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Locating the oil field

Geologists useseismicsurveys to search for geological structures that may form oil reservoirs. The "classic"

method includes making an underground explosion nearby and observing the seismic response that providesinformation about the geological structures under the ground[1].However, "passive" methods that extract

information from naturally-occurring seismic waves are also known

Drilling

The oil well is created by drilling a long hole into the earth with anoil rig.A steel pipe (casing) is

placed in the hole, to provide structural integrity to the newly drilled well bore. Holes are then made

in the base of the well to enable oil to pass into the bore.Finally a collection of valves called a

"Christmas Tree"is fitted to the top, the valves regulating pressures and controlling flows.

Primary recovery[edit]

During theprimary recovery stage, reservoir drive comes from a number of natural mechanisms. These

include: natural water displacing oil downward into the well, expansion of the natural gas at the top of the

reservoir, expansion of gas initially dissolved in the crude oil, and gravity drainage resulting from the movement

of oil within the reservoir from the upper to the lower parts where the wells are located. Recovery factor during

the primary recovery stage is typically 5-15%.[2]

While the underground pressure in the oil reservoir is sufficient to force the oil to the surface, all that isnecessary is to place a complex arrangement ofvalves(theChristmas tree)on thewell headto connect the

well to apipelinenetwork for storage and processing

Secondary recovery[edit]

Over the lifetime of the well the pressure will fall, and at some point there will be insufficient underground

pressure to force the oil to the surface. After natural reservoir drive diminishes, secondary recoverymethods

are applied. They rely on the supply of external energy into the reservoir in the form of injecting fluids to

increase reservoir pressure, hence replacing or increasing the natural reservoir drive with an artificial drive.

Secondary recovery techniques increase the reservoir's pressure bywater injection,natural gas

reinjectionandgas lift,which injectsair,carbon dioxideor some other gas into the bottom of an active well,

reducing the overall density of fluid in the wellbore. Typical recovery factor from water-flood operations is about

30%, depending on the properties of oil and the characteristics of the reservoir rock. On average, the recovery

factor after primary and secondary oil recovery operations is between 35 and 45%

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Tertiary, orenhanced oil recovery

Tertiary, orenhanced oil recoverymethods increase the mobility of the oil in order to increase extraction.

Thermally enhanced oil recovery methods (TEOR) are tertiary recovery techniques that heat the oil, thus

reducing its viscosity and making it easier to extract.Steam injectionis the most common form of TEOR, and is

often done with acogenerationplant. In this type of cogeneration plant, agas turbineis used to

generateelectricityand the waste heat is used to produce steam, which is then injected into the reservoir. This

form of recovery is used extensively to increase oil extraction in theSan Joaquin Valley,which has very heavy

oil, yet accounts for 10% of the United States' oil extraction.[citation needed]

Fire flooding(In-situ burning) is another

form of TEOR, but instead of steam, some of the oil is burned to heat the surrounding oil.

Occasionally,surfactants(detergents)are injected to alter the surface tension between the water and oil in the

reservoir, mobilizing oil which would otherwise remain in the reservoir as residual oil.[3]

Another method to reduce viscosity iscarbon dioxide flooding.

Tertiary recovery allows another 5% to 15% of the reservoir's oil to be recovered.[2]

In some Californiaheavy

oilfields, steam injection has doubled or even tripled the oil reserves and ultimate oil recovery.

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