot ball players have
more calf skin fold measurements that of Hockey players.
53
TABLE - 4.2
Comparison of Body Composition between the
Hockey and Football Players
Variables Hockey Football
Mean-I SD-I Mean-II SD-II SED T-Ratio
Body
Density 1.070 .008 1.0641 0.009 1.012 0.006
Fat
Percentag
e 12.461 3.146 13.08 2.448 0.81 3.18**
Fat
Weight 7.044 2.422 7.841 1.791 0.716 2.83**
Lean Body
Mass 47.061 5.440 47.641 4.48 1.081 1.46
**Significant at .01% = 2.68
* Significant at .05% = 2.01
N = 50 df = 48
Table 4.2 (Raw) Shows mean, SD’s, SED and ‘t’ ratio of
Hockey and Foot ball players of the comparison of body
composition.
54
Table 4.2 (Raw-1) Illustrates the difference in means of
Body density which is one of the variables of body
composition. the ‘t’ value (0.006) is not found significant.
It means that there is no significant difference in body
density between the Hockey and Foot ball players.
Table 4.2 (Raw-2) Shows the difference in means scores
of fat percentage possessed by the players of Hockey and
Football. The ‘t’ value (3.18) is found significant at .1%
level of confidence. The means score of Football players is
(13.08) where as mean score of Hockey players is
(12.461). It means that football players have more fat
percentage than that of Hockey players.
Table 4.3 (Raw-3) Indicates the difference in means of
fat weight possessed by players of Hockey and Football.
The ‘t’ value (2.83) is found significant difference in fat
weight between the players of Hockey and Football. The
mean score of Basketball players is (7.841) where as the
mean score of Hockey players is (7.044). It means that
Football players have more fat weight than that of Hockey
players.
55
Table 4.2 (Raw-4) Shows the difference in means of lean
body mass of the players of the Hockey and Foot ball. The
‘t’ ratio value (1.46) is not found significant. It means that
there is not significant difference in lean body mass
between the Hockey and Football players.
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
A preliminary study was done in order to confirm apparent
gender-typing and determine which sports were to be
used in the main study. Twenty-three Introductory
Psychology students were asked to rank eight sports on
their masculinity/femininity: figure skating, swimming,
baseball/softball, tennis, gymnastics, volleyball, karate,
and ballet. These eight sports were selected to fit the
categories of highly masculine (karate and
baseball/softball), neutral (tennis and swimming), or highly
feminine (figure skating and ballet) (see Matteo, 1986).
Each student ranked these sports on a 5-point scale
ranging from masculine (1), through neutral (3), to
feminine (5). The means of each sport were computed,
revealing that karate was perceived as highest in
masculinity, tennis was perceived as most neutral, and
ballet was perceived as highest in femininity. Thus, these
three sports were chosen for our study.
Participants
66
Seventy-two volunteers from two high schools in
Greenville, South Carolina participated in the study. All
were recruited from Physical Education and Biology
classes at these schools. Three volunteers were dropped
from the study due to substantial missing data. Of the
remaining 69 participants, 33 were male and 36 were
female. Based on self reports, 52 were white, 9 were
black, and 1 was hispanic (7 participants did not report
their race). The participants ranged from 14 to 18 years of
age, with a mean age of 16.0 for males and 15.5 yrs. for
females.
Materials
Each subject was given a one page survey form containing
three paragraphs. Each paragraph described a target
individual who participated in karate (highly masculine),
ballet (highly feminine) or tennis (neutral). The individuals
were described as having a uniform level of involvement
in the sport (e.g., they all practiced "four to six hours per
week") and were all described as "confident" about being
67
"better than most" of his or her counterparts. In addition
to identifying a sport, each paragraph specified the age,
race, and sex of the individual. The target's age--16, 17, or
18--was randomly assigned (mean age = 16.7). The
target's race and sex were assigned in such a way that a
black female, black male, white female, and white male
were described as participating in each of the three sports
once and only once in our descriptive paragraphs. Thus, a
total of 12 different descriptive paragraphs were used in a
2 (race) x 2 (sex) x by 3 (sport) design. Each of these
paragraphs, although short, ascribed a variety of traits
that could be seen by raters as the independent variables:
name (initials only), age, race, gender, hours of practice
per week, number of competitions/performances per year,
sport, and self-confidence. For this reason, raters were
highly unlikely to surmise that sex and sport were the
primary independent variables in our study.
Below each paragraph were two 5-point rating scales, one
for femininity and one for masculinity. The scales were
labeled at the extremes (1 being "Not at all
68
feminine/masculine" and 5 being "Very feminine/
masculine"). Separate masculinity and femininity scales
were used rather than a single bipolar scale, since people
can have both feminine and masculine characteristics (see
Bem, 1974). This is also in keeping with evidence that
female athletes often do have both feminine and
masculine characteristics (e.g., Myers & Lips, 1978).
Demographic information concerning the subjects' age,
sex, and race was collected at the end of the survey.
A number of variables may modify the impact of sex-
stereotyping on sports participation. There is evidence
that grade school (Selby & Lewko, 1976) and teenage
(Sherif, 1971) boys have less favorable attitudes than girls
about female participation in sports. Likewise, women are
more accepting than men of female participation in "male"
sports (Nixon, Maresca, & Silverman, 1979). Sports
participation may be more acceptable for females before
puberty since femininity probably becomes more
important about this time (Selby & Lewko, 1976). In
addition, sex-typed subjects appear more concerned
69
about the gender appropriateness of sports, and are more
likely to draw sex-typed conclusions about fictional
participants (of unspecified gender) in masculine and
feminine sports (Matteo, 1988). Finally, there is evidence
that sex-stereotyping of sports will have a much greater
impact on regular participation requiring a substantial
commitment (as in our study) than on occasional or one-
time participation (Matteo, 1986).
Research by Eagly and Steffen (1984) suggests that
women participating in very agentic roles such as karate
might be seen as even more agentic and masculine than
men in the same role. Our results, however, indicate that
the masculizing effect of competing in karate is not
sufficient to overpower the perceived masculinity that
accompanies being male or female. Whatever the strength
of this effect on the perception of others, the self-
perceptions of athletes may be less affected by sports
participation (Snyder, Kivlin, & Spreitzer, 1975).
Nonetheless, our results add support to the belief that
participation in "masculine" versus "feminine" sports may
70
have significant effects on the social interactions of
adolescents.
CHAPTER – 5
MAIN FINDINGS, DISCUSSION OF THE
RESULTS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR THE
FURTHER STUDY
In light of the interpretation of the results of the
present investigation the main findings are mentioned
below :
(A) Comparison of skinfold measurement the
Hockey and Football Players.
(i) Football players have more Biceps skinfold
measurements than that of the Hockey Players.
71
(ii) Football players have more triceps skinfold
measurements than that of the Hockey players.
(iii) There is no significant difference in subscapular
skinfold measurements between Hockey and Football
players.
(iv) There is no significant difference in suprailic skinfold
measurements between Hockey and Football players.
(v)There is no significant difference in midaxilary skinfold
measurements between Hockey and Football players.
(vi) Football players have more thigh skinfold
measurements than that of the Hockey players.
(vii) Football players have more calf skinfold
measurements than that of the Hockey players.
(B) Comparison of Body Composition Between the
Hockey and Football players.
(i) There is no significant difference in body density
between Hockey and Football plaers.
(ii) Football players have more fat percentage than that of
the Hockey players.
72
(iii) Football players have more fat weight than that of the
Hockey players.
(iv) There is no significant difference in lean body mass
between the Hockey and Football players.
Summary :
The purpose of the study was to compare some
selected skinfold measurements and body composition of
different intervarsity players of Hockey and Football.
The subjects for the study were 50 male players of
north zone Hockey and Football. Intervarsity
Championships Their age from 18 to 24 year. The selected
skinfold measurements were Biceps, Triceps, Subscapular,
Suprailiac, Midaxillary, Thigh and calf to the nearest one
tenth of a millimeter using the conversion Table as
suggested by Durnin and Rahaman.
In order to ascertain significance of difference
between the two groups. The ‘t’ ratio was employed and
the level of significance was set at 0.1% level of
confidence. The ‘t’ ratio on selected variables obtained
Biceps skinfold measurements 2.11. Triceps skinfold
73
measurement 4.46, Subscapular skinfold 0.76 suprailiac
skinfold 1.15 midaxilary 1.44, Thigh skinfold 3.46 calf
skinfold 3.12, Body Density 0.006, fat percentage 3.18, fat
weight 2.83 and Lean body mass 1.46. The findings
indicated that Football players have more skinfold
measurements than that of Hockey players and Football
players are found higher percentage of fat and fat weight
than that of Hockey players.
DISCUSSION
Skinfold Measurements
The above results show Football players have more
skinfold measurement in comparison of Hockey players.
i.e. the Hockey players have least amount of
subcutaneous tissues than the players of Football. It may
be the reason that the Hockey players do more vigorous
physical workout than Football players.
Body composition
In case of body composition results, Football players
have more percentage of fat and fat weight than Hockey
74
players due to consuption of more diet and less sports
activity.
An Hockey players require less fat percentage and fat
weight due to more workout in bent body position. A
Hockey players has optimum fat percentage (12.46) and
fat weight (7.044) and they can perform better at the age
level of 18 to 24 years.
On other hand Football is a combat game and
requires balanced fat percentage and fat weight. A
Football players has fat percentage (13.08) and fat weight
(7.841) can perform better at the age level of 18 to 24
years.
CONCLUSION
From the above discussion it is concluded that the
Football players have more fat percentage and fat weight
as compared to the Hockey players. Hockey players
possess least amount of fat percentage and fat weight
which is essential for better performance.
75
Suggestions for Further Research
Keeping in view the findings of the present study the
following suggestions for the further research are being
put forward.
1. The present study can be reqlicated on female of
different courses and different levels.
2. The present study can be done on a wider field with
larger sample and under changed cultural and
environment set ups to get better results.
3. Skinfold measurements & other factors can be under
taken in further research for complete knowledge of
the anthropometric characteristics the players.
Research has found remarkably consistent and stable
gender stereotypes within our society. In brief, to be
feminine is to be "communal" or expressive, while to be
masculine is to be "agentic," instrumental, and
competitive (Cann, 1991; Spencer & Helmreich, 1978;
Williams & Best, 1982). Our society also has many
stereotypes about participants in sports, including gender
stereotypes (see Kaplan, 1979). Despite legal and social
76
changes, "sexist ideology still pervades sport" (Eitzen &
Sage, 1993, p. 347). Following what Sage and Loudermilk
(1979, p. 89) call "one of the oldest and most persistent
folk myths,... athletic achievement has been equated with
a loss of femininity." Sports participation is seen as a
masculine activity; sports are a traditionally male domain,
male sporting events receive far more media coverage,
and participation in competitive sports violates females'
traditional sex-roles and movement patterns (Eitzen &
Sage, 1993; Snyder & Spreitzer, 1978).
The belief that participation in competitive sports tends to
masculinize females has been found in research using a
variety of subject populations (e.g., Harres, 1968; Sherif,
1971). This is to be expected given that the stereotypic
beliefs about females sharply contrast with the traits
associated with successful athletes (Cann, 1991; Harris,
1981). While there is evidence that female athletes are
indeed seen as somewhat masculine, even when people
respond to photographs in which the athletes are not
identified (Atkins, Morse, & Zweigenhaft, 1978), this may
77
stem more from the stronger tendency of already
"masculine" (e.g., large and strong) women to pursue
sports than from masculinization of female athletes.
When examining these issues, it is important to keep in
mind that some sports are seen as more masculine than
others, and many sports attract disproportionate numbers
of male (e.g., football) or female (e.g., ballet) participants.
Cratty (1983) suggests that sports such as golf and
swimming as well as sports such as gymnastics that
"emphasize beauty of line" are believed to be acceptable
for female participation, whereas sports associated with
high levels of contact, such as ice hockey and football, and
others such as baseball and basketball are thought of as
appropriate for males but not for "ladies" (p. 172). Other
reports indicate that the most appropriate sports for
women are individual rather than team sports (DeBacy,
Spaeth, & Busch, 1970) and sports emphasizing lean
bodies (Hallinan, Snyder, Drowatzky, & Ashby, 1990).
78
Through socialization individuals learn which sports are
considered masculine, neutral, or feminine. Gender
stereotypes for certain sports appear to be learned by
grade school. Corbin and Nix (1970) found that grade
school girls and boys both considered a competitive task
that requires power, speed, and strength to be a "male"
activity. Even female athletes see sports such as soccer
and rugby as very unfeminine compared to tennis or
volleyball (Salisbury & Passer, 1982).
These gender-based stereotypes probably influence sports
participation. For those who do participate, these
stereotypes may lead to role conflict and distinct attitudes
about athletes that depend on whether they participate in
gender "appropriate" or "inappropriate" sports (Snyder &
Kivlin, 1977). These stereotypes may lead to perceptions
of males and females as more or less masculine or
feminine depending on the sport(s) in which they
participate. While there is some evidence for this,
surprisingly little research has been reported on these
issues (Matteo, 1988). Sage and Loudermilk (1979) found
79
that although women competing in more gender-
inappropriate sports may not themselves perceive more
role conflict, there is evidence that they will experience
more role conflict (but see Anthrop & Allison, 1983).
Masculinity and femininity are often viewed as bipolar
opposites, yet many theorists (e.g., Bem, 1974; Spence &
Helmreich, 1978) now view masculinity and femininity as
separate traits rather than as opposite ends of a
continuum. From this more contemporary perspective,
female athletes may retain their femininity even if they
are "masculinized" by participation in competitive sports.
Unfortunately, most research has taken a uni-dimensional
view of masculinity and femininity, perhaps obscuring
independent variation of these traits. Indeed, there is
evidence that female athletes are more likely to possess
both masculine and feminine characteristics (Harris,
1981).
This study was designed to examine how males and
females are seen in terms of femininity and masculinity by
80
their peers (age cohorts) due to their participation in
female- or male-oriented sports. Consistent with the
conceptualization of masculinity and femininity as (at least
partially) independent traits, raters were asked to provide
ratings of both. For this study, teenagers were presented
with descriptions of male and female participants in one of
three sports and asked to judge the femininity and
masculinity of these participants.
Procedure
All participants were given one survey form containing
three different paragraphs. They were then asked to rate
the individual on two 5-point scales concerning the
femininity and masculinity of the athlete in the paragraph.
To ensure anonymity, the subjects were not asked to
provide their name or other identification. After
completing their responses to all three descriptive
paragraphs, demographic data were collected and the
subjects were debriefed.
RESULTS
81
The results were collapsed across the race of the raters
because there were insufficient data to determine if race
differences existed. The data from all of the 5-point scales
was coded such that high scores signified high femininity
or high masculinity.
As expected, women were perceived as more feminine (t
= 3.50, p < .0001) and males were perceived as more
masculine (t = 3.44, p < .002). This pattern held for
participants in all three sports considered individually (see
Table 1).
To determine if males and females would be perceived as
more or less feminine or masculine depending upon the
sport in which they participated, the mean scores for each
sport (ballet, tennis, and karate) for each sex were
calculated. Looking at the mean ratings for each sport
(see Table 1) reveals a consistent decrease in femininity
and increase in masculinity as one goes from participating
in female- to male-oriented sports: i.e., from ballet to
tennis to karate. T-tests showed that there were
82
significant effects for both traits and both sexes. Both
females and males were seen as more feminine when
described as participants in ballet as opposed to
participants in karate. For those ratings by subjects given
paragraphs describing participants of the same sex in
karate and ballet, the mean difference in rated femininity
was 1.78 (t = 5.76, p < .0001) for females and 1.93 (t =
4.18, p < .001) for males. Likewise, both females and
males were seen as less masculine when described as
participants in ballet as opposed to karate, with mean
differences in masculinity of 1.72 (t = 4.46, p < .001) for
females and 1.44 (t = 3.82, p < .002) for males.
DISCUSSION
Common stereotypes and previous research suggest that
sports participation may have a significant effect on the
attitudes of peers and others, and vice versa (Coakley,
1993). Our results showed the specific sport in which
males and females participate may alter how they are
perceived by others. Although we found that women were
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perceived as more feminine than men and vice versa
regardless of the sport in which they participated, our data
demonstrate that females may be perceived as more
masculine and males as more feminine if they frequently
participate in a "sex-inappropriate" athletic activity. This
finding indicates that our society maintains gender
stereotypes pertaining to participation in some sports, at
least for dedicated athletes. This stereotyping of athletes
may have an important impact on the willingness of
athletes to participate in certain sports. Likewise, these
stereotypes may tend to filter out certain types of
potential participants--e.g., macho males, individuals with
a high need for social approval or those high in self-
monitoring (Snyder, 1987)--in athletic activities which are
"inappropriate" for one's gender. Matteo (1986) found that
sex-typed males and females were less likely to report
being committed to sex-inappropriate sports.
84
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