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CSCI 6431

C N kiComputer Networking:Physical Layer Signal Encoding Techniques

George Blankenship

Physical Layer Signal Encoding Techniques

George Blankenship 1

Lecture Outline• Digital data digital signal• Digital data, digital signal

– Digital signals– Self-clocked signals– Error detection

• Digital data, analog signalM d l ti– Modulation

• Analog data, digital signal– Digitization of analog dataDigitization of analog data– PCM

• Analog data, analog signal



Digital Data, Digital Signal

• Digital signal– Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulsesDiscrete, discontinuous voltage pulses– Each pulse is a signal element– Binary data encoded into signal elementsBinary data encoded into signal elements



Encoding Schemes

• Nonreturn to Zero– Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)– Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI)

• Multilevel– Bipolar -AMI– Pseudoternary– Manchester– Differential Manchester



Nonreturn to Zero• Voltage constant during bit interval

– no transition (no return to zero voltage)

• NRZ-Level– Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits– Unipolar

• Absence of voltage for zero• constant positive voltage for one

– Bipolarp• Negative voltage for one value• Positive for the other

• NRZI– Data encoded as presence or absence of signal transition at beginning of

bit time– Transition (low to high or high to low) denotes a binary 1– No transition denotes binary 0



y

NRZ

• Pros– Easy to engineer– Make good use of bandwidth

• Cons– Lack of synchronization capability

• Used for magnetic recording• Not often used for signal transmission



Not often used for signal transmission

Multilevel Binary• Use more than two levelsUse more than two levels

– No net dc component– Lower bandwidth– No loss of sync with a long string of ones/zerosNo loss of sync with a long string of ones/zeros – Zeros/ones still a problem– Easy error detection

• Bipolar AMI• Bipolar-AMI– Zero represented by no line signal– One represented by positive or negative pulse

P d t• Pseudoternary– One represented by absence of line signal– Zero represented by alternating positive and negative



– One pulses alternate in polarity

Bipolar-AMI and Pseudoternary

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1



Trade Off for Multilevel Binary

• Not as efficient as NRZ– Each signal element only represents one bitEach signal element only represents one bit– In a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58

bits– Receiver must distinguish between three levels

(+A, -A, 0)( )– Requires approx. 3dB more signal power for

same probability of bit error



Manchester Encoding

Manchester• Transition in middle of each bit period

Differential Manchester• Transition in middle of each bit period is clockp

• Transition serves as clock and data• Low to high represents one• High to low represents zero

p• Transition at start of a bit period is data• Transition represents zero• No transition represents one



g p• Used by IEEE 802.3

p• Used by IEEE 802.5

Mulitlevel Pros and Cons

• Con– At least one transition per bit time and possibly two– Maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ– Requires more bandwidth

• Pros– Synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking)

N d– No dc component– Error detection

• Absence of expected transition



Absence of expected transition

Modulation Rate



Digital Data, Analog Signal

• Public telephone system– 300Hz to 3400Hz300Hz to 3400Hz– Use modem (modulator-demodulator)

• Amplitude shift keying (ASK)• Amplitude shift keying (ASK)• Frequency shift keying (FSK)• Phase shift keying (PSK)



Shift Keying• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)p y g ( )

– Values represented by different amplitudes of carrier– Usually, one amplitude is zero– Susceptible to sudden gain changes

Inefficient– Inefficient– Used over optical fiber

• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)Binary FSK (BFSK)– Binary FSK (BFSK)

– Multiple FSK

• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data– Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data

– Binary PSK– Differential PSK



Modulation Techniques

• ASK– Amplitude Modulation

T lit d (0/1)– Two amplitudes (0/1)

• FSK– Frequency Modulationq y– Two frequencies (0/1)

• PSKPh l t bit– Phase selects bit

– Phase A (0)– Phase B (1)



Differential PSK

• Phase shift is key• Phase shift indicates transitionPhase shift indicates transition• No transition – 0• Transition - 1



Quadrature PSK

• More efficient use by each signal element representing more than one bit

Wi h hif f /2 (90 ) h l– With shifts of /2 (90o) each element represents two bits

– Can use 8 phase angles and have more than one p gamplitude

– 9600 bps modem use 12 angles , four of which have two amplitudestwo amplitudes

• Offset QPSK (orthogonal QPSK)– Delay in Q stream



Quadrature AmplitudeQuadrature Amplitude Modulation

• QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) and some wireless

bi i f d• Combination of ASK and PSK• Logical extension of QPSK

S d t diff t i l i lt l• Send two different signals simultaneously on same carrier frequency– Use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°Use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90– Each carrier is ASK modulated– Two independent signals over same medium



– Demodulate and combine for original binary output

Analog Data, Digital Signal

• Digitization– Conversion of analog data into digital data

• Digital data can then be transmitted using NRZ-L• Digital data can then be transmitted using code

other than NRZ Lother than NRZ-L• Digital data can then be converted to analog signal• Analog to digital conversion done using a codec• Analog to digital conversion done using a codec

– Pulse code modulation– Delta modulation



Digitizing Analog Data



Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

• If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher than twice the highest signal frequency, the samples contain all the information of the originalsamples contain all the information of the original signal

• Voice data limited to below 4000HzVoice data limited to below 4000Hz• Require 8000 sample per second• Analog samples (Pulse Amplitude Modulation, g p ( p ,

PAM)• Each sample assigned digital value



PCM Encoding

• 4 bit system gives 16 levels• Quantized

– Quantizing error or noise– Approximations mean it is impossible to recover

original exactlyoriginal exactly• 8 bit sample gives 256 levels• Quality comparable with analog transmissionQ y p g• 8000 samples per second of 8 bits each gives

64kbps



PCM Example



PCM Block Diagram



Delta Modulation

• Analog input is approximated by a staircase function

• Move up or down one level () at each sample intervalsample interval

• Binary behaviorF ti d t h l– Function moves up or down at each sample interval



Delta Modulation - example



Delta Modulation - Performance

• Good voice reproduction – PCM - 128 levels (7 bit)PCM 128 levels (7 bit)– Voice bandwidth 4khz– Should be 8000 x 7 = 56kbps for PCMShould be 8000 x 7 56kbps for PCM

• Data compression can improve on thisI t f di t h i f id– e.g. Interframe coding techniques for video



Analog Data, Analog Signals

• Why modulate analog signals?– Higher frequency can give more efficient

transmission– Permits frequency division multiplexing

• Types of modulation– Amplitude– Frequency– Phase



AnalogAnalog Modulation



Suggested Reading

• Stallings chapter 5



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