physiologieal monitoring during the bicycle race across...
TRANSCRIPT
Physiologieal Monitoring During the
Bicycle Race Across America (RAAM)
A Case Study.
by
Paulo Saldanha
A Thesis Submitted to The Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts (Education)
Department of Physical Education
Division of Graduate Studies and Research FacuIty of Education McGill University
Montreal, Quebec, Canada
O March, 2000
National Library 1+1 dC-da Biblioîhèque nationale du Canada
Acquisitions and Acquisitins et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 W.lington Street 3QS. rue WsYingîon C)riawaON K1AON4 ûüawaON K 1 A W CMPde Canada
The author has granted a non- exclusive licence allowing the National Libmy of Canada to reproduce, loan, dismiute or seiî copies of this thesis in microfonn, paper or electronic formats.
The author retains ownership of the copyright in this thesis. Neither the thesis nor substantial extracts fkom it may be printed or othexwise reproduced without the author's permission.
L'auteur a accordé une liçence non exclusive permettant à la Bi1,liothèque nationale du Canada de reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou vendre des copies de cette thèse sous la forme de microfiche/nlm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique.
L'auteur conserve la propriété du droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés ou autrement reproduits sans son autorisation.
Table of Contents
Page
........................................................................ List of Tables iv
........................................................................ List of Figures v
.................................................................. List of Appendices vi
............................................................................... Abstract vii
... ................................................................................ Résumé v~i i
.................................................................. Acknowledgements ix
............................................................ Chapter 1 - Introduction 1
......................................... Nature and Scope of the Problem 2
Statement of the Problem .................................................. 3
. . . .................................................................. Limitations 3
. . . Delimitations ................................................................ 4
Chapter II . Review of Literature .................................................. 5
Phy siological Factors ................................................. 5
Physical Characteristics of UE Athletes ........................ 5
Oxygen Consumption ............................................. 5
Heart Rate ........................................................... 7
Power Output ....................................................... 9
Nutritional Factors .......................................................... 10
Energy intake ....................................................... 10
Energy Expenditure ................................................ 1 1
Energy Balance ..................................................... 13
Page
.................................................................. Fuels 15
........................... Water Balance and Thermoregulation 17
................................................ Electrolyte Balance 19
............................................................... . Chapter III Methods 22
.................................................... Selection of the Subject 22
......................................................... Laboratory Testing 22
.............................. Physiological Monitoring During RAAM 25
. . ........................................................ Nutntional Analysis 27
................................................................. Chapter IV - Results 29
. . ............................................................ Descnptive Data 29
................................................... Laboratory Cycling Test 31
.................................. Performance Variables Dunng RAAM 31
................................. Physiological Variables Dunng RAAM 43
......................................................... Nutritional Analysis 50
.............................................................. Chapter V - Discussion 56
.......................................... V a m a x and Cycling Economy 56
............................................................... Power Output 58
................................................................... Heart Rate 60
........................................... Energy Intake and Expenditure 62
Fatness and Body Mass Changes ......................................... 64
Chapter VI - Summary, Conclusions, Recommendations ..................... 66
..................................................................... summary 66
Page
Conclusions .................................................................. 70
Recommendations .......................................................... 70
References .......................... ... ............................................... 71
Appendices ........................................................................... 77
List of Tables
Table Title Page
1 . Physical Charactenstics of Cyclists ...................................... 6
2 . Characteristics of the Subject ............................................. 30
3 . Laboratory Cycling E fficiency ........................................... 35
4 . Aerobic Endurance Test ................................................... 35
5 . Velocity during each Segment of RAAM .............................. 36
........ . 6 . Cornparison of Subject with Group and Fastest Velocity ... 38
7 . Daily Cycling Activity during RAAM .................................. 46
8 . Cycling and H.R. Intensity during RAAM ............................. -49
9 . Daily Calorie Intake ........................................................ 52
10 . Daily Mineral Intake ...................................................... -53
1 1 . Energy Intake (EI) vs Energy Expenditure (EE) ....................... 54
List of Figures
Figure Title Page
1 . PowerTap Hub Dynamometer and Compter ........................ 23
...................................................... 2 . RAAM 1999 Route 26
3 . Laboratot-y Test on R h W Bicycle ................................... 33
........................................ 4 . Distance and Time On the Bike 34
5 . Power Output and Heart Rate in RAAM .............................. 45
.................................... 6 . Body Mass changes during RAAM 55
List of Appendices
Appendix Title
1. Consent Fonn
2. Certificate of Ethical Acceptability
Abstract
The purpose was to describe the physiological response and nutritional consumption of
one athlete cornpeting in the RAAM. The 1999 RAAM covered 4727 kilometers fkom
Irvine, CA. to Savannah, GA. The subject was a 36 year-old male elite tnathlete with 12
years of training experience. VOzmax was 4.32 Wmin. Pnor to RAAM, cycling economy
was measwed at 100 and 150 watts. During RAAM, the following measwements were
continuously recorded: heart rate, power output, nutritional intake, and body mas. Power
output was recorded using a hub dynamometer (4 strain gauges, PowerTap). The subject
completed RAAM in 10.1 days and spent 18.6 h/day cycling. Mean cycling values for
power output, mechanical energy and heart rate were: 97 watts, 6676 kjoules and 99
b/min. Daily cycling energy expenditure was 7,946 + 1435 kcavday. Energy intake
averaged 6,8 12 f 914 kcaUday with 67% CHO, 24% fat, and 9% protein. Body rnass
decreased by 2.5 kg and percent fat decreased fiom 9.2% to 7.1 %.
vii
Résumé
Le but était de décrire la réponse physiologique et la consommation nutritive d'un athlète
participant à RAAM. RAAM 1999 couvrait 4727 kilomètres, débutant d71ntine, CA.
jusqu'à Savannah, GA. Le sujet était un homme de 36 ans, triathlète élite avec 12 années
d'expériences d'entrainement. Avant RAAM, son VOzmax était de 4.32 Llmin et
l'économie à pédaler a été mesurée à 100 et 150 watts. Tout au long de RAAM, ces
mesures ont été continuellement enregistrées : w u e n c e cardiaque, puissance résultante,
calories consommées et masse corporelle. La puissance résultante était enregistrée par
l'utilisation d'un dynamomètre (PowerTap). Le sujet a complété RAAM en 10.1 jours et
a pédalé 18.6 Idjour. La moyenne pour la puissance résultante, l'énergie mécanique et la
fréquence cardiaque étaient : 97 watts, 6676 kjoules et 99 bhin. Le coût journalier
d'énergie était 7,946 & 1435 kcab'jour. En moyenne les calories consommées par jour
étaient 6'8 12 + 9 14 kcaVjour dont 67% glucides, 24% gras, et 9% protéines. La masse
corporelle a diminuée de 2.5 kg et ie pourcentage de gras a passé de 9.2 à 7.1%.
S . .
Vll l
Acknowledgemen ts
The Race Across Amenca began as an impossible drearn that brought wonder and
doubt to everyone's imagination.
Thanks first to my dad, for fiee thought which allowed me to understand that
Iimits exist, and that life is really IN the process of exceeding them. Mom, if wonying
were an Olympic event, you would be gold, thanks for caring. Rob Cote, my crew chief
and fiend who showed devotion and calm beyond reason - thanks for those great
breakfasts. Kip Sigworth and Jon McGavock, two graduate students who helped me with
everything from writing this document to supporting me in training and during the race.
Tuan Deduc for the healing hands on the wild roller coaster ride. Hugo Massee and Rene-
Claude Gelinas who kept me awake with vivid night-tirne stories and cared for me under
great duress and pain! Ronald Robitaille who has the "teckie touch"and is as every bike
mechanic should be - way to keep me with the rubber side down. My sponsors; Nike,
Subaru, Performance bike shop, Oakley, PowerTap, Gatorade. Great thanks to the clients
and fnends who believed in me and helped make the dream a reality by helping fùnd this
project.
The writing of this thesis would not have been remotely possible without the belief in me
that David Montgomery had. David Montgomery has been a fnend and mentor. He has
served as a shining example to me of what an exercise physiologist should be - applied.
In an environment where research is often confined to ego based ivory towers, it is
retieshing to see sorneone take a step outside. If 1 have a gift that has allowed me to
complete RAAM, then David Montgomery has the sarne gift with his ability to keep me
on the right course with this document.
Chapter 1
Introduction
The nuuiing boom of the seventies popularized Olympic events like marathons
and began a fitness trend in America that has extended to many modalities. Greater public
awareness and better media coverage have increased the level of popularity in endurance
sports. In looking for new challenges, athletes fiom traditional sports like running have
diversified to include longer forms of complementary endurance events. The success of
Greg Lemond and Lance Armstrong in the Tour De France together with the birth and
drama of endurance events like the Hawaii Ironman triathlon have helped to maintain the
impetus for growth in these more extreme sports.
Newly coined "UltraEndurance" (UE) events can be divided into single and
multiple stages. Single day events range fkom 5 to 24 hours coverïng cycling distances of
200 to 600 km, running from 50 to 240 km, swimming 10 to 100 km, and triathlons with
4 km swimrning, 180 km cycling, and 42 km ruming. Multiple stage competitions such
as the Tour De France (4000 km in 22 days), "Deca-Iroman" (40 km swim, 1800 km
bike, 420 km run in 9-12 days), Sydney to Melbourne ultramarathon run (1005 km in 8.5
days) and the Race Across America (RAAM) ultramarathon cycling (5000 km in 8- 12
days) have become annual competitions (Shermer, 1993; Kreider, 1991 ).
UE competitions offer exceptional psychological and physiological challenges to
athletes. Extending cornpetition periods fiom several hours to many days necessitates
significant preparation due to the stress on the body systems. The impact of extreme
exhaustion and sleep deprivation on the cardiovascular, muscular and nervous systems
have not been extensively studied. Also, the nutritional strategy and its impact on
digestion and renal fiinction are important aspects of UE competition.
Traditional endurance research has focused on events of 3-8 hours, and
surprisingly few investigations have examined the physiological aspects of multiple day
UE athletes. Cyclists competing in multiday events like the RAAM, must deal with
fatigue that is outside the realm of more accepted UE events.
Nature and Scope of the Problem
The RAAM is a non-stop UE cycling competition that has existed since 1982.
Although a slightly different route is used each year, generally the event covers 5000
kilometers, fiom the West to east coast. Cornpetitors race each other in time tria1 format
across the United States through different time stations (Shermer, 1993). The non-stop
nature of RAAM dictates that al1 riders determine their own work to rest ratio, usually
resulting in sleep deprivation. Also, the cut-off time limit irnposed on riders ensures a
somewhat challenging pace. The 1 8L version of RAAM started on July 22nd, 1999 from
Irvine, CA. and finished in Savannah, GA., a distance of 4727 km.
Each RAAM cornpetitor is followed throughout the race by a team or "support
crew". Support crews consist of a minimum of 2 vehicles and 6 personnel including;
dnvers, massage therapist, physiotherapist, mechanic, medical support and crew chief.
The crew navigates the course for the rider and tends to hisher needs (i.e. nutritional,
medical, mechanical, and psychological). This project required a significant budget and
meticulous planning.
In RAAM, novice riders typically cycle 18-20 hours per day. More expenenced
racers average 22 hours per day for 8-9 days (Shermer, 1993). The 1986 wimer of
RAAM slept 1 1.5 hours in 8 days 9 hours and 47 minutes (Ice et al., 1988). The
challenge of covering significant distances, with little or no recovery, over varied terrain
and divergent environmental conditions creates physiological stresses that are of interest
to investigators. The nature of this cornpetition provides researchers with an opportunity
to examine physiological responses of ultraendurance athletes.
Statement of the Problem
The purposes of this investigation were: (1) to describe the response (H.R. and
power output) of one athlete competing in the 1999 RAAM, (2) to examine the
relationship between heart rate and power output throughout RAAM, and (3) to quanti@
the daily energy intake and energy expenditure.
This study will examine the following hypotheses during the RPLAM event:
1. H.R. will decrease over the course of the race.
2. Power output will decrease over the course of the race.
3. H.R. will be significantly correlated with power output.
4. Energy expenditure will exceed energy intake.
5. There will be significant decrease in body mass and fat mas.
Limitations
1. Varying environmental conditions (i.e. heat, humidity and altitude) may affect some
measurements.
2. There will be day-to-day variability in H.R. that is umelated to the many
physiological challenges (sleep deprivation, heat, hurnidity and altitude).
3. KR., may be lowered during the RAAM and affect the estimation of relative
cycling intensity.
4. The estimation of cycling intensity and efficiency fiom cornparisons to laboratory
tests has limitations.
Delimitatioas
1. Using a single case design has little statistical power and does not permit
extrapolation or the identification of trends with any degree of certainty.
Chapter II
Review of Literature
Preparation for a complex race like the RAAM involves the successfÙ1
management of many variables. Competitors must have a performance mode1 that
encompasses attributes and conditions necessary for successful completion. This review
describes physiological and nutritional variables associated with performance in
ultraendurance (UE) competitions.
Physiological Factors
Physical Characteristics of UE athletes
Kreider (1991) demonstrated that UE athletes have similar physical charactenstics
to endurance athletes in sports like swimming, running and cycling. Table 1 compares the
physical characteristics of cyclists.
There is limited research on multi-day UE cycling. FUMM riders tend to be older,
perhaps due to the extreme endurance nature of the event. Many years of cycling training
and experience are needed to complete an event such as RAAM. RAAM riders have
similar physical characteristics to traditional endurance cyclists.
Oxygen Consumption (V03
RAAM stresses the cardiorespiratory system by requinng a continuous energy
demand and steady oxygen utilization over many days. The VOzmax value for the 1984
RAAM male wimer was 79.6 mbkg-'amin" (Ice et al., 1988). The mean V0,max for 4
RAAM team rnembers competing in the 1998 race was 71.5 mlakg-'amin*'.
Table 1 Physical charactenstics of cyclists.
Cyclist(s) n Sex Age Ht. Wt. Fat VOzmax Re ference (yrs) (cm) (kg) (%) (ml-W1-min-')
Trac k 5 M 22 Junior 103 M 16 Senior 75 M 21 Elite 25 M 23 Pro 25 M 25 Pro 8 M 26 RGAM 1 M 39 RAAM 1 M 43 TeamRAAM 4 M 27
(Pyke et al., 1988)
(Van Handel et al., 1988)
(Van Handel et al.. 1988)
(Lucia et al., 1998)
(Lucia et al., 1998)
(Lucia et al., 1999)
(Lindeman, 1988)
(Icc et al., 1988)
(Laursen & Rhodes. 1999)
RAAM is an ultra long distance event wliere V0,max values may be less
important than factors such as cycling economy, nubitional balance, fluid balance, and
the ability to tolerate sleep deprivation. It is cornmon knowledge that the relationship
between duration and intensity of exercise is an inverse one. The sliding scale of intensity
extends to UE athletes as they push the duration envelope. The percentage of V0,max
that can be maintained varies so much that it is difficult to estabiish guidelines on
exercise intensity.
Davies and Thompson (1986) asked ultramarathon athletes to run for 4 hours on a
treadmill. The runners maintained an intensity equivalent to 67-73% of V0,max. Using
the non-protein R, it was estimated that the energy was detived fiom 63% fat and 37%
CHO. In another study, Davies and Thompson (1 975) assessed the aerobic performance
of elite male ultraendurance rumen performing 5 km, 42.2 km and 84.6 km races.
Results revealed that these athletes maintained 93.5% ofV02max during the 5 km run,
88.7% during the 42.2 km nui and 67.1% during the 84.6 km event.
The more cornpetitive nature of professional cycling in the Tour de France shows
a range of intensity between 68% to 85% of VO,max, with the occasional need to
p e ~ o r m maximally (Saris et al., 1989). In laboratory conditions, O'Toole et al. (1987)
reported that UE ûiathletes maintain 5 1 % of V0,max dunng 8 hours of continuous
cycling and ninning. White et al. (1 984) had one cyclist perform a 24-hour time trial in
the laboratory with an average intensity of 55% of V02rnax (equivalent to 38.5
mlokg-'amin-'). Fellmann et al. (1999) had 9 healthy sportsmen run, bike and cross
country ski for 7 consecutive days over 620 kilometers. Exercise intensity ranged
between 49.0% and 57.8% of maximal oxygen consumption.
Although oxygen consumption has not been measured dunng RAAM, it is likely
that decreases in VO, accompany the incremental detenoration seen in velocity and HR
(Cahalin et al., 1990; Ice et al., 1988; Lindeman, 1991). During the RAAM event, Ice et
al. (1988) reported a decrease in velocity fiom an average 29.9 kmh on day 1 to a low of
24.5 kmfhr on day 8.
Heart Rate
Recently, HR measurements have been used extensively with cyclists in both
laboratory and field conditions (Lucia et al., 1999). Lucia et al. (1 999) examined the heart
rate response of 8 professional cyclists in the 1998 Tour de France. Investigators found
that out of 102 hours of racing in 23 days, riders spent 7 1% of the race in the aerobic zone
(rnean H-RS 142 bpm), 23% in the lactic acid accumulation zone (mean H.R. between
142 and 168 bpm) and 7% in the anaerobic zone (mean H.R. > 168 bpm). The 1998 Tour
6
de France had 22 stages where the mean time per stage was 288 minutes and the average
vetocity was 40.2 km/hr (Lucia et al., 1999). The non-continuous nature of the Tour de
France allows riders to recover with evening meals, massage and a full nights sleep.
The continuous nature of RAAM, coupled with sleep deprivation and exhaustion
imposes serious challenges to UE cyclists (Shermer, 1993). Measunng the H.R. response
during RAAM may help to quanti& exercise intensity. Cahalin et al. (1990) used HR
telemetry with computer anaiysis to record and examine changes over 9 days for 2 riders
in the 1989 RAAM cornpetition. One of the riders was the winner of the race. Analysis
revealed a 24% decrease in exercise HR after day 2 of RAAM. The decreases in HR did
not directly coincide with the decrease in velocity. Maximal bicycle ergometry exercise
tests performed immediately after RAAM revealed (1) an 1 1.5% decrease in H.R.max,
(2) a 24.5% reduction in maximal workload, (3) a 5 minute decrease in time to
exhaustion, and (4) lower heart rates during each workload compared to pre RAAM tests.
Regression analysis of workload and H.R. revealed different regression lines for before -
and after exercise tests of each athlete. The authors stated that it was unlikely that fatigue
alone produced the reductions in exercise H.R. and speculated that the decrease in
exercise H.R. may be due to sleep depnvation that may have increased parasympathetic
activity.
It is well established that sleep deprivation affects mental pefiorrnance, although
its effects on physical performance are equivocal (Van Helder and Radomski, 1989). Hill
et. al. (1994) concluded that 25-30 hours of sleep depnvation resulted in no changes in
the contributions of aerobic and anaerobic energy systems to high intensity exercise. Van
Helder and Radomski (1989) concluded that sleep deprivation of 30 to 72 hours does not
affect cardiovascular and respiratory responses to exercise of varying intensity. Time to
exhaustion is however, decreased by sleep deprivation.
Cardiorespiratory fùnctions have been studied in subjects exercising 1 hour out of
every 3 hours during 64 hours of sleep deprivation (Plyley et al., 1987). Exercise
consisted of treadmill walking at 28% of V02max. Sleep deprivation significantly
decreased VOZmax by 3.8 ml.kg"emin-' in both exercise and sedentary conditions.
H.R.max was significantly lower after sleep deprivation in the exercise trial, but remained
similar to the pre-sleep deprivation value during the sedentary trial. Significant increases
in plasma volume were reported in both the exercise and sedentary trials.
The relationship between H.R. and exercise intensity is susceptible to change.
Coyle (1995b) determined that an increase in HR of 8 bpm occurs for every 0.3"C
increase in core temperature. Exercise in both a hot environment and a dehydrated state
increased cardiac drift. When subjects exercised at 6247% of V0,max in the heat, H.R
increased 40 bpm after 100 minutes when no fluid was ingested (Montain and Coyle,
1992). Fluid ingestion helped to restnct the increase in H.R. but it still increased by 13
bpm. Although dehydration increases cardiovascular drift, hyperhydration or euhydration
may not prevent cardiovascular drift (Montain and Coyle, 1992).
Power Output
Cycling requires the transmission of energy fiom the rider to the bicycle. The
pressure applied to the pedals and drive cranks is a funçtion of muscular work (watts) and
used to estimate energy expenditure. Recently, the ability to measure power output has
been facilitated by the introduction of bicycle rnounted dynamometers (Bassett, 1999;
Jeukendrup and Van Diemen, 1998). The velocity of a cyclist is sometimes more
impacted by environmental conditions than by power output. The velocity of a cyclist is
O fien impacted by extemal factors including: environmental conditions, body position
and rolling resistance. Strain gauge technology allows researchers to accurately quanti@
power production and determine exercise intensity independent of extemal conditions.
The sport of bicycle racing encompasses road racing, critenums and time trials.
Road racers usually travel longer point-to-point distances encountenng hills and wind
with power output varying with conditions (Jeukendrup and Van Diemen, 1998; Lucia,
1999). In bike stage racing, power output may range fiom O watts when coasting to over
1000 watts when sprinting (Jeukendrup and Van Diemen 1998). In contrast, RAAM is an
individual event with no drafiing, lower power outputs, and less variability in the power
output.
Nutritional Factors
Energy Intake
Energy intake (EI) is an important component of any UE performance plan.
Through daily record keeping and food weighing, research has demonstrated that UE
athletes consume large amounts of calories both in training and cornpetition (Peters and
Goetzche, 1997; Brouns et al., 1989; Jansen et al., 1989; Van Erp-Baart et al., 1989; Saris
et al., 1989). Exogenous sources of CHO dominate these diets and heip maintain
euglycemia during competitions.
During a 100 km run, Fallon et al. (1998) estimated the breakdown of (EI) at 88%
CHO, 5% fat and 7% protein. Saris et al. (1989) used food intake diaries to estimate EI in
5 elite cyclists dunng the 22 day Tour de France cornpetition. Subjects had a peak EI of
7714 kca1.d-', a mean of 5881 kcal.dd', and a low (rest day) of 3833 kca1.d-'. The
relative contribution of calories was 61% CHO, 23% fat and 15% protein. Brouns et al.
(1989) recorded food and fluid intake in 13 highly trained cyclists during two exhaustive
bouts of cycling. The riders consumed between 6143 and 6691 kca1.d-' depending upon
the type of CHO diet.
Two case studies have measured EI in riders during the RAAM event (Ice et al.,
1988; Lindeman, 199 1 ). Ice et al. (1 988) using daily food records, reported an average EI
of 7965 kca1.d-' during 8 days and 9 hours of cycling. Energy in the fonn of liquids
accounted for 79.7% of total calories with the major source being "UltraEnergyff liquid.
This drink consisted of 83% CHO, 13% protein and 3% fat.
Lindeman (1 99 1) determined daily EI of a RAAM nder under 3 cycling
conditions: training, racing 24 hours and RAAM. Using daily food records, she found an
EI of 8429 kca1.d-' over the course of 1 1 days of RAAM. The energy was derived fiom
78% CHO, 13% protein and 9% fat.
Energy Expenditure
Researchen have quantified energy expenditure (EE) using respiratory chambers,
metabolic gas analysis and prediction equations. Methodological dificulties associated
with these measurements have limited investigations of EE in the field. Researchers have
estimated EE by measuring EI, body mas , basal metabolic rate (BMR), body
composition, fluid losses, weight loss as well as intensity and duration of the exercise.
The most popular distances covered by ultramarathon mnners are between 50 and
200 km (4 to 36 hours). Although the distances covered in ultramarathon cycling are
greater (due to greater speeds), the duration of cornpetition is similar enough for
cornparison with the energy costs of m i n g .
In a field study of UE runners, Davies and Thompson (1975) used a gas analyzer
to estimate EE. Runners required an average of 5 106 kca1.d-' or 14.3 kcalmmin-' in an 85
km event. In a laboratory study, 10 experienced male UE runners performed a treadmill
nui at their highest possible intensity for 4 hours (Davies and Thompson, 1986). The
energy cost deterrnined from ventilatory masures was 3378 kcal in 4 hours.
The Tour de France is a 22-day, 4000 km cycling event that can provide
researchers with important insights into the energy costs of elite male riders. The
variability of intensity, duration, terrain and race tactics in this event presents some
measurement problems in quantiQing EE. Saris et al. (1989) estimated EE fiom sleeping
tirne, resting activity and detailed exercise logs of 4 cyclists. The mean daily EE was
6068 kcal and ranged fiom 3082 to 78 12 kcal. In a Tour de France simulation study
(Brouns et al., 1989), 13 highly trained male cyclists spent 7 days in a respiratory
chamber and performed 2 exhaustive bouts of exercise on consecutive days. Researchers
accounted for nitrogen losses in urine and sweat to estimate the contribution of energy
nom protein. Indirect calorimetry (Q, VCO,, RER) provided an estimate of the energy
contribution from carbohydrates and fats. Power output measurements coupled with
indirect calorimetry enabled the researchen to estimate the mean EE at 6286 kca1.d-'.
Westerterp et al. (1 986) used doubIy labeled water to measure energy expenditure
in professional cyclists competing in the Tour de France. They estimated a mean
expenditure of 7024 kcaladay-'.
ln laboratory conditions, White et al. (1984) examined EE in a 24-hour cycling
time trial. The rider completed 694 km in the 24-hour period with EE estirnated at 19,780
kca1.d-'. In a review article on UE performance, Kreider (1 99 1) described the energy
demands of RAAM nders as similar to 24-hour UE cyclists. However, the nature of
RAAM necessitates lower intensities and lowers energy expenditure over 8 - 12 days.
Studies on EE in RAAM have not been done due the difficulty of measuring EE.
Energy Balance
The longer the duration of endurance competitions, the more important it becomes
to maintain energy balance. This is particularly tme of UE athletes since they expend
large amounts of calories in training and racing. It is clear that EE and EI are related and
dependent on the duration and intensity of exercise. Any nutntional strategies in UE
competitions should account for the race distance, anticipated intensity, and work to rest
ratio.
Brouns et al. (1989) determined that athletes on a normal CHO diet did not restore
glycogen sufficiently within 24 hours following 2 days of exhaustive cycling. These
cyclists remained in negative caloric balance for both exercise days and only reached
positive caloric balance on the following rest days. Unlike the normal CHO diet, the
consumption of maltodextrin facilitated giycogen supercompensation, improved
performance and restored muscle glycogen to normal levels within 24 hours.
Negative energy balance is sometimes reported in UE athletes. This phenomenon
may be caused by several factors. Firstly, when caloric consumption is high, the maximal
rate of absorption in the digestive system may be reached. Secondly, appetite suppression
(Le. nausea) during UE activity may occur. Lastly, difficulties associated with refueling
complex carbohydrates and the ability to replenish liver and muscle glycogen stores also
play a role (Kreider, 1991).
Oxidative metabolism of CHO stores seems to be the pnmary fùel in UE exercise.
The range of intensities (90 to 50% of V0,max) for 4 to 740 hours results in a range in
EE fiom 5000 to almost 20,000 kcalod-' (Kreider, 199 1). Negative energy balance is
reported in UE athletes, causing increased reliance on fat and protein oxidation in place of
diminishing CHO stores. In an attempt to maintain energy balance, improve performance,
and prevent lean tissue degradation, Kreider (1 99 1) recomends UE athletes consume
between 4-6 kcalokg-'ah".
Calories are absorbed faster when consumed in Iiquid form (Coyle, 1995b). Field
studies in the Tour de France have demonstrated that nders consume 30% of their daily
EI in the form of Iiquid CHO (Brouns et al., 1989). A maltodextrin CHO solution is
recommended to promote energy balance (Brouns et al. 1989).
in a laboratory case study of one UE cyclist, White et al. (1 984) found that during
a 24-hour time trial the subject consumed 54% of calories in liquid or semi-liquid form.
Ice et al. (1988) reported that the 1986 RAAM winner consumed 79.7% of his calories in
liquid form. Lindeman (1 99 1 ) detennined a similar value (78%) in an average RAAM
rider.
Coyle (1995b) suggested athletes consume 30 - 60 g of CHO per hour in 600 -
1200 ml of water resulting in a 4 - 8% CHO solution. Saris et al. (1 989) estimated that 12
- 13 g of CHO per kg of body mass is needed when energy expenditure is high. Clark et
al. (1 992) recommended I .O - 1.5 g of CHO per kg.hfl during high intensity exercise.
Kreider (1991) suggested that the upper limit of CHO oxidation from exogenous sources
is between 0.2 and 0.6 pkg-'amin-'. This translates into 15 - 50 g/hour or 60 - 200
kcabhour-'. Kreider (1 99 1) lists calonc requirements during UE competitions ranging
nom 200 to 600 kca1.h-' depending on individual body mass and intensity of
competition. Ironman triathletes consume 1 - 2 L.hr-' of 5 - 10% CHO solutions
(Applegate, 1 989).
Fuels
Humans use two main sources of fUei during UE competitions, (1) carbohydrate
(CHO) stored as glycogen in the muscles and liver, and (2) fats stored as adipose and
intramuscular triglycerides (Coyle, 1995a). It has been well established that the sparing of
muscle glycogen can prolong time to exhaustion (Costill et al., 1977). In RAAM
however, it is questionable whether athletes ever reach glycogen depleted stages due to
the combination of constant feeding and lower intensities that promote fat oxidation.
Recently, endurance athletes have experimented with diets higher in fat, claiming
that they may help to promote fatty acid metabolism (Coyle, 1995a). As exercise intensity
increases fiom 25 - 65% of V02max, there is a decrease in the mobilization of fatty acids
fiom adipose tissue into the blood resulting in increased reliance on intramuscular
triglycerides. Kreider (1991) points out that the major source of energy when exercising
at intensities between 30 - 50% of V02max is fat. Research has shown that CHO
consumption inhibits lipolysis via an increase in plasma insulin, but this- trend does not
appear to continue throughout UE exercise. Coyle (1995a) points out that the suppression
of fat oxidation only lasts 50 minutes and afler 100 minutes the rate of fat oxidation is
constant.
Phinney et al. (1983) had trained men consume a low carbohydrate and high fat
diet (C 20 gad-' of CHO) for over 4 weeks. They found that glycogen stores were reduced
by half, while the rate of fat oxidation during exercise at 62 - 64% of V02max was
markedly increased. If fat utilization during UE competitions can be increased, the
athlete may spare muscle and liver glycogen stores and presumably increase time to
exhaustion. Phinney et al. (1983) found that endurance trained men did not increase time
to exhaustion even though fat oxidation increased with a higher fat diet and glycogen
stores were only half full.
There is some evidence of a reliance on protein as a third source of fuel in UE
competitions. Kreider (1 99 1 ) and Brouns et al. (1 989) have demonstrated marked
catabolism, transport and utilization of protein during UE races. This apparently occurs
despite calonc refueling since there is negative d o n c balance. Irving et al. (1990)
reported increases in C-reactive protein concentration, senun uric acid content and
plasma creatinine concentration suggesting muscular damage during competition.
Brouns et al. (1989) f o n d increases in protein metabolism as measured by ammonia and
urea in whole blood and plasma.
The possible reliance on gluconeogenesis via a protein source illustrates the
importance of maintaining caloric balance and consuming adequate protein during UE
competitions. Lemon (1987) detemined protein requirements at 1.5 to 2.0 gokg-'od-'
during hard physical work. Saris et al. (1989) found that professional Tour de France
cyclists required up to 2.5 g*kg-'.d-'.
Two studies have examined protein intake of RAAM participants. Lindeman
(1 99 1) estimateci that the protein intake exceeded 1.4 g*kg-'.d-* for one RAAM rider. Ice
et al. (1 988) determined the protein intake to be 16.7 kcabkg-'*dW'.
Water Balance and Thermoregulation
Besides replenishing glycogen stores, liquid CHO solutions are better absorbed
and have the secondary benefit of hydration. UE athletes must pay close attention to
water losses and water gains if water balance is to be maintained. Dehydration can cause
hyperthermia and increase core temperature, thereby decreasing UE performance.
During prolonged exercise there is competition for blood flow between the
working muscles and the periphery. The increased heat production fiom muscular
contractions can alter cardiac output by decreasing central blood volume and reducing
venous return, diastolic filling and stroke volume, tnggering an increase in HR to
maintain the cardiac output (Sawka and PandoIf, 1990). In accordance with the Fick
principle, if cardiac output increases, unless the arteriovenous O2 difference decreases, the
VO, must aIso increase (Kreider, 1 99 1 ; Davies and Thompson, 1986).
Cyclists may be somewhat less susceptible to hyperthermia because the increased
wind resistance allows a greater thermal gradient between skin and core. Considering the
duration and environmental challenges imposed on RAAM athletes, it is wise to maintain
fluid intake throughout cornpetition.
There has been no thennoregulatory research in RAAM. It is generally accepted
that an increase in HR at submaximal workloads (CV drift) occurs during prolonged
exercise. Cahalin et al. (1990) however, reported acute decreases in HR afier day 2 of the
RAAM event. It is possi'ole that CV drift occurs initially, but that the progressive
exhaustion exacerbated by sleep deprivation with neural and muscular fatigue rnay
ovemde any thermoregulatory mechanisrns. These changes in RAAM suggest that
athletes may experience central motor fatigue, changes in hormonal regulation or some
other type of alteration to the traditionally observed control mechanisms.
In an UE triathlon lasting 10.34 f 0.90 hours, Rogers et al. (1 997) examined water
balance in 13 highly trained males. Investigators calculated water loss at 1069 gahr'
fkom sweat rate (940 t 163 gahr-'), urine output (41 t 33 phr-') and respiratory water
loss (88 + 10 g0h.r-'). Total water gain was 940 f 160 g.hr-'and included water intake
(737 f 137 g.hfl), water content of food (10 t 7 gehr-'), estimations of water released
nom metabolism of CHO and fat (49 + 5 g4r-', 41 + 5 g.M1) and water released from
glycogen utilization (104 f 64 g~hr-'). it is clear that water gain and water loss cm
balance when we consider the endogenous sources of water gain. These gains occur even
following decreases in body mass (69.87 kg to 66.65 kg). Rogers et al. (1997) did not
perfonn body composition measurements on the triathletes. It is interesting to note that
for a 4% reduction in body mass, there was only a 1.9% difference in water gain and
water loss.
In a 100 km UE m i n g cornpetition, Fallon et al. (1998) found mean sweat rates
of 0.86 L h in 7 trained male participants over 10 hours. When competing in UE races
with higher ambient temperatures, athletes can lose between 8 and 13% of total body
water (Kreider, 1991). In general, fluid losses via prolonged exercise in the heat range
between 1 .O and 2.5 Lohr-' (Hiller, 1989; Sawka and Pandolf, 1990).
Kreider (1 991) recommends the consurnption of 100 - 200 ml of fluid every 5 - 10
minutes throughout cornpetition. Saris et al. (1989) found an average daily water
consumption of 6.7 + 2.0 L in professional Tour de France riders.
Sweat rates of RAAM riders have not been directly measured, however Lindeman
(1 99 1) reponed a fluid intake of 15.7 Wday over 10 days. This rider cycled for 22 hours
pet day, which translates into a lower than expected value of 700 mVhr. This is perhaps
due to the lower intensity and continuous nature of RAAM and the greater opportunity
for convective cooling with cycling. Also, when riding 22 hours per day, riden may
encounter favorable environmental conditions for optimal heat loss.
Electrolyte Balance
In as much as it is important for UE athletes to replace fluids and calories, it is
equally important to include electrolyte supplementation. UE athletes are most
susceptible to electrolyte imbalances due to prolonged sweating (Noakes et al., 1990).
The losses in fluids are accompanied by losses in sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphate,
zinc and magpesiun (Maughan, 1988; Kreider, 199 1 ; O'Toole et al., 1995).
if only water is used as a hydration strategy, besides the obvious lack of calories,
it may blunt the thirst mechankm and stimulate urine output, thus promoting dehydration
(Gatorade Sports Science Exchange, 1996). Therefore, maintaining the osmotic drive for
drinking is optimized via rehydration with electrolytes, in particular sodium (Noakes et
al., 1990).
Newmark et al. (1991) measured fluid and electrolyte replacement in trained UE
runners dwing 100 and 160 km competitions. They determined that in order to maintain
normal blood electrolyte levels, the replacement of sodium at 20 rn~qmhr-' and potassium
at 8 mEq.hr-' (in 1 liter of solution) was required. Many comrnercialized fluid
replacement drinks supplement with electrolytes. Research has demonstrated that
electrolyte deficits tend to occur more often in hot environments particularly in UE
competitions longer than 6 hours (Hiller, 1989; Noakes et al, 1990; Holtzhausen et al.,
1994).
The plasma dilution of sodium known as hyponatremia or water toxicity is
clinically defined as serum sodium levels c 130 - 135 rnEqaL-' (Noakes et al., 1990;
Hiller, 1989). Hyperhydration can become a problem if UE athletes consume very large
arnounts of fluids with low sodium chlonde content (1 12 mmolmL") over prolonged
periods (Noakes et al., 1990). A maximum of 500 - 800 m~.hr-' (4 - 8% CHO solution)
has been recornmended in a recent UE triathlon (Noakes et al., 1990). The incidence of
hyponatrernia arnong UE athletes is extremely low and was only evident in 9% of
collapsed UE runners, and in 0.07 - 1.5% of UE m e r s and triathletes (Noakes et al.,
1990). Hiller (1989) recommends an intake of 1 gram of sodium per hour to prevent
hyponatremia Low senun potassium levels (hypokalemia) are even more rare, but have
also occurred in UE cornpetitors (Farber et al., 1987). Considering that RAAM is long
enough for significant water and electrolyte losses, electrolyte replacement may be
warranted.
Lindeman (1 99 1) recorded sodium and potassium intakes dunng RAAM and
found averages of I l and 7 g/day, respectively. This may initially appear low, but was
probably sufficient in this study due to several findings: The lower overall intensity of
RAAM, the reduced potential for dehydration due to night-riding at lower temperatures,
the convective heat loss properties of cycling, and the relatively stable body mass of the
rider throughout the race.
Cbapter III
Methods
Selection of the Subject
Due to the extreme nature of the RAAM event, subject recruitment is difficult.
Methodological issues become problematic when scattered athletes travel such long
distances under adverse conditions. For this reason a single subject design was used. The
subject was a 36-year old male, former elite triathlete with 12 years of training
experience.
The subject completed a medical examination pnor to physiological assessment.
Testing was performed in the laboratory and data were collected dunng RAAM. The
subject signed an informed consent fonn pnor to any testing (Appendix 1). Ethics
approval for this study was obtained fiom the Faculty of Education ethics review
committee (Appendix 2).
Laboratory Testing
Prior to baseline laboratory evaluations, the athlete read and signed a consent
fom, which included a description of the study and testing procedures. The baseline
testing was performed at the Seagrarn Sports Science Center, two weeks pnor to the
RAAM event. The subject had rested for this test with no exercise in the previous 24
hours. Baseline testing consisted of body composition measurements, a cycling economy
test and a V0,max test.
Figure 1 PowerTav Hub Dvnamometer and Computer
Body fat was calculated with the Durnin-Womersey equation using 5 skinfolds:
biceps, triceps, subscapular, iliac crest, and medial calf (Canadian Society for Exercise
Physiology, 1996).
Cycling economy was rneasured using the same bicycle for the RAAM
competition. Gas measurements (V, V02, VCO,, and R) at maxima1 and submaximal
workloads were averaged every 20s using the SensorMedics 2900 metabolic cart
(SensorMedics Corp., Yorba Linda, Ca.). The subject's racing bicycle was mounted on a
magnetically braked and calibrated load generator (CompuTrainer, RacerMate Inc.,
Seattle). The PowerTap hub dynamometer was used in the laboratory and during RAAM
to measure power output. The PowerTap strain gauge hub and receiver are illustrated in
Figure 1.
Two 6-minute cycling economy tests were performed. Steady state data were
collected for the 1 s t 3-minutes at power outputs of 100 and 150 watts. During the
economy test, the rider attempted to simulate his normal race veiocity of 30 km/hr,
resulting in a cadence of 85 - 95 rpm. Expired air samples were collected throughout the
test. Heart rate (HR) was recorded every 5-seconds during the submaximal and maximal
protocols using a Vantage XL HR monitor (Polar Electro Inc., Finland). The HR and
V O values obtained during baseline testing are compared to the data measured during the
RAAM event.
After completion of the two cycling economy tests, the subject continued using an
incrernental protocol with 50 watt stages every 3-minutes until volitional exhaustion.
A handlebar mounted computer unit controlled the resistance (watts) and monitored the
speed (krnhr) of the cyclist. The subject was permitted to self-select gears, but had to
maintain a speed of 30 kmlhr in order to simulate race Pace and cadence. Once the subject
could no longer maintain the given speed, he was verbally encouraged and asked to stand
to maintain the speed. The test was terminated when the rider could no longer maintain
25 km/hr for a period of 2 5 seconds. The protocol for the cycling economy and V02rnax
test wax
Stage Duratioo (min) Power Output (watts)
1 0-6 1 O0
2 6- 12 150
3 12- 15 200
4 15-18 250
5 18-21 300
6 2 1-24 350
Physiological Monitoring during RAAM
The race began in Irvine, California and ended in Savannah, Georgia, a distance
of 4727 kilometers. The RAAM course is illustrated in Figure 2. The subject was
supported with three vehicles and 8 crew. The crew included 2 physicians, 2 graduate
students responsible for data collection, 1 massage therapist, 1 bicycle mechanic and 2
navigators, one of which was also designated as the crew chief.
Heart rate (HR) was recorded continuously and averaged every minute using a
Vantage XL HR monitor (Polar Electro Inc., Finland). The H.R. data when cycling were
downloaded to an iBM laptop cornputer. The mean H.R. was reported for each day of
RAAM.
The subject used two carbon fiber (Trek, mode1 OCLV) bicycles with Shimano
components. Both bicycles were identical. Each 50 cm bicycle weighed 8.6 kg and was
equipped with an 18-speed Shimano drivetrain including 53/39 fiont chainrings and 12 -
23 rear cogset. "Rolf" Pro aerodynamic wheels (700 cm) were used with inflation
pressures kept at 100 - 120 psi. The fiont chain-rings had 53 and 39 teeth. Dunng
RAAM, the complete range of gears was used. The subject used a 53x12 gear when
cycling with a 30 k m h tailwind in the Mojave desert of California. In contrast, the
subject used a 39x23 gear when climbing in the Roclcy Mountains oPColorado. During
the first day of RAAM, the subject cycled at a cadence of 75-85 rpm using 53x 16,53x 17
and 53x19 gears. As the subject fatigued, cadence decreased to 60 - 65 rpm over the last
nine days of RAAM and used 53x15,53~16 and 53x17 gears.
Power output during RAAM was measured continuously using strain gauge
technology at the hub of the rear wheel (PowerTap). Four strain gauges received torque
data fkom the cog and transrnitted it to a receiver mounted on the handlebar. The power
output was displayed and recorded in watts. In addition, mechanical energy was
calculated in kilojoules and cadence recorded in rpm.
Nutritional Analysis
The support crew recorded food quantities with a scale (grarns) and by using food
labels. A record was kept of al1 liquid and solid food intake throughout RAAM. A typical
nutritional entry listed the type of food, quantity and unit of measurement as well as the
time of day (E.S.T.).
Pio r to the start of RAAM, water bottles and shoulder mounted hydration
systems (Camelbak) were marked to facilitate the calculation of fluid volume. The fluid
containers held between 500 mL to 2 L of liquid. When fluid containers were given to or
received from the competitor, the volume consurned was recorded. The support crew
responded to the cornpetitor's requests for fluids with the following beverages always
available - water, Gatorade, soda pop (Coke, Mountain Dew, and Dr. Pepper), liquid meal
replacement (Ensure), shakes and fhi t smoothies.
Intravenous dextrose and electrolyte units (250 rnL and 1 L bags) were also
available in the support vehicle. A physician adrninistered intravenous infusions when
necessary. The administration of intravenous units was recorded in the food log book.
Caloric intake was calculated by measuring solid and liquid food and entering the
weight or volume into the Genesiso R&D (Version 6.2) software for WindowsO 95.
This software package includes a database with over 22,000 food items. The program
calculated total kilocalories and provided a breakdown of the contributions from CHO,
fat and protein. The program analyzed micronutnents for the following minerals:
sodium, potassium, magnesium, chloride and iron.
The nude body mass of the subject was recorded pnor to RAAM on the moming
of the race. Skinfold measurements were also taken. Dunng RAAM, body mass was
recorded daily with the subject wearing wet cycling clothes including helmet, shoes and a
2-way radio. Body composition and nude body weight were measured on the day after
completion of RAAM.
Chapter IV
The purpose of this study was to describe the physiological response of one
athiete cornpeting in the 1999 RAAM. One month pnor to RAAM the subject performed
cycling economy and V02max tests in the laboratory. During RAAM, velocity was
recorded for each of the 63 segments and compared to the mcan performance for the 19
cyclists and the fastest performance. Data fiom the PowerTap were used to estimate daily
energy expenditure. Daily calorie intake was recorded fiom the nutritional dietary
analysis using the Genesis software package. A cornparison was made of the energy
intake versus the energy expenditure.
Descriptive Data
The subject for this study was a 36 year old male. The height, weight, BMI,
fatness and VO'rnax of the cyclist are presented in Table 2. The subject had a V0,max of
4.32 Umin or 68.6 ml/kg.min. The subject had 12 years of cycling experience and
competed professionally in Ironman triathlons for 5 years. The preparation for RAAM
included 934 km/week of cycling in the 8 weeks pnor to the race, as well as 6 rides, that
were 12 - 1 8 hours in duration.
Table 2 Characteristics of the Subject
Variable Value Unit
Age
Height
Weight
BMI
Fatness
Cycling Experience 12 Y rs
Cycling Training (8 wks) 934 km/wk
Laboratory Cyciiog Test
The results of the cycling economy and aerobic endurance laboratory tests are
presented in Tables 3 and 4. The cycling economy test was performed on the subject's
bicycle at two power outputs - 100 and 150 watts. These power outputs werc assessed
using a CornpuTrainer and 4 hub-mounted strain gauges (PowerTap). The steady state
VOz was 1.68 L/min at 1 O0 watts and 2.19 L/min at 150 watts. Both economy tests were
aerobic as indicated by R values of .85 and -86, respectively. The energy expenditure was
8.2 kcaYmin at 100 watts and 10.7 kcallmin at 150 watts. Cycling efficiency was 17.5 %
at 100 watts and 20.1 % at 150 watts.
Results for the aerobic endurance test are listed in Table 4. Following the cycling
economy test, the subject pedaled for 3 minutes at 200,250, 300 and 350 watts. The
subject's V0,max was 4.32 L/min or 68.6 mlmkg-'amin". The peak V, was 167.9 Wmin.
The maximum HR was 17 1 b/min. The VO, and H.R. are plotted versus power output in
Figure 3.
Performance Variables during RAAM
Dunng RAAM, the subject traveled through 63 time stations. Table 5 outlines the
distance, time, and velocity for each station, and the cumulative time. The time of day
(EST) the rider checked in at each station was also recorded over the course of the 10
days. The velocity within each segment varied depending upon environmental conditions,
terrain, as well as time on and off the bike. The duration of rest and sleep breaks
influenced velocity. Figure 4 illustrates the distance completed each day and the time-on-
the-bike throughout RAAM.
The same 63 time stations across the country are shown in Table 6. Along with
the distance, time and veiocity between each station, Table 6 also compares the group
mean velocity and the fastest segment velocity.
Figure 4 Distance and Tirne On Bike
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Day s
Figure 3 Laboratory Test on RAAM Bicycle
Table 3 Laboratory Cycling Efficiency
Power Output 100 Watts 150 Watts
Time (min)
VO, (L/min)
R 0.85 0.86
Nonprotein R (kcaYL O?)* 4.862 4.875
Energy (kcaUmin) 8.2 10.7
E fficiency (%) 17.5 20.1
* McArdle et al. (. 1996)
Table 4 Aerobic Endurance Test
Time Power vo2 vo2 v~ H.R. (min) (Watts) (milkg-m in) (Llmin) (L /min) (blmin)
TabIe 5 Velocity during each Segment o f RA4M
Day Station Location Distance Tirne Velocity Cumulative Time (E.S.T)
(km) (hr) (kmlhr) Time (hr) (hr)
1 1 Beaumont CA 135.09 4.97 27.18 4.97 16.97
2 Indio CA 78.10 2.27 34.4 1 7.24 19.24
3 Desert Center CA 83.35 2.82 29.56 10.06 22.06
4 Blythe CA 64.52 2.08 3 1 .O2 12.14 O. 14
5 Hope AZ 98.47 4.10 24.02 16.24 4.24
6 Congress AZ 23.41 11.41
2 7 Prescott AZ 68.87 3.70 18.6 1 27.1 1 15.1 1
8 Williams AZ 1 1 1.83 5.53 20.22 32.64 20.64
9 FlagstaffAZ 63.72 2.30 27.70 34.94 22.94
10 Sunrise AZ 60.50 1.87 32.35 36.81 0.8 1
12 Near Ganado AZ 85.12 6.43 46.62 10.62
3 13 Chinie AZ 48.75 2.87 16.99 49.49 13.49
14 Rock Point AZ 76.1 1 2.05 37.12 5 1.54 15.54
15 Teec Nos Pos AZ 73.37 1.95 37.63 53 -49 17-49
16 Cortez CO 66.29 3.33 19.9 1 56.82 20.82
17 Durango CO 77.91 9.18 1 66.00 6.00
1 8 Pagosa Springs CO 87.53 3 -92 22.33 69.92 9.92
4 19 South Fork CO 74.98 3.60 20.83 73.52 13.52
20 Alamosa CO 67.90 2.82 24.08 76.34 16.34
21 La Veta CO 107.96 4.90 22.03 8 1.24 2 1.24
22 Trinidad CO
23 KimCO
5 24 Springfield CO 79.8 1 2.85 28.00 97.36 13.36
25 Boise City OK 77 -43 2.63 29.44 99.99 15.99
26 GuyrnonOK 99.63 4.53 2 1.99 104.52 20.52
27 Balko OK 62.59 2.47 25.34 106.99 22.99
28 Slapout OK 64.04 2.95 21.71 109.94 1 -94
29 Woodward OK 71 -44 5.22 115.16 7.16
30 Seiling OK 56.96 2.37 24.03 117.53 9.53
6 3 1 Kingfisher OK 104.42 3.98 26.24 121.51 13.51
34 Dustin OK 93.32 4.82 19.36 132.83 0.83
35 Stiger OK 90.26 9.55 142.38 10.38
Table 5 (Cont'd.)
Day Station Location Distance Time Velocity Cumulative Tirne (E.S.T.)
(km) (hr) (kmihr) Time (hr) (hr)
7 36 Lavaca AR 95.09 3.62 26.27 146.00 14.00
37 Subiaco AR 83.10 3.55 23 -4 1 149.55 17.55
38 Dardanelle AR 46.34 2.13 2 1 -76 151.68 19.68
39 Mayflower AR 9 1.39 5.65 16.18 157.33 1.33
40 Lonoke AR 65.4 1 2.30 28.44 159.63 3.63
4 1 Brinkley AR 69.1 1 5.18 164.8 1 8.8 1
8 42 West Memphis AR 104.15 4.02 168.83 12.83 25.9 1
43 Memphis AR 3 5 .O9 1.70 20.64 170.53 14.53
44 Browasville TN 77.07 4.55 16.94 175.08 19.08
45 East Union TN 44.15 1.97 22.4 1 177.05 2 1 .O5
46 Chesterfield TN 56.46 3.20 17.64 180.25 0.25
47 Linden TN
48 Centerville TN
9 49 Franklin TN 68.06 3 -00 22.69 192.75 12.75
50 Lewisburg TN 57.60 3 .O0 19.20 195.75 15.75
51 Decherd TN 97.02 4.95 19.60 200.70 20.70
52 Tracy City TN 45.25 6.37 - 207.07 3.07
53 Chatanooga TN 58.13 2.63 22.10 209.70 5 -70
54 Resaca GA 88.00 5.13 17.15 2 14.83 10.83
10 55 Dawson County GA 85.12 3.88 2 1.94 218.71 14.7 1
56 Gainsville GA 53 -42 2.53 21.11 22 1.24 17.24
57 Royston GA 73 .O5 4.00 18.26 225.24 2 1.24
58 Warrenton GA
59 Louisville GA
60 Millen GA 55.11 1.83 30.1 1 238.15 10.15
11 61 Guyton GA 78.20 2.25 34.75 230.40 12.40
62 Pooler GA 31.38 1.25 25.10 24 1 -65 13.65
63 Savannah GA 16.54 1 .O5 15.75 242.70 14.70
Table 6 Cornparison of Subject with Group and Fastest Velocity
Station Location Dis tance Time Velocity Group Mean Fastest
(km) (W (kmW (km/hr) (-1 1 Beaumont CA 135.09 4.97 27.18 26.28 27.85
2 Indio CA 78.10 2.27 34.4 1 34.04 38.4 1
3 Desert Center CA 83.35 2.82 29.56 26.10 30.88
4 BIythe CA 64.52 2.08 3 1 .O2 26.86 35.5 1
5 Hope AZ 98.47 4.10 24.02 23 -33 28.82
20.49 26.66
7 Prescott AZ 68.87 3.70 18.6 1 18.99 23 -75
8 Williams AZ 11 1.83 5.53 20.22 2 1.33 28.43
9 Flagstaff AZ 63.72 2.30 27.70 22.90 3 1.86
10 Sunrise AZ 60.50 1.87 32.35 25.29 35.95
1 2 Near Ganado AZ 85.12 6.43 19.1 1 27.90
13 Chinle AZ 48.75 2.87 16.99 26.80 34.42
14 Rock Point AZ 76.1 1 2.05 37.12 27.88 37.73
15 Teec Nos Pos AZ 73.37 1.95 37.63 24.0 1 37.63
16 Cortez CO 66.29 3.33 19.91 22.22 36.83
17 DurangoCo 77.9 1 9.18 15.88 25.97
18 Pagosa Springs CO 87.53 3 -92 22.33 21.14 25.13
19 South Fork CO 74.98 3.60 20.83 17.85 21.74
20 Alamosa CO 67.90 2.82 24.08 2 1 .O6 29.32
21 La Veta CO 107.96 4.90 22.03 2 1.47 30.14
22 TrinidadCo
23 Kim CO
24 Springfield CO 79.8 1 2.85 28.00 24.96 34.2 1
25 Boise City OK 77.43 2.63 29.44 20.75 3 1.39
26 GuyrnonOK 99.63 4.53 2 1.99 22.82 34.96
27 Balko OK 62.59 2.47 25.34 23.86 37.18
28 Slapout OK 64.04 2.95 21.71 24.4 1 35.57
3 1 Kingfisher OK 104.42 3.98 26.24 2 1.63 29.28
32 Guthrie OK 45-53 1.87 24.35 22.65 29.70
33 Shawnee OK 100.40 4.63 2 1.69 18.43 24.30
34 Dustin OK 93.32 4.82 19.36 20.46 3 1 -63
35 Stiger OK 90.26 9.55 22.12 3 1 -49
Table 6 (Cont'd.)
Station Location Distance Time Velocity Group Mean Fastest
(km) (hr) ( k m m (km/W (km/hr) 36 Lavaca AR 95.09 3.62 26.27 19.99 30.18
37 Subiaco AR 83.10 3.55 23 -4 1 20.13 29.33
38 Dardanelle AR 46.34 2.13 2 1.76 22.84 29.27
39 Mayflower AR 9 1.39 5.65 16.18 19.26 30.97
40 Lonoke AR 65.4 1 2.30 28.44 2 1.84 29.96
4 1 Brinkley AR 69.1 1 5.18 20.98 30.49
42 West Memphis AR 104.15 4.02 25.91 22.70 33.42
43 Memphis AR 35.09 1.70 20.64 19.76 33 -97
44 Brownsville TN 77.07 4.55 16.94 2 1 -26 29.09
45 East Union TN 44.15 1.97 22.4 1 2 1 .O6 31.17
46 Chesterfield TN 56.46 3 -20 17.64 20.92 3 1-95
47 Linden TN
48 Centerville TN
49 Franklin TN 68.06 3 .O0 22.69 22.24 30.47
5 1 Decherd TN 97.02 4.95 19.60 20.37 28.54
52 Tracy City TN 53 Chatanooga TN
54 Resaca GA 88.00 5.13 17.15 19.30 29.33
55 Dawson County GA 85.12 3.88 2 1.94 18.05 24.20
56 Gainsville GA 53.42 2.53 21.1 1 18.07 28.62
57 Royston GA 73 .O5 4.00 18.26 19.77 27.40
58 Warrenton GA
59 Louisville GA
60 Millen GA- 55.1 1 1.83 30.1 1 24.5 1 3 1.20
61 Guyton GA 78.20 2.25 34.75 24.03 34.75
62 Pooler GA 3 1.38 1 .25 25.10 25.28 31.38
63 Savannah GA 16.54 1 .O5 15.75 19.74 24.8 1
Sleep breaks accounted for the slower velocities in Table 5 at the following
stations: 6, 12, 17,22,29,35,41,47,52, and 58. During each of these periods, the rider
slept or was off the bike between 90 and 180 minutes. On six occasions, sieep breaks
occurred with the subject resting at a motel. During these segments the subject was
slower than the group mean velocity (Table 6).
There were 23 other stops between 3 and 60 minutes that slowed the cyclist.
These included the administration of intravenous dextrose and electrolytes, the
application of medication, short naps due to exhaustion. Medication was applied to a
groin injury between stations 7, 11, 13, 16,22,26,28,34,38,39,44,46,48,50,53, 54,
57 and 59. Brief stops due to exhaustion occurred between stations 1 1,21,28, 34, 39,44,
46,s 1 and 54. Bathroom, shower and weigh-in breaks were aIso made outside of reguiar
sleeping hours at stations 15,25, 33,43, and 56. These stops affected the velocity of the
rider compared to the group mean as seen in Table 6.
In late July and early August 1999 during the RAAM, there were frequent heat
and humidity advisories issued throughout the southem United States by the weather
bureau. These temperatures affected the RAAM riders resulting in occasional dehydration
and heat exhaustion. The nders were most affected in the middle of the day (1 1 :O0 -
17:OO). For exarnple, on dayl the temperature in the dessert reached 42°C through station
2 in Indio, Ca:ifomia. The environmental temperature exceeded body temperature for
over 6 hours on day 1. In spite of the heat, the velocity of the subject and the group was
high in segment 2 due to strong tailwinds. At station 5, the subject had dehydrated and
expenenced nausea. A physician administered 2 L of intravenous dextrose and
electrolytes.
On day 3, the subject was 2" fastest in segment 14 and fastest in segment 15.
Cycling velocity exceeded 37 km/hr for both segments. Segments 14 and 15 covered
149.5 km. These back-to-back segments produced one of the better performances by the
subject.
On days 3 and 4 the subject cycled through the high dessert and the Rocky
Mountains. Temperatures dropped to a low of 4°C at altitude and in a rain storrn near
D m g o , Colorado (station 1 7). During segment 1 7 the mean veloci ty of the group was
only 15.88 kmh. Segment 17 required significant climbing with peaks reaching 3000 to
3300 m. The subject averaged 8.49 lan/hr and was siowed by hrvo flat tires, three clothing
changes (due to rain stoms), and the longest sleep break (3 hours) of the race.
Beginning on day 4, medication was needed more fiequently for a groin injury. A
typical stop lasted 3 to 5 minutes. Lidocaine topical crearn was used to numb the pain.
After application, the subject was able to cycle without pain for 2 to 4 hours.
On day 5, the temperature reached a hi@ of 45OC with high humidity at Boise
City, Oklahoma (station 25). The subject averaged 29.44 kmihr which was the third
fastest of the RAAM cornpetitors. On day 5 the subject passed the midpoint of the race in
Slapout, Oklahoma.
On day 6, the high temperature and hurnidity continued. The subject again
required 2 L of intravenous dextrose and electrolytes. M e r midnight, the subject was
extremely fatigued. The subject needed 9.55 hours to cover 90.26 kilometers. During this
segment, the subject took four 60-minute sleep breaks. Between each sleep break, the
subject rode for only 15 kilometers. The crew chief encouraged longer sleep breaks,
however the subject felt compelled to continue.
On day 7, the subject developed oral sores and a swollen tongue. Oral blisters
were caused by sun and exacerbated by a high sugar diet. Solid foods could not be
tolerated. The diet was modified on day 7 and 8 to include pudding. sweetened gelatin,
fiozen popsicles and carbohydrate gel packets.
Due to trafic dangers, RAAM rules required each rider to cross the Mississippi
River bridge by vehicle. The van carrying the subject got lost, thereby reducing the
average velocity in segment 44. This error in navigation cost 45 minutes.
Segment 47 on day 8 resulted in a velocity of only 8.10 kmhr over the 53.48 km.
The subject slept for 2 hours and also needed 2 L of intravenous dextrose and
electrolytes. The groin injury and fatigue also slowed the subject.
Segment 52 on day 9 resulted in the slowest segment of the race for the subject.
This segment was only 45 kilometers. The velocity was initially impacted by a long
climb and later by a 3 hou sleep break.
To be an official finisher in RAAM, a competitor must complete the course within
48 hours of the first place cyclist. By this time, Danny Chew had already won RAAM.
The clock was ticking to finish offcially. At the start of day 1 O, the subject was in 1 Olh
place with the 1 1 " place rider only 12 minutes behind and the 12' place rider over 2
hours behind. Throughout the day, the subject stayed in 10' position. At station 57, the
subject had a 90-minute lead over the nearest cyclist. The cyclist in 9' place was ahead
by 14 hours and out of reach.
In segment 58 fatigue forced the subject to sleep from 3:25 to 5 4 9 a.m. While
sleeping, another competitor passed the subject putting him in 1 lth place. This occurrence
combined with the fear of not finishîng officially provided the incentive to finish
strongly .
At station 60, the subject was 54 minutes behind the 10Ih place rider. The subject
attempted to close the gap. He had the fastest velocity (34.75 km/hr) of al1 cornpetitors
for segment 6 1 (Table 6). At station 6 1. the subject had closed the gap to 20 minutes but
never caught this cyclist. Another competitor dropped out of the race leaving the subject
in lofh place.
The subject finished RAAM in 10 days 2 hours and 42 minutes. His performance
resulted in the "Rookie of the Year" award. He was also the first Canadian finisher (solo
event) in the history of RAAM.
Physiological Variables during RAAM
The daily cycling activity of the subject was recorded using the PowerTap strain
gauge hub. The time on the bike for each 24-hour penod is outlined in Table 7. The mean
power output per day decreased over the course of the race. The highest power output
(124 watts) occurred on day 1 when the subject was rested. The lowest power output (83
watts) occurred over 17.2 hours on day 8 when the subject had to contend with
dehydration, exhaustion and injuries (groin and wrist). The mean power output
throughout RAAM was 97 watts. Figure 5 illustrates the mean daily power output during
RAAM.
The mechanical energy expenditure was determined as a function of power output
using the PowerTap hub dynamometer. The mean mechanical energy during I L U M was
6676 kjoules.
Figure 5 Power Output and Heart Rate in RAAM
Mean Power
4- Mean H,R.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 O Days
Table 7 Daily Cycling Activity dunng RAAM
D ~ Y Time Power Mechanical Energy H.R. (hl Output Energy Expenditure @ ~ m )
(Watts) (kjoules) m a l )
Mean 18.61 97 6676 7946 99
S.D. 1 .55 13 1205 1435 13
Resting Energy Expenditure 5530'
Thennic Effect of Food ( 10% of calorie intake) 68l*
Total 10,157
* Williams, (1999)
Energy expenditure of cycling was based on a conversion from mechanical energy
cost and averaged 7946 kcal. The resting energy expenditure (REE) was estimated at
1530 kcal (Williams, 1999). The thermic effect of food (TEF) was estimated at 68 1 kcal,
using 10% of mean caloric intake (Williams, 1999). The total estimated daily energy
expenditure dunng RAAM was 10,157 kcal.
The mean H.R. during cycling in RAAM is outlined in Table 7. The daily average
KR. gradually declined fiom 1 16 bpm on day 1, to 82 bpm on day 8. On day 10 the
subject was attempting to catch another cornpetitor. As a result of this effort, H.R.
increased to 113 bprn. The mean cycling H.R. during RAAM was 99 bpm. Figure 5
i llustrates the mean heart rate and power output throughout RAAM.
Table 8 estimates exercise intensity during RAAM using three methods. Based on
power output, the first method compared the power output throughout RAAM compared
to maximum performance in the laboratory. The mean power output dunng RAAM was
97 watts. In the laboratory, the subject had a cycling efficiency of 20.1 %. Using this
efficiency, the subject averaged 6.92 kcaVmin when cycling in RAAM. The VQmax of
the subject was 4.32 L/min in the laboratory. The aerobic energy expenditure at VOLmax
was 2 1.8 kcarmin. During RAAM, the relative cycling intensity was calculated by
dividing the average energy output by the maximum aerobic energy expenditure. Based
on power output, the cycling intensity during RAAM was 3 1.7%.
The second method estirnated exercise intensity using H.R. The mean cycling
H.R. during RAAM was 99 bpm. The laboratory maximum H.R. was 171 bpm. The
relative H.R. intensity dunng FUMM was 57.9% of maximum.
The third method estimated exercise intensity using the H.R. - VO, relationship
established in the. laboratory. The mean H.R. during RAAM was 99 bpm. Based the H.R -
V02 line, a H.R. of 99 bpm corresponded to an oxygen cost of 1.68 L h i n during the
laboratory cycling economy test. When compared to V02max. the VO, intensity during
imum. RAAM was 38.9% of max'
Table 8 Cycling and H.R. Intensity during RAAM
Mean Power Output
Cycling Efficiency
Energy Output
97 Watts
Energy Output at V0,max
Cycling Intensity
Mean Cycling H.R.
Maximum H.R.
H.R. Intensity
99 bpm
171 bpm
57.9 %
-- -
VO2 at 99 bpm
HR - VOz Intensity 38.9 %
Nutritional Analysis
The mean daily caloric intake during RAAM is outlined in Table 9. The subject
consumed an average 68 12 kcal/d. Caloric consumption was lowest on day 4, when
climbing hindered food intake. Calonc consurnption was highest on day 9 when the
subject spent more time off the bike. On day 8, the rider cycled for 16.70 hours compared
to day 1, when cycling time was 20.48 hours.
Analysis of the rnacronutrients indicated that the calories were derived fiom 67%
CHO, 24% fat, and 9% protein. Day 3 in Table 9 is typical of the food intake and caloric
consumption throughout RAAM. On day 3, the following foods were consumed in a 24-
hour penod:
Time (E.S.T.)
Throug hou t Day Throughout Day Throug hout Day Throughout Day 13:15 pm 14:30 pm 15:35 pm 16:40 pm 1750 pm 1750 pm 1755 pm 1850 pm 19:15 pm 19:45 pm 21:15 pm 21:15 pm 21:15 pm 22:25 pm 23:30 pm 01 :45 am 02:05 am 05:30 am 06:45 am 08:45 am 09: 15 am 09:20 am 09:30 am
Food
Ga torade Cola Soda Pop Ensure Drink Carbohydrate Gel Burrito (Bean & Beef) Cliff Energy Bar EnsurePlus Drink Nec tarine Whole Wheat Bagel Cheedar Cheese Tortilla Chips Banana Pretzels Ensure Vanilla Drink Whole Wheat Bread Turkey Lunch Meat Cheddar Cheese Chocolate Chip Cookies Cliff Energy Bar Nutri-Grain Cereal Bar Cheddar Cheese Pizza (Vegetarian) Ensure Vanilla + Fiber Whole Wheat Bagel Cantaloupe Melon Whole Wheat Bagel Banana
Quantity
4.125 L 1 .O75 L 0.235 L Seach (193gm) 1 each (142gm) 1 each (68 gm) 1 each (0.235 L) l each (1 36 grn) 1 each (1lOgm) 4 pieces (30 gm) 1 cup (26gm) 1 each ( 1 14 gm) 9 pieces (54 gm) l each (0.235 L) 1 &ce (28 gm) 2 slices (30 gm) 4 pieces (80 gm) 3 each (30 gm) 1 each (68 grn) 1 each (37 gm) 2 pieces (40 grn) 1.5 slice (1 87.5 gm) 1 each (0.235 L) 1.5 each (1 10 p) 5 slices (500 gm) 0.5 each (55 gm) 1 each (114gm)
An analysis of selected micronutrients is shown in Tablel O. The mean mineral
intake for sodium was 7753 mg, potassium 4919 mg, magnesium 575 mg, chlonde 1220
mg, and iron 30 mg. All values exceed the RDA due to the high caloric intake.
Table 1 1 relates the average daily energy intake to expenditure. Average energy
expenditure was 10,157 kcal/d. Average energy intake was 68 12 kcal/d. The difference of
3345 kcaVd resulted in a total calonc deficit of 33,450 kcal during RAAM.
Figure 6 illustrates the changes in body mass throughout RAAM. Some of the
additional mass on days 3 - 7 was due to weighing in wet clothing while wearing a
hehe t and communication radio. Pre and post-race body mass were 65.2 kg and 62.7 kg,
respectively. Post race mass was recorded 24-hours after completion of RAAM. Body
mass decreased by 2.5 kg. Percent fat was estimated fiom skinfold measurements with
values of 9.2% pre-RAAM and 7.1 % post-RAAM. The decrease in fat mass accounted
for 1.5 kg of the total weight loss.
Table 9 Daily Calorie Intake
Mean 6812 1139 67 174 24 161 9
S.D. 914 149 5 49 4 44 3
Table 10 Daily Minera1 Intake
Mean 7753 4919 575 1220 30
S.D. 1664 1568 275 802 8
Table 1 1 Energy Intake (EI) vs Energy Expenditure (EE) - - - .- - - - -
Average daily EE 10,157 kcal
Average daîly EI 68 12 kcal
Di fference
Deficit for 10 days
3345 kcaVd
33,450 kcal
Body weight - Pre (dry) 65.2 kg
Body weight - Post 2 (dry) 62.7 kg
% Fat - Pre 9.2 %
% Fat - Post 7.1 %
Fat Mass - Pre 6.0 kg
Fat Mass - Post 4.5 kg
Fat loss (kg) 1.5 kg
Chapter V
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to descnbe the physiological response of one
athlete competing in the 1999 RAAM. Outdoor magazine has labeled RAAM as the
toughest UE event in the world. Athletes must deal with sleep deprivation,
cardiovascular, muscular and digestive challenges as well as nutritional and
psychological issues.
V0,max and Cycling Economy
The V02max of the subject was 68.6 rnbkg-'.min". This value is similar to the 4
team RAAM riders (Laursen and Rhodes, 1999) but less than elite and professional
cyclists (Lucia et. al., 1998; 1999). The means for these cyclists were 73-74 mlmkg-'*min'
I . The 1985 winner of RAAM was Jonathon Boyer, a professional cyclist with extensive
racing experience (Shermer, 1993). The wimer of the 1984 and 1986 RAAM events was
Pete Penseyres, who had a V02max of 79.6 mI.kg".min-' (Ice et. al., 1988).
Highly trained cyclists (V0,max = 68.6 mbkg-'.min-') can maintain power
outputs that are near maximal (89% of V02max) for approximately 1-hour (Coyle et al.,
1988). In the past, estimates of the mechanical power required to cycle were based upon
indirect measurements such as oxygen uptake, laboratory ergorneter studies, wind tunnel
measurernents, coast d o m tests, towing tests or upon theoretical models using these
indirect measurements (Bassett et al., 1999). During RAAM the subject cycled at a
relative VO, intensity of 38.9 %. This is lower than the V 0 2 range of 49.0% to 57.8%
found in 9 men competing in a 620 kilometer 7-day run (continuous), bike and cross
country ski UE event (Fellmann et al., 1999). The RAAM results related the oxygen cost
of the laboratory cycling tests to the average power output during RAAM (97 watts).
Fellmann et al. (1999) used heart rate data to estimate relative exercise intensity. The
exercise intensity in both these studies is based on the assumption that H.R. and VO,
have a direct and stable relationship with power output.
The rider's eficiency of 20.1 % at 97 watts seemed low compared to the generally
accepted value of 23 %. Interestingly, Seabury et al. (1 977) examined efficiency at
different workloads and cadences and found that the optimal cadence of 48 rprn at 102
watts produced a gross efficiency of 20.5 %. Generally, as the workload increased, so did
the cadence and the gross ef'ficiency. Luhtanen et al. (1987) found that the net efficiency
of bicycle ergometry varies between 17 % and 27 %. They determined that the gross
efficienc y of ergometer bicycling at aerobic and anaerobic thres ho lds was 1 7-20%, net
efficiency 18-22% and tnie efficiency 2 1-30% respectively.
The cadence during RAAM was 65 rprn or lower after the second day. This was
significantly lower than the cadence of 90 rprn during the cycling economy test in the
laboratory. These differences in cadence may have had an impact on rider efficiency and
oxygen cost during RAAM.
Coast and Welch (1985) and Seabury et al. (1977) have used ergorneter tests with
active and trained cyclists to establish the existence of optimal pedal rates. Both groups of
researchers found that the oxygen cost for a given workload shifted depending upon
cadence. Generally, at lower workloads, pedal fiequency is low to optimize efficiency. It
may be that RAAM cyclists naturally ride at a lower cadence as a method of minimizing
energy expenditure and maintaining efficiency. This may help explain why Our subject
had a cadence of 65 rpm or lower after the first day of RAAM competition.
The previous studies on cadence and efficiency were performed using relativeiy
untrained cyclists on Monark ergometers with heavy cranksets and flywheels- This might
have affected the rider efficiency. Hagberg et al. (1981) had 7 well-trained cornpetitive
road cyclists use their own bicycles on a motor driven treadmill. The average preferred
fkequency at 80 % of VO,max was 9 1 rpm. The range was however 72- 102 rpm. The
variations in cycling economy and cadence may be partly due to different methods of
measuring energy consumption, different subjects, muscle fiber composition, age,
varying workloads and training experience.
The eff'ct of different seat heights has been shown to have an impact on oxygen
cost. Nordeen-Snyder, (1977) had 10 active women pedal a racing bicycle (60 rpm and
799 kpdmin) at saddte heights of 95, 100 and 105 % of the trochanteric height. Expired
air was collected and the oxygen cost was found to be lowest at 100 % of trochanteric
height. Dunng RAAM the rider was constantly changing seat heights with various seat
pads due to a groin injury.
These results imply that there are some limitations in extrapolating laboratory data
to field conditions, particularly when factors such as cadence and saddle height are not
controlled.
Power Output
Power output was recorded throughout RAAM using the PowerTap hub
dynamometer introduced in 1999. This study is one of the first applications of this
product for research. Direct measurement of power has also been reported by Bassett et
al. (1 999) using the SRM crank dynamometer (Schoberer Rad McBtechnik, Weldorf,
Germany). The SRM crank dyiiamometer is a telemetry system that also uses strain gauge
readings. Measurements o f power are made at the crank and transmitted to a handlebar
microprocessor. Bassett et al. (1 999) have established the validity of strain gauge
technology to measure power output. They reported an 6 value of 0.9754 when relating
power to speed. Jones and Passfield (1998) have tested the accuracy of the SRM system,
by comparing it with a Monark bicycle ergorneter and have concluded that power
rneasurements with these two systems agree within 1% of each other.
The mean power throughout RAAM was 97 watts. The subject averaged 18.6 1
hours per day on the bicycle dunng 10 days. The highest mean power output (124 watts)
occurred on day 1 when the subject was rested. The iowest power output occurred on day
8 when the subject was fatigued and battling injuries.
Track cyclists generate large amounts of power when racing the 4 kilometer
pursuit. Broker et al. (1999) used the SRM system to record the power outputs of U.S.
national team pursuit riders preparing for the 1996 Olyrnpic games. The 4 kilometer team
pursuit event (4 nders) takes just over 4 minutes. At a speed of60 kmk, the power was
607 watts in the lead position, 430 watts in second position, 389 watts in third position
and 389 watts in fourth position. It has been estimated that the average power output was
437 watts for the Italian pursuit team when they set the world record in 1996. The team
event is a shared effort, in that each rider takes turns in the lead position, whereas the
other three members follow in a line to take advantage of the aerodynamic draft behind
the lead rider. A team rnember requires approximately 75% of the energy necessary for
cyclists riding alone at the same speed. Riders competing in RAAM are not permitted to
draft .
The 1-hour record is one of the most prestigious events in cycling and has been
attempted by many of the best racers in the world. Dunng 1-hour world record
performances, professional cyclists average between 336 and 460 watts (Bassett et al.,
1999).
The SRM system has been used to measure power output in a 170 kilometer
mountain stage of the 1996 Tour de France race (Jeukendrup and Van Diemen, 1998).
Power output was variable with a range fiom 50 watts (light pedaling) to over 1000 watts
while sprinting. In this study, power output was fiequently between 250 to 350 watts for
the 170 kilometers completed in 6.5 hours. Due to the duration of RAAM (200-250
hours), the power output is lower with less fluctuation. The subject in this study averaged
97 watts for 242.8 hours (time off bike included).
Heart Rate
Due to ease of measurement, heart rate is a commonly used indicator of exercise
intensity. The mean cycling H.R. during RAAM for the subject in this study was 99 bpm
that corresponded to 57.9 % of pre-race H.R.max. Average daily heart rate declined fiom
116 bpm on day 1 to 82 bpm on day 8. On day 10, H.R. increased to 113 bprn as the
subject attempted to catch another cornpetitor.
Laursen and Rhodes (1999) measured H.R. of 2 cyclists during the team RAAM.
They estimated the exercise between 70 to 95% with a mean intensity of about 80%. The
H.R. response of 8 professional cyclists has been measured during the 22-daj Tour de
France (Lucia et al., 1999). Out of 102 hours of racing, riders spent 71% of the race in the
aerobic zone (rnean H.R.< 142 bpm), 23% in the lactic acid accumulation zone (mean
H.R. between 142 and 168 bpm) and 7% in the anaerobic zone (mean H.R. > 168 bpm).
The 1998 Tour de France had 22 stages with a mean time per stage of 288 minutes and an
average velocity of 40.2 km/hr (Lucia et al., 1999). The non-continuous nature of the
Tour de France allows riders to recover with evening meals, massage and a full nights
sleep.
In general, there is a linear relationship between H.R. and power output when
measured in a controlled laboratory environment. Heart rate does not always reflect the
metabolic demands of exercise. Heart rates have been shown to drift upwards by as much
as 20 bpm during exercise lasting 20 to 60 minutes, despite unchanged work rates and
steady lactate concentrations (Kindermann et al., 1979). Exercise in both a hot
environment and a dehydrated state increase cardiac drift even further. When subjects
exercised at 62 - 67% of VOzmax in the heat (33"C, 50% relative humidity) and did not
ingest fluids, H.R. increased by 40 bpm after 100 min of exercise (Montain and Coyle,
1992). Fluid ingestion helped to restrïct the increase in H.R., but it still increased by 13
bpm. These results indicate that the relationship between H.R. and exercise intensity is
susceptible to change.
The continuous nature of RAAM, coupled with sleep deprivation and exhaustion
probably aEect H.R. Cahalin et al. (1990) used H.R. telemetry with computer analysis to
record and examine changes over 9 days for 2 iders in the 1989 RAAM cornpetition.
One of the riders was the winner of the race. Analysis revealed a 24% decrease in
exercise HR afier day 2 of RAAM. The decreases in HR did not directly coincide with
the decrease in velocity. Maximal bicycle ergometry exercise tests performed
immediately after RAAM revealed (1) an 1 1.5% decrease in H.R.max, (2) a 24.5%
reduction in maximal workload, (3) a 5 minute decrease in time to exhaustion, and (4)
lower heart rates during each workload compared to pre RAAM tests. Regression
analysis of workload and H.R. revealed different regession lines for before - and afier
exercise tests of each athlete. The authors stated that it was unlikely that fatigue alone
produced the reductions in exercise H.R. and speculated that the decreased exercise H.R.
may be due to sleep deprivation which may have increased parasympathetic activity.
Maximal H.R. also decreases with over-training which may start as fatigue
(Jeukendrup and Van Diemen, 1998). They had 8 well-trained cyclists perform a time
trial on an 8.5 1 kilometer hilly course. A fatigued state was created over a 2-week period
by significantly increasing training duration and intensity. Time trial performance
decreased from 36.9 to 35.2 km/hr. Heart rate during the time trial decreased from 178 to
169 bpm. The decreases in H.R. during RAAM observed in the subject of this study may
be partly attributed to fatigue.
Eoergy Intake and Expenditure
The longer the duration of endurance competitions, the more important it becomes
to maintain energy balance. This is particularly tme of UE athletes who require large
amounts of calories for both training and racing.
This study used detailed food records and weighing to estimate the average daily
energy intake of one rider during RAAM. The cyclist had an energy intake of 68 12
kcavday for 10 days. This value is slightly more than the study by Saris et al. (1989)
which used food intake diaries to estimate an average daily caloric intake of 588 1
kcavday in 5 professional cyclists in the Tour de France. Although professional bike
racing is extremely intense, the duration of work, and subsequent calorie expenditure, is
relatively short compared to RAAM nding (Jeukendrup and Van Diemen, 1998). This
may be one reason why the subject in this study showed a higher daily caloric intake
during RAAM. In another study by Brouns et al. (1989), highly trained cyclists consumed
between 6 143 and 6691 kcaVday with two exhaustive bouts of exercise. The caloric
intakes of professional cyclists may match those of RAAM riders due to sufficient re-
fueling and re-hydrating during long recover penods after competitions. In the two case
studies investigating the caloric intakes of RAAM competi tors, Ice et al. (1 988) and
Lindeman (1 99 1) used daily food records and reported caloric intakes of 7965 kcaVday
and 8429 kcallday, respectively.
Total daily energy expenditure for the subject in this study was based on power
output, resting energy expenditure and thermic effect of food. The total daily caloric cost
for this RAAM cornpetitor was 10,157 kcavday for over 10 days. This study found an
estimated daily energy deficit of 3345 kcal (Table 1 1).
Depending on the intensity and duration of exercise, the range of daily energy
expendihire for UE athletes lies between 5000 and 22,000 kcavday (Kreider, 199 1 ).
Given these high kilocalorie requirements, UE cornpetitors sometimes demonstrate a
negative energy balance (Brouns et al., 1989; Kreider, 1991; Saris et al., 1989). Brouns et
al. (1989) found that cyclists on a normal CHO diet did not sufficiently restore glycogen
within 24 hours following 2 days of exhaustive cycling. These cyclists remained in
negative caloric balance for both exercise days and only reached positive caloric balance
on the following rest days. Saris et al. (1989) estimated the energy balance of five elite
cyclists in the Tour de France. Athletes were slightly below their energy requirernents on
longer race days, but made up for any deficit during easy and recovery days.
A negative energy balance may be caused by many factors. These include:
compromised digestion and absorption rate due to duration and intensity of exercise,
environmental conditions, palatability, appetite suppression and nausea, difficulties
associated with refùeling complex carbohydrates along with the inability to replenish
liver and muscle glycogen stores (Brouns et al., 1989; Kreider, 1991 ; Lindeman, 1991).
Fatness and Body Mass Changes
The higher caloric costs associated with UE cornpetitions can have an impact on
body mass and fat mass. Lindeman ( 199 1 ) recorded body mass changes of a solo RAAM
rider and found an increase from 79 to 8 1.8 kg in the first 24 hours. The cyclist weighed
80.7 kg immediately after the cornpetition and 79.5 kg 48 hours later. The body mass and
skinfolds of the subject in this study were measured prior to, daily and after RAAM.
Interestingly, the subject increased his body mass from 65.2 kg to a high of 67.5 during
the first 5 days of RAAM. AAer day 5, body mass began to decrease until reaching a low
of 62.7 kg one day afler RAAM. The subject lost a total of 1.5 kg (2.1 %) of body fat
afier RAAM.
Increases in body mass have been documented in other research on UE athletes.
Fellmann et al. (1999) examined UE athletes who raced for 7 consecutive days of
running, cycling and cross-country skiing. At intensities between 49% and 57.8% of
VOtmax, athletes had significant increases in total body water, extracellular water,
plasma volume and consequently intracellular water. The authors concluded that
prolonged UE exercise induced a chronic hyperhydration at bot h extracellular and
intracellular levels. The increases in total mean plasma content of sodium combined with
no changes in albumin and total protein contents indicated that sodium retention was the
major factor in the increase in plasma volume. This may help explain the body mass
changes in our subject during RAAM. Kaminsky and Paul (1 991) found a significant
relationship between fluid intake and plasma volume increases in 5 male ultramarathon
runners competing in 50 km to 100 km events.
Using bioelectrical impedance, Ice et al. (1988) showed a pre-to-post increase in
total body water from 43.2 L to 47.2 L in the winner of the 1986 RAAM. It is possible
that the high intake of beverages containing osmotically active solutes in RAAM may
have lead to fluid and plasma volume shifts.
Chapter V I
Summary, Conclusions, Recommeodations
Summary
The 1999 RAAM was a non-stop L E cycling competition that started on July 22"*
in h i n e , CA. and finished in Savannah, GA, a distance of 4727 km. The challenge of
covenng significant distances, with little or no recovery, over varied terrain and divergent
environmental conditions creates physiological stresses that are of interest to
investigaton. The nature of this competition provides researchers with an opportunity to
examine physiological responses of ultraendurance athletes.
The objectives of this investigation were: (1) to describe the response (H.R. and
power output) of one athlete competing in the 1999 RAAM, (2) to examine the
relationship between heart rate and power output throughout RAAM, and (3) to quanti@
the daily energy intake and energy expenditure. The hypotheses were (1) H.R. will
decrease over the course of the race. (2) Power output will decrease over the course of the
race. (3). H.R. will be significantly comelated with power output. (4) Energy expenditure
will exceed energy intake. (5) There will be a significant decrease in body mass and fat
mass.
Baseline testing was perfonned 2 weeks prior to the RAAM. Baseline testing
consisted of body composition measurements, a cycling economy test and a VOLmax test.
Cycling economy was measured using the same bicycle for the RAAM competition. Gas
measurements (V,, VO,, VCO,, and R) at maximal and submaximal workloads were
averaged every 20s using the SensorMedics 2900 metabolic cart. The "PowerTap" hub
dynamometer was used in the laboratory and during RAAM to rneasure power output.
Two 6-minute cycling economy tests were performed. Steady state data were
collected for the last 3-minutes at power outputs of 100 and 150 watts. These power
outputs were assessed using a CompuTrainer and 4 hub-mounted strain gauges
(PowerTap). The steady state VO, was 1.68 at 100 watts and 2.19 L h i n at 150 watts.
Both economy tests were aerobic as the R values were Iess than 1.00. The energy
expenditure was 8.2 and 10.7 kcaVmin at LOO and 150 watts, respectively. Cyciing
emciency was 17.5 % at 100 watts and 20.1 % at 150 watts.
Following the cycling economy test, the subject pedaled for 3 minutes at 200,
250, 300 and 350 watts. The subject's V0,max was 4.32 L/min or 68.6 ml/kg*min. The
maximum HR was 17 1 b h i n . The HR and VO, values obtained during baseline testing
were compared to the data measured during the RAAM event.
During RAAM, the subject was supported with three vehicles and a crew of 8.
The crew included 2 physicians, 2 graduate students responsible for data collection, 1
massage therapist, 1 bicycle mechanic and 2 navigators, one of which was also
designated as the crew chief.
The support crew recorded food and fluid intake throughout RAAM. Calonc
intake was calculated by measuring solid and liquid food and entering the weight or
volume into the "Genesis R&D" (Version 6.2) software for "Windows 95". The analysis
includes output for total kilocalories, contributions fiom CHO, fat and protein, as well as
vitarnin and minera1 consumption.
During RAAM, the subject traveled through 63 time stations. Velocity was
recorded for each of the 63 segments and compared to the mean performance for the 19
cyclists and the fastest performance. The velocity within each segment varied depending
upon environmental conditions, terrain, as well as time on and off the bike. The duration
of rest and sleep breaks influenced velocity. The subject was also slowed by a groin
injury, dehydration and oral sores due to a high CHO diet and sunburn,
To be an officia1 finisher in RAAM, a competitor must complete the course within
48 hours of the first place cyclist. This was accomplished. The subject finished in 10 days
2 hours and 42 minutes. His performance resulted in the "Rookie of the Year" award. He
was also the first Canadian finisher (solo event) in the history of RAAM.
The daily cycling activity of the subject was recorded using the PowerTap strain
gauge hub technology. The mean power output per day decreased over the course of the
race. The highest power output (124 watts) occurred on day 1 when the subject was
rested. The lowest power output (83 watts) occurred over 17.2 hours on day 8 when the
subject had to contend with dehydration, exhaustion and injuries (groin and wrist). The
mean power output throughout W was 97 watts.
The mechanical energy expenditure was determined from power output using the
PowerTap power sensor. The mean mechanical energy dunng RAAM was 6676 kjoules.
Energy expenditure of cycling averaged 7946 kcallday. The resting energy expenditure
(REE) was estimated at 1530 kcal. The thermic effect of food (TEF) was estimated at 681
kcal. The total estimated daily energy expenditure during RAAM was 10,157 kcal.
Heart rate was measured continuously during RAAM. The daily average H.R.
gadually declined from 116 bpm on day 1, to 82 bpm on day 8. On day 10 the subject
was attempting to catch another cornpetitor resulting in an increased H.R. to 1 13 bpm.
The mean cycling H.R. during RAAM was 99 bpm.
Exercise intensity during RAAM was estimated using three methods. Based on
power output, the cycling intensity during RAAM was 3 1.7%. The relative H.R. intensity
dunng RAAM was 57.9% of maximum. The third method estimated exercise intensity
using the H.R. - V O relationship established in the laboratory. When compared to
V02max, the VO, intensity during RAAM was 38.9% of maximum.
The mean daily calorie intake during RAAM was 68 12 kcal/day. Caloric
consumption was lowest on day 4, when climbing hindered food intake. Caionc
consumption was highest on day 9 when the subject spent more time off the bike. On day
8, the rider cycled for 16.70 hours compared to day 1, when cycling time was 20.48
hours. Analysis of the macronutrients indicated that the calories were derived fiom 67%
CHO, 24% fat, and 9% protein.
Energy expenditure exceeded energy intake by 3345 kcal/day. Body mass
decreased by 2.5 kg during RAAM. Percent fat was estimated from skinfold
measurements with values of 9.2% pre-RAAM and 7.1% post-RAAM. The decrease in
fat mass accounted for 1.5 kg of the total weight loss.
The mean minera1 intake for sodium was 7753 mg, potassium 4919 mg,
magnesium 575 mg, chloride 1220 mg, and iron 30 mg. Al1 values exceed the RDA due
to the high caloric intake.
Conclusions
Within the limitations of this study, the following conclusions are warranted.
( 1 ) Heart rate decreased over the course of the race.
(2) Power output decreased over the course of the race.
(3) Both power output and H.R. decreased sirnilarly throughout RAAM.
(4) Daily energy expenditure exceeded energy intake.
(5) There was a decrease in both body mass and fat mass throughout RAAM
Recommendations
This study examined power output, H.R., energy intake and expenditure during
the RAAM. Suggestions for future studies include:
(1) V02 measurements should be collected periodically throughout RAAM using
telemetry (K2 Cosmed system). This may provide a better estimate of exercise
intensity and energy expenditure.
(2) Performance of a V0,max test immediately upon completion of RAAM. Both
V02max and H.R.max are probably significantly lower in the athletes fatigued state.
(3) Examine the relationship between power output and H.R. by comparing flat cycling
segments on a daily basis throughout RAAM.
(4) Measure body composition and total body water such as the doubly-labeled water
technique (Westerterp et al., 1986). This technique permits an estimation of total body
water.
(5) Examine H.R. in relation to sleep deprivation.
(6) Examine the H.R.- power output relationship in relation to temperature.
References
Applegate, L. (1989). Nutritional considerations for triathletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2 1 : S205-208.
Bassett, D.R., Kyle, C.R., Passfield, L., Broker, J.P., Burke, E.R. (1 999). Comparing cycling world hour records, 1967- 1996: modeling with empirical data. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 3 l(11): 1665-1 676.
Broker, J.P., Kyle, C.R., Burke, E.R. (1999). Racing cyclist power requirements in the 4000-m individual and tearn pursuits. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 3 l(11): 1677- 1685.
Brouns, F., Saris, W.H.M., Stroecken, J., Beckers, E., Thijssen, R., Rehrer, N.J., Ten Hoor, F. (1 989). Eating, drinking and cycling. A controlled Tour de France simulation study. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 10: S32-48.
Cahalin, L., Ice, R., Sasao, M. (1990). Exercise heart rates dunng the 1989 race across america (Abstract). Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 22: S67.
Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology (1996). Healthy body composition. In: The Canadian Physical Activïty, Fitness & Lifestyle Appraisal. @p. 7: 11-22). Ottawa. Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology.
Clark, N., Tobin, J Jr., Ellis, C. (1992). Feeding the ultra-endurance athlete: practical tips and a case study. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 92 (10): 1258- 1262.
Coast, J.R., Welch, H.G. (1985). Linear increase in optimal pedal rate with increased power output in cycle ergometry. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 53: 339-342.
Costill, D.F., Coyle, E.F., Dalsky, G., Evans W., Fink, W., Hoopes, D. (1977). Effects of elevated plasma FFA and insulin on muscle glycogen usage during exercise. Jou rnal of Applied Physiology. 43: 695-699.
Coyle, E.F. (1995). Fat metabolism during exercise. Gatorade Sports Science Reviews. 8(6).
Co y le, E.F. (1 995). lntegration of the p hysiological factors determining endurance performance ability. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews. 23: 25-63.
Coyle, E.F., Coggan, A. R., Hopper, M.& & Walten, T.J. (1988). Deteminants of endurance in well trained cyclists. Journal of Applied Physiology. 64(17): 2622- 2630.
Davies, C.T.M., Thompson, M. W. (1975). Aerobic performance of female and male ultramarathon athletes. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 4 I : 233-245.
Davies, C.T.M., Thompson, M. W. (1 986). Physiological responses to prolonged exercise in ultramarathon athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology. 61 : 61 1-6 17.
Fallon, K.E., Broad, E., Thompson, M. W., Reull, P.A. ( 1998). Nutntional and fluid intake in a 100 km ultramarathon. International Journal of Sport Nutrition. 8(1): 24-35.
Farber, H., Arbetter, J., Schaeffer, E., Hill, S., Dallal, G., Grimaldi, R., Hill, N. (1987). Acute rnetabolic effects of an endurance triathlon. Annals of Sports Medicine. 3: 131-138.
Fellmann, N., Ritz, P., Ribeyre, J., Beaufiere, B., Delaitre, M., Coudert, J. (1999). Intracellular hyperhydration induced by a 7-day endurance race. European Journal of Applied Physiology & Occupationai Physiology. 80(4): 353-359.
Gatorade Sports Science Exchange (1 996). New ideas for rehydration during and after exercise in hot weather. Sports Science Exchange. I(3).
Hagberg, J.M., Mullin, J.P., Giese, M.D., Spitznagel, E. (198 1). Effect of pedaling rate on submaximal exercise responses of competitive cyclists. Journal of Applied Physiology. 5 1 : 447-45 1.
Hill, D. W., Borden, D.O., Darnaby, M., Hendricks, D.N. (1 994). Aerobic and anaerobic contributions to exhaustive high-intensity exercise aFter sleep deprivation. Journal of Sports Sciences. 12: 65-46 1 .
Hiller, W.D. (1 989). Dehydration and hyponatremia during triathlons. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2 1 : S2 19-22 1.
Holtzhausen, L.M., Noakes, T.D., Kroning, B., de Klerk, M., Roberst, M., Emsley, R. (1994). Clinical and biochemical charactenstics of collapsed ultra-marathon runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 26 (9): 1095- 1 10 1.
Ice, R., Millman, P., Ice, D., Camp, J. (1988). A physiological profile of the 1984 and t 986 Race-Across-America wimer. Xn E., Burke & M., Newsom (Eds.), Medical and Seientific Aspects of Cycling. @p. 173-1 80). Human Kinetics Books.
Irving, R.A., Noakes, T.D., Burger, S.C., Myburgh, K.H., Querido, D., Van Zyl Smit, R. (1 990). Plasma volume and renal function dunng and afier ultramarathon running. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 22(5): 581-587.
Jansen, G.M.E., Graef, C.J.J., Saris, W.H.M. (1989). Food intake and body composition in novice athletes during a training penod to nui a marathon. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 1 O(1): S 1 7-2 1.
Jeukendrup, A., Van Diemen, A. (1998). Heart rate monitoring dunng training and cornpetition in cyclists. Journal of Sports Sciences. 16: S9 1-99.
Jones, S.M., Passfield, L. (1 998). The dynarnic calibration of bicycle power measunng cranks. In: S.J. Haake (Ed.), The Engineering of Sport. (pp. 265-274). Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd.
Kaminsky L.A., Paul, G.L. (1991). Fluid intake during an ultramarathon mnning race: relationship to plasma volume and serum sodium and potassium. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 3 l(3): 4 1 7-41 9.
Kindermann,W., Simon, g., Keul, J. (1979). The significance of the aerobic-anaerobic transition for the determination of workload intensities during endurance training. European Journal of Sports Medicine. 42: 25-34.
Kreider, R. (1 99 1 ). Physiological characteristics of ultraendurance performance. International Journal of Sports Nutrition. 1 : 3-27.
Laursen, P.B., Rhodes, E.C. (1999). Physiological analysis of a high intensity ultraendurance event. Strength and Conditioning Journal. 2 l(1): 26-38.
Lemon, P. W.R (1987). Protein and exercise. (Update). Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 19: 5 1 79-5 190.
Lindeman, A.K. (1991). Nutrient intake of an ultraendurance cyclist. International Journal of Sports Nutrition. l(1): 79-85.
Lucia, A., Hoyos, J., Carvajal, A., Chicharro, J.L. (1999). Heart rate response to professional road racing: the Tour de France. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 20: 167- 1 72.
Lucia, A., Pardo, J., Durantez, A., Hoyos, I., Chicharro, J.L. (1998). Physiological differences between professional and elite road cyclists. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 19: 342-348.
Luhtanen, P.L., Rahkila, P., Rusko, H., Viitasalo J.T. (1 987). Mechanical work and efficiency in ergometer bicycling at aerobic and anaerobic thresholds. Acta Pbysiologica Scandinavia. 13 1 : 33 1-337.
Maughan, R. (1 988). Carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions during prolonged exercise. In D.R. Lamb, M.H., Williams (Eds.), Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine: Volume 4; Ergogenics, The Enhancement of Sports Performance. Indianapolis: Benchmark Press.
McArdle, W.D., Katch, F.I., Katch, V.L. (1996). Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition and Human Performance (4th ed.). Baltimore, Maryland; Williams and Wilkins. @p. 147).
Montain,S.J., Coyle, E.F. (1992). Fluid ingestion during exercise increases skin blood flow independent of increases in blood volume. Journal of Applied Physiology. 73: 903-910.
Newmark, S.R., Toppo, F. R., Adams, G. (199 1). Fluid and electrolyte replacement in the ultra-marathon runner. American Journal of Sports Medicine. 19(4): 389-39 1 .
Noakes, T.D., Norman, R.J., Buck, R.H., Godlonton, J., Stevenson, K., Pittaway, D. (1990). The incidence of hyponatrernia dunng prolonged ultra-endurance exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 22(2): 165-1 70.
Nordeen-Snyder, K.S. (1977). The effect of bicycle seat height variation upon oxygen consumption and lower limb kinematics. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 9 (2): 1 13- 1 17.
O'Toole, M.L., Douglas, P.S., Laird, R.H., Hiller, D.B. (1995). Fluid and electrolyte status in athletes receiving medical care at an ultra-distance triathlon. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 5 (2): 1 16-1 22.
O'Toole, M.L., Hiller, W.D., Douglas, P.S., Pisarello, J.B., Mullen, J.L. (1987). Cardiovascualar responses to prolonged cycling and running. Annals of Sports Medicine. 3: 124- 130.
Peters, E.M., Goetzche, J.M. (1997). Dietary practices of South Afncan ultra-distance m e r s . International Journal of Sport Nutrition. 7(2): 80-203.
P h i ~ e y , S.D., Bistrian, B.R., Evans, W.J., Gervino, E., Blackburn, G.L. (1 983). The hman metabolic responses to chronic ketosis without calonc restriction: preservation of submaximal exercise capability with reduced carbohydrate oxidation. Metabolism, ClinicaI and Experimental. 32(8): 769-776.
Plyley, M.J., Shepard, R.J., Davis, G.M., Goode, R.C. (1987). Sleep deprivation and cardiorespiratory function: influence of intermittent exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 56: 338-344.
Pyke, F.S., Craig, N-P, Norton, K I . (1988). Physiological and psychological responses of punuit and sprint track cyclists to a period of reduced training. In E.R., Burke and M.M., Newsom (Eds.), Medical and Scientific Aspects of Cycling. Illinois; Human Kinetics Books. (pp. 147-1 63).
Rogers, G., Goodman, C., Rosen, C. (1997). Water budget during ultra-endurance exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 29(11): 1477-1481.
Saris, W.H.M., van Erp-Baart, M.A., Brouns, F., Westerterp, KR., ten i-ioor, F. (1 989). Study on food intake and energy expenditure during extreme sustained exercise: the Tour de France. International Journal of Sports Medicine. lO(1): S26-S3 1.
Sawka, M.N., Pandolf, K.B. (1990). Effects of body water loss on physiological function and exercise perfomance. In D.R. Lamb, C.V. Gisolvi (Eds.), Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine: Volume 3; Fluid Homeostasis During Exercise. (pp. 1-38}.
Seabus., J.J., Adams, W.C., Ramey, M.R. (1977). Influence of pedaling rate and power output on energy expenditure during bicycle ergometry. Ergonornics. 20(5): 49 1 - 498.
Shermer, M. (1993). The Agonies & Glories of the World's Longest & Cruelest Bicycle Race; Race Across America. Waco, TX; WRS Publishing.
Van Erp-Baart, A.M.J., Saris, W.M.H., Binkhorst, R.A., Vos, J.A., Elvers, H. (1 989). Nationwide survey on nutritional habits of elite athletes. International Journal of Sports Medicine. lO(1): S 1 1 -S 16.
Van Handel, P., Baldwin, C., Puhl, J., Katz, A., Dantine, S., Bradley, P.W. (1988). Measurement and interpretation of physiological parameters associated with cycling performance. In E.R., Burke, and M.M., Newsom (Eds.), Medical and Scientific Aspects of Cycling. Illinois; Human Kinetics Books. (pp. 47-72).
Van Helder, T., Radomski, M. W. (1989). Sleep deprivation and the effect on exercise performance. Sports Medicine. 7: 235-247.
White, J.A., Ward, C., Nelson, H. (1984). Ergogenic demands of a 24 cycling event. British Journal of Sports Medicine. l8(3): 165-1 77.
Williams, M.H. (1999). Nutrition for Health, Fitness and Sport. (5th ed.). WCB/McGraw-Hi1 l.
Westerterp, KR, Saris W.H.M., Es van M., & Ten Hoor F. (1986). Use of doubly labeled water technique in humans during heavy sustained exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. 6 1 : 2 262-2 167.
Appendices
Appendix 1 . Consent Form for Exercise Testing.
Appendix 2. Certificate of Ethical Acceptability for Funded and Non Funded Research Involving Humans.
CONSENT FORM FOR EXERCISE TESTING
1, % u b , ~ D W / . I A @rint name) authorize Dr. David
Montgomery to adminsiter a baseline exercise test and to coliect data during the Race
Across America. The tests outlined below will be useâ for researcb puiposes. 1
understand that 1 may discontinue the tests at any time if 1 experince unusual discornfort.
1 understand that the medical personnel may discontinue the testhg if my physicai health
is in danger. 1 understand that both the baseline teshg and the actuai event are extreme
in nature and reserve the nght to termiuate the project at any time should 1 or the medical
personnel feel that 1 am in danger.
TESTS TO BE PERFORMED 1) Baseline testing will wnsist of a maximal oxygen uptaice protocol on the subject's
racing bicycle using an electronidy calibrateci and braked resistance unit (CompuTrainer, RacerMate Inc., Seattle). Physiologicai data will be collected with a Sensormedics 2900 metabolic cart and include: maximai oxygen uptake, heart rate and power output. The protocol begins at a self selected cadence at a resistance of 50 - watts, increasing every 3 minutes by 50 watts until volitional exhaustion.
2) The steady state test will consist of a single 6 minute stage at 150 watts. Ventilatory measurements and heart rate wiii be recorded throughout the test.
3) Field data will be collected on heart rate, oxygen uptake, power output, nutritional intake, and body weight during the Race Across America. Heart rate will be monitored continuously using a ~ o l a r * ~ sport tester, with data being downloaded to a compter every 24 hours. A Power ~a~~~ strain gauge wiU be mounted on the rear hub of the bicycle to continuously record power output. Oxygen uptake wili be measured 5 tirnes per &y using a portable oxygen analyzer. Each measurement will be for 6 minutes while cycling on level terrain at a power output of 150 Watts. AU food and liquid consumed during the race will be measured and analyzed for total calories, percent carbohydrates, percent fat, and percent proteh. The subject's weight will be recorded 3 times per day. The environmental conditions (temperature, humidity and elevation) will be recorded throughout the race.
1 acknowledge that 1 have read and Mly comprehend the above Uzformation. 1 understand the test and mesurernent procedures to be administered and the inherent risks, and 1 voluntarily consent to participate. 1 realize that the data will be released only to the principle investigators.
Singature of participant : Date :
MCGILL UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF EDUCATION I CWIU UNtVZRSITY
R E C E I V E D
CERT IFICATE OF ETHICAL ACCEPTABIUTV FOR JUN 81999
FUNDED AND NON FUNOEO RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMANS 1 Fwlty of €ducahion Assoc. Dean's Office
The Faculty of Education Ethics Review Committee consists of 6 members appointed by the Facuîty of Education Nominating Committee, an appointed member from the cornmunity and the Associate Dean (Academic Programs, Graduate Studies and Research) who is the Chair of this Ethics Review Board .
The undersigneci considered the application for certification of the ethical acceptabiiity of the project entitled: Physiological Monitoring o f a Cyclist During the Race Across Amerka
as proposed by:
Applicant's Name David L. Montgomery S ~ p e ~ s o r ' s Name
Applicant's Signature ad L 1;) Supervisof s Signature
Degree l Program / Course Granting Agency
The application is considered to be: A Full Review X An Expedited Review
A Renewal for an Approved Project A Departmental Level Review Signature of Chair / Designate
The review cornmittee considers the research procedures and practices as explaineci by the applicant in this application, to be acceptable on ethical grounds.
1. Prof. Evelvn Lusthaus 4. Prof. Lise Winer Department o i Educational and Counselling econd Language Education Psychology
Signature 1 date [4/
Signature / date
2. Prof. John Leide Graduate School of Library and Information Studies
5. Prof. Claudia Mitchell Department of Educational Studies
Signature / date Signature 1 date
3. Prof. Margaret Oowney 6. Prof. Kevin McDonough Department of Physical Education
d Y / ~ a d & C'T)LLC~ 9 ? / ~ 6 /17 Sigrhure# date 1 4ign;turel date
7. Mernber of the Cornmunity - To be determined
Signature / date 1
Mary H. Maguire Ph. O. ft- ' 2 f3 4 . / ) I / J ~ L .L IL ; - ~ G . J L = " i '$ 7 ' J
chair of the-~aculty of Education Ethics Review Committee Associate Dean (Academic Prograrns, Graduate Studies and Research) Faculty of ducati ion, Room 236 Tel: (5 14) 398-7039/2183 Fax: (51 4) 398-1 527
Signature 1 date 'J Revised May, 1999
b MCGILL UNIVERSITY 1 FACULTY OF EDUCAl'lON CERTlFlCATE OF ETHICAL ACCEPTABIUTY FOR FUNDED AND NON FUNDED RESEARCH INVOLVING
HUMANS 1 CHECKUST ( Revised May, 1999)
The items indicated below require your attention before the Ethial Review Comrnitt88 can proœss and approve your research project. Please make sure to include al1 of them and refer to the attachai E l h a Research Procedures and Ethical Research Guidelines. IncompleZe applications will rbe sent bock fo the applitant
1. / lndicate the Type of Review : Full Review X Expedited Review Annual Renewal of Approved Projed Departmental Approval as Part of Undergraduate or Graduate Course Worû
2. / Certificate of Ethical Acceptability for Funded and Non Funded Research lnvolving Humans See Ethics Forrn: -name of the applicant and signature
-name of the supervisor and signature (if applicable) - title of the research project -degree program (if applicable) mgranting agency (if applicable)
3 / A dear. comprehensible Statement of Ethia of Proposeci Research and ywr signature. (See Ethics Fom - items 1 - 6).
4. / Subrnission requirements: 4. A. For Expedited Review submit 2 copies of ethics fom, abstrad anaor brief summary (1-2pages) 4. 0 . For Full Review submit 8 copies of the ethics fom and Full Research Proposal. 4. C. For Departmental Review submit f copy of the completed ethics fom and certificate signedby the Department Chair, or Designate
5. / A copy of informed consent form(s) and procedures for obtaining free and infomied consent. Informed consent must be written in language that is appropriate for the participants.
If applicable, a copy of the instrument to be used for colleding the data ( e-g. questionnaire, intenhew, etc. ) or, if using a commercial test, indude a copy of the test and a brief description of it.
7. Any other certificate of ethics vrrhich funding agencies may require.
8. For Review of Research in other jun'sdictions or countries: Submit a copy of Ethics Review Approval from the relevant agency or institution for research to ôe perfonned outside the jurisdiction or country of the institute which employs the researcher.
IMPORTANT POLlCY STATEMENTS: - Approval of ethics acceptability must be obtained before data collection for a funded or non funded project.
O Ali funded and non funded research undertaken at McGill University must be verifiable. O All researchers rnust be able to have respondents confirm that they gave specific data. O Confidentiality must be ensured. It can be generally achieved by establishing a system such
as rnatching identification numbers with names and placing the names in a sealed envelope that is kept in a secure place.
O The exact procedures used should be clearly explained in (6.1) of the staternent of ethics form. - All researchers in the Faculty of Education must obtain the name and infomed consent of al1 research participants 18 years of age or older. For populations under 18, in most circumstances, informed consent must be obtained from parents or guardians as well as children.
Submit to the Office of the Associate Dean (Academic Pmgams, Graduate Studies and Research) Faculty of Education, Room 230 Tel: (514) 398-703912183 1 Fax: (514) 398-1527
Statement of ethics, p. 1
Revked May, 1999
MCGILL UNNERSJTY FACULTY OF EDUCAflON
STATEMENT OF ETHICS OF PROPOSED RESEARCH
It is assumed that the responses to the questions below refled the author's (or authors') familiarity with the ethical guidelines for funded and non funded research wioi human subjeds that have k e n adopted by the Faculty of Education and that responses confonn to and respect the Tri- council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research lnvohnng Humans (1998).
1. lnfonned Consent of Subjects
Expiain how you propose to seek infomed consent fmm each of your subjeds (or should they be minors, from their parents or guardian). Informed consent indudes comprehension of the nature, procedures. purposes, risks, and benefits of the researeh in whjdl are participab'ng. Please append to this statement a copy of the consent form that you intend to use.
The s u b j e c t w i l l be asked t o read and sign a consent fonn which w i l l d e f i n e a l 1 tests and measurements to be a d i n i s t e r e d . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s w i l l read w i t h and i n f o r m the s u b j e c t o f his r i g h t ta withdraw from the p r o j e c t a t any t ime . The s u b j e c t i s free to drop out o f the Race Across America a t any p o i n t i n t h e race . The investigation w i l l o n l y b e g i n a f t e r the consent fom h a s been s i g n e d .
2. Subject Recruinnent
2.1 Are the subjects a 'captive population' (e.g., residents of a rehabilitation centre, students in a class, inmates in a penal establishment)?
2.2 Explain how institutional or social pressures will not be applied to encourage participation. (See attached guidelines)
The s u b j e c t w i l l be reminded t h a t th i s i s a volunteer s t u d y and w i l l be assured o f h is r i g h t t o d i s c o n t i n u e the p r o j e c t a t any t ime and for any reason .
2.3 What is the nature of any inducernent you intend to present to prospective subjects to persuade them to participate in your study?
The s u b j e c t is a former world c l a s s a t h l e t e who w i l l be r e c e i v i n g 1 abora tory c e s c i n g normal ly worth s e v e r a l hundred d o l l a r s . Knowl edge o f the p h y s i o l o g i c a l response during the Race Across America cycl i n g competi t i o n will h e l p this s u b j e c t t r a i n for f u t u r e u l tramarathon c y c l i n g even t s .
2.4 How will you help pspective participants understand that they may freely withdraw h m the study at their own discretion and for any reason?
T h i s w i l l be c l e a r l y s t a t e d i n the c o n s e n t form. In a d d i t i o n the s u b j e c t w i l l be v e r b a l l y reminded during t h e r a c e t h a t h e i s free t o wi thdraw and/or d i s c o n t i n u e the phys io log ica l d a t a c o l l e c t i o n a t a n y t i m e and f o r any reason.
3. Subject Risk and Well-being
What assurance can you provide this cornmittee (as weîl as the subjeds) that the risks, physical andlor psychological, that are inherent to this study are either minimal or fully justifiable given the benefits that these same subjeds can reasonabiy exped to receive?
The subject has voluateered to -ter this event. W e are proviciing pre-, during and post-event medical supervision and personnel t o support h is participation i n this project. The medical personnel that are part of the support crew w i l l hold ultimate decision making a b i l i t y when i t comes to the detemination of whether or not t o continue the competi tion. In addition, the athlete may decide to end the competi tion a t any time and for any reason. Also, the support vehicle will follow and moni tor the rider throughou t the race to ensure safety. The testing poses minimal intrusion to the athlete's goal which i s to complete the race as quickly as possible.
4. Deception of Subjects
4.1 Will the research design necessitate any deception to the subjeds?
4.2 If so, M a t assurance can you provide this cornmittee that no alternative methodology is adequate?
Not applkable
4.3 If deception is used, how do you intend to nullify any negative consequences of the deception?
Not applicable
5. Privacy of Subjects
How will this study respect the subjeds' right to privacy, that is, their right to refuse you access to any information which falls within the private domain?
Any information the subject provides and wishes to be kept private w i l l remain confidential between the physician and the subject. The subject w i l l be free to refuse collection of any physiological &ta a t any point during the race. The subject's identi ty w i l l remain anonymous i n publications.
6.1 How will this study ensure that (a) the identity of the subjects wilf be concealeci and (b) the confidentiality of the information which they will fumish to the researchers or their surrogates will be safeguarded? (See guidelines on confidentialitylanonymtty sedion).
The data w i l l be stored i n a filing cabinet that is accessible only to investiga tors. The subject's identi ty w i l l only be used i n future publications with his written consent.
Statement of ethics, p. 3
6.2 If applicable, explain how data will be aggregated in such a way that even should the identity of the participants becotm k n m , no reasonabie inference could be made about the performance, cornpetence, or charader of any one of h s e participants. If data will not be aggregated, provide a detailed explanath.
This is a case study whereby C h e physiological response w i l l be described over an 8 - 2 0 day event. T h e description will examine the physiological response i n relation t o environmen ta1 factors and i n relation t a fatigue on a d a i l y basis. For example, caloric intake w i l l be described i n t e m s of calories, + carbohydrate, % fat , and + protein from day 1 to day 1 0 . Power output w i l l be averaged each hour and described throughou t the race . Similarly, heart rate and oxygen up take will be descr ibed throughouc the event. The description w i l l focus on the response of one subject over 8 - 10 days .
Signature of researchec R ~/zL-
flH
If this project has been submitted to another ethics cornmittee, please note the particulars:
Submit this statement to: m c e of the Associate Dean (Academic Programs, Gaduate Studies and Research) Faculty of Education, Rcom 230 Tel: (51 4) 398-703912l83 Fax: (51 4) 398-1 527