plagiat merupakan tindakan tidak terpuji learning ... · strateg ies w ere mos tly employed by the...

LEARNING STRATEGIES IN WRITING USED BY WRITING III STUDENTS

OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM OF SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

A Thesis

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Ruminingsih

Student Number: 021214075

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

2007

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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

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BE THE BEST OF WHATEVER YOU ARE Douglas Malloch

IF YOU CAN’T BE a pine on the top of the hill, Be a scrub in the valley-but be The best little scrub by the side of the rill; Be a bush if you can’t be a tree. If you can’t be a bush be a bit of the grass, And some highway happier make; If you can’t be a muskie then just be a bass- But the liveliest bass in the lake! We can’t all be captains, we’ve got to be crew, There’s something for all of us here, There’s big work to do, and there’s lesser to do, And the task you must do is the near. If you can’t be a highway then just be a trail, If you can’t be the sun be a star; It isn’t by size that you win or you fail- Be the best of whatever you are!

I dedicate this thesis to: Jesus Christ

My Family iv


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to praise and thank the Lord, Jesus Christ, for the

grace, guidance, and blessing. Without His grace, guidance, and blessing, I doubt

that this thesis could be completed.

A debt and gratitude is owed to F.X. Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd., my

major sponsor, for the enormous guidance, suggestions, and inputs during the

accomplishment of the thesis. My gratitude also goes to Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd.,

M.Pd., my co-sponsor, for the great patience to read and correct my thesis. I also

thank her for the discussions, support, and suggestions.

I would like to express my gratitude to C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd., for

giving me the chance to conduct the research in her Writing III class. I am also

grateful to the students of Writing III class E of the English Language Education

Study Program of Sanata Dharma University for the cooperation and willingness

to be the respondents of this research.

I would like to thank A. Hardi Prasetyo, S.Pd., M.A., the Head of English

Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University, for every

discussion and input and also for lending me the books on researches and

language learning strategies. I also thank the lecturers and staff of the English

Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University for the

guidance and help.

My special thanks go to my father, Ignatius Poniran, my mother, Ignatia

Tumini, and my sister, Yuliana Dwi, for their support, love, and understanding

during my study. I am very lucky to be with them. I also thank my whole family

for the great time.

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Great thanks go to my best friends, Lisa, Wulan, Haryana, Daru, Santi,

Woro, Lukita, Cipluk, Ayu, Rina, and Vivin, for the great time and friendship. For

support, advices, and friendship, my appreciation also goes to Bin2, Nuri, Retno,

Shella, Endah, Vindi, Anas, Hani, Septi, and Reni.

Finally, I would like to take this opportunity to thank many friends,

students, and people who have inspired me and helped me but names I could not

mention here.

Ruminingsih

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE .................................................................................................... i

PAGE OF APPROVAL ................................................................................... ii

BOARD OF EXAMINERS ............................................................................. iii

PAGE OF DEDICATION ............................................................................... iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY .............................................. v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................. vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................. viii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................... xii

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................... xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES .................................................................................. xiv

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................... xv

ABSTRAK .......................................................................................................... xvi

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION

A. Research Background ............................................................ 1

B. Problem Identification ........................................................... 3

C. Problem Limitation ................................................................ 3

D. Problem Formulation ............................................................. 4

E. Research Objectives .............................................................. 4

F. Research Benefits .................................................................. 5

G. Definition of Terms ............................................................... 5

CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Theoretical Description ......................................................... 8

1. Writing ............................................................................. 8

a. Description of Writing ................................................ 9

b. Processes of Writing .................................................... 10

1) Prewriting ............................................................... 10

2) Outlining ................................................................ 11

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) Writing the First Draft ............................................ 11

4) Revising ................................................................. 11

5) Proofreading ........................................................... 11

c. Elements of Writing .................................................... 12

1) Content ................................................................... 12

2) Organization ........................................................... 12

3) Discourse ................................................................ 12

4) Syntax ..................................................................... 13

5) Vocabulary ............................................................. 13

6) Mechanics ............................................................... 13

d. The Nature of Writing ................................................. 13

1) Product Approach ................................................... 14

2) Process Approach ................................................... 14

2. Learning Strategies .......................................................... 15

a. Description of Learning Strategies .............................. 15

b. Features of Language Learning Strategies .................. 16

c. Kinds of Learning Strategies ....................................... 18

1) Direct Strategies ..................................................... 20

2) Indirect Strategies ................................................... 20

3. Learning Strategies in Writing ......................................... 21

a. Memory Strategies ...................................................... 22

b. Cognitive Strategies .................................................... 22

c. Compensation Strategies ............................................. 25

d. Metacognitive Strategies ............................................. 26

e. Affective Strategies ..................................................... 28

f. Social Strategies .......................................................... 30

B. Theoretical Framework ......................................................... 31

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY

A. Research Method .................................................................. 34

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Page

B. Research Participants ........................................................... 34

C. Research Instruments ........................................................... 35

1. Questionnaire ................................................................... 35

a. Validity .......................................................................... 37

1) Content Validity ...................................................... 37

2) Criterion-Related Evidence of Validity ................... 38

3) Construct Validity ................................................... 38

b. Reliability ..................................................................... 39

2. Observation Forms ........................................................... 40

D. Data Gathering Technique .................................................... 40

E. Data Analysis Technique ...................................................... 41

F. Research Procedure .............................................................. 42

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

A. Data Presentation ............................................................... 44

1. Learning Strategies Used by Students ........................ 45

a. Memory Strategies ................................................. 45

b. Cognitive Strategies ............................................... 45

c. Compensation Strategies ....................................... 47

d. Metacognitive Strategies ....................................... 47

e. Affective Strategies ............................................... 48

f. Social Strategies .................................................... 49

2. Learning Strategies Used by Students with

Different Proficiency Levels in Writing ..................... 51

a. Memory Strategies ................................................. 51

b. Cognitive Strategies ............................................... 53

c. Compensation Strategies ....................................... 57

d. Metacognitive Strategies ....................................... 58

e. Affective Strategies ............................................... 60

f. Social Strategies .................................................... 62

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Page

B. Discussion .......................................................................... 63

1. Learning Strategies Used by the Students .................. 64

a. Questionnaire Results ............................................ 64

b. Class Observation Results ..................................... 64

2. Learning Strategies Used by Students with

Different Proficiency Levels in Writing ..................... 68

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

A. Conclusions ......................................................................... 71

B. Suggestions ......................................................................... 72

REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 74

APPENDICES .................................................................................................. 76

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LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 4.1 Memory Strategies Used by the Students ........................................ 45 Table 4.2 Cognitive Strategies Used by the Students ...................................... 46 Table 4.3 Compensation Strategies Used by the Students ............................... 47 Table 4.4 Metacognitive Strategies Used by the Students ............................... 48 Table 4.5 Affective Strategies Used by the Students ....................................... 49 Table 4.6 Social Strategies Used by the Students ............................................ 50 Table 4.7 Learning Strategies Used by the Students ........................................ 50 Table 4.8 Memory Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency

Levels in Writing .............................................................................. 52 Table 4.9 Cognitive Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency

Levels in Writing .............................................................................. 55 Table 4.10 Compensation Strategies Used by Students with Different

Proficiency Levels in Writing .......................................................... 57 Table 4.11 Metacognitive Strategies Used by Students with Different

Proficiency Levels in Writing .......................................................... 59 Table 4.12 Affective Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency

Levels in Writing .............................................................................. 61 Table 4.13 Social Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency

Levels in Writing .............................................................................. 63

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LIST OF FIGURE

Page

Figure 2.1 Diagram of the Strategy System: Overview (Oxford, 1990:16) ...... 19

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Page

Appendix A. Writing III Course Outline ........................................................... 76 Appendix B. Data on the Students’ Final Grades .............................................. 77 Appendix C. The Questionnaire on Learning Strategies in Writing .................. 79 Appendix D. Raw Data on the Questionnaire Results ....................................... 82 Appendix E. Observation Results ...................................................................... 95 Appendix F. The Reliability Analysis ................................................................ 104

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ABSTRACT

Ruminingsih. 2007. Learning Strategies in Writing Used by Writing III Students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

In learning processes, students set different goals and strategies. The different goals and strategies lead to the different achievements. Some other factors such as students’ cultural backgrounds, ages, gender, motivation, and learning styles also influence the students’ achievements. The research was focused on the learning strategies employed by the students in writing.

Six learning strategies, memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social were investigated in the research. There were two objectives of the research. The first was to find out the learning strategies in writing used by the students in Writing III class. The second objective was to investigate how students with different proficiency levels in writing use the learning strategies in writing. The method used in the research was descriptive research method. In order to find out the students’ learning strategies, the researcher used a questionnaire and class observation checklists as the research instruments. The participants of the research were Writing III students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University of the 2006/ 2007 academic year. There were twenty-five students selected as the subjects of the research. They were divided into three groups, high proficient, medium proficient, and low proficient learners, based on their final grades. The research findings showed that the students in Writing III employed the six learning strategies, memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social. Memory, cognitive, metacognitive, and affective strategies were used less frequently by the students. Compensation and social strategies were used more frequently by the students. The students employed compensation strategies more frequently than the other strategies. It was also found that memory and metacognitive strategies were mostly used by the high proficient learners. Cognitive, compensation, and social strategies were more frequently used by the medium proficient learners. Affective strategies were mostly employed by the low proficient learners.

Some suggestions are addressed to writing lecturers, students, and other researchers. The lecturers may provide trainings on the learning strategies to help the students to improve their learning strategies in writing. The researcher suggests that the students study the learning strategies and use the strategies wisely because learning strategies contribute to students’ academic success. Finally, other researchers may use the research as a reference in conducting further studies on the learning strategies used by students.

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ABSTRAK

Ruminingsih. 2007. Learning Strategies in Writing Used by Writing III Students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University. Dalam proses belajar, siswa mempunyai tujuan dan strategi yang berbeda. Tujuan dan strategi yang berbeda tersebut menyebabkan perbedaan pencapaian belajar. Faktor-faktor lain seperti latar belakang budaya, usia, jenis kelamin, motivasi dan gaya belajar juga mempengaruhi pencapaian belajar siswa. Penelitian ini berfokus pada strategi belajar yang digunakan oleh siswa dalam mengarang. Enam strategi belajar, memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, dan social diteliti dalam penelitian ini. Ada dua tujuan dari penelitian ini. Tujuan yang pertama adalah menemukan strategi-strategi belajar yang digunakan oleh mahasiswa di kelas Writing III. Tujuan kedua adalah menemukan bagaimana mahasiswa dengan tingkat kecakapan yang berbeda menggunakan strategi belajar dalam mengarang. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode penelitian deskriptif. Untuk menemukan strategi-strategi belajar mahasiswa, peneliti menggunakan kuesioner dan lembar observasi sebagai instrumen penelitian. Partisipan dalam penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa Writing III Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma tahun akademik 2006/2007. Ada dua puluh lima mahasiswa yang menjadi subyek penelitian ini. Berdasarkan nilai akhir mahasiswa, mahasiswa kemudian dibagi menjadi tiga, yaitu mahasiswa dengan tingkat kecakapan tinggi, mahasiswa dengan tingkat kecakapan menengah dan mahasiswa dengan tingkat kecakapan rendah. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa Writing III menggunakan enam strategi-strategi belajar memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, dan social. Strategi-strategi memory, cognitive, metacognitive dan affective lebih jarang digunakan oleh mahasiswa. Strategi-strategi compensation dan social lebih sering digunakan oleh mahasiswa. Mahasiswa menggunakan strategi compensation lebih sering daripada strategi-strategi lainnya. Dalam penelitian ini ditemukan bahwa strategi-strategi memory dan metacognitive paling sering digunakan oleh mahasiswa dengan tingkat kecakapan tinggi. Strategi-strategi cognitive, compensation dan social lebih sering digunakan oleh mahasiswa dengan tingkat kecakapan menengah. Strategi- strategi affective paling sering digunakan oleh mahasiswa dengan tingkat kecakapan rendah. Beberapa saran ditujukan untuk dosen dan mahasiswa writing serta untuk peneliti-peneliti lain. Dosen bisa menyediakan training strategi belajar untuk membantu mahasiswa meningkatkan strategi belajar mereka. Peneliti menyarankan agar mahasiswa mempelajari strategi-strategi belajar dan menggunakan strategi-strategi belajar dengan bijak karena strategi-strategi belajar berkontribusi untuk kesuksesan akademis mahasiswa. Peneliti-peneliti lain dapat menggunakan penelitian ini sebagai referensi untuk melakukan penelitian lebih lanjut tentang strategi-strategi belajar yang digunakan oleh siswa.

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The chapter provides background information for the research and

describes the research problems that become the focus of the research. It consists

of research background, problem identification, problem limitation, problem

formulation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.

A. Research Background

Writing is not only an end result but also a process that helps the writers to

develop their ideas. It is a complicated skill to master since there are many aspects

that should be considered in writing. “Writing is not simply a series of action, but

a series of decisions which involves setting goals and selecting strategies to

achieve them” (Hyland, 2002: 183). Nunan (1999: 271) states that “in terms of

skill, producing a coherent, fluent, extended piece of writing is probably the most

difficult thing there is to do in a language.” Furthermore, he states that writing is a

kind of language skill that is concerned with process and product (Nunan, 1991:

86-87). He adds that a product-oriented approach focuses on the end result of the

learning process. On the other hand, a process approach focuses more on the

various activities that are believed to support the development of the language

users.

Learning strategies are parts of the language learning processes. Therefore,

it is important to investigate the students’ learning strategies in writing since

writing is concerned with not only products, but also processes. In the learning

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processes, students have different goals and strategies. The different goals and

strategies lead to different achievements. Besides the students’ goals and

strategies, there are some other factors influencing the students’ achievements

such as their cultural backgrounds, ages, gender, motivation, and learning styles.

Oxford (1990: 1) states that learning strategies are important for language

learning because if students use appropriate learning strategies, their proficiency

and self-confidence will improve. It means that if the students apply appropriate

strategies based on language tasks and their personality factors such as motivation

and learning styles, they will complete the language tasks successfully. For this

reason, many experts conduct researches on language learning strategies.

Oxford (1990: 14) divides language learning strategies into six. They are

memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies, metacognitive

strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. The strategies can be used to

learn the four language skills in English, listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

In the study, the researcher concentrates on the learning strategies used by

Writing III students. The focus of Writing III is more on the content, organization,

and language. The content, organization, and language of compositions are

supported by vocabulary, mechanics, and grammar. From the researcher’s

investigation, it is found that the third semester students of the English Language

Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University have weaknesses in

writing. The weaknesses include the content, organization, and language of the

composition.

In the study, the researcher investigates the learning strategies in writing

used by the students in Writing III class of the English Language Education Study


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Program of Sanata Dharma University of the 2006/2007 academic year. Besides,

the researcher also investigates how students with different proficiency levels in

writing use the learning strategies in writing. It is important to conduct researches

in this field because the students need to improve their writing skills. Moreover,

by using appropriate learning strategies, the students will have better writing

skills.

B. Problem Identification

Students have different abilities in writing. The different abilities may be

influenced by learning strategies that they use in writing. It is important to

investigate the learning strategies used by the students since the students may set

different learning strategies in writing.

In the research, the researcher investigates the learning strategies in

writing used by the students who took Writing III class. The researcher also

investigates how students with different proficiency levels in writing employ the

learning strategies in writing. Therefore, from this point on, the focus of the study

should be specified; that is, on the investigation of learning strategies used by the

students in Writing III.

C. Problem Limitation

In the research, a limitation was established in order to specify the scope

of the research. The subjects of the research were students who took Writing III of

the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University of

the 2006/2007 academic year. The researcher chose Writing III students because


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the researcher wanted to give them a view about learning strategies in writing so

that they can improve their learning strategies at the next level of their Writing

classes. Moreover, in the future, students who are taking Writing III can consider

the learning strategies which are appropriate for the language tasks and apply the

strategies for learning writing. In the research, one class was randomly chosen.

The focus was on the learning strategies in writing used by the students. This

focus was due to the fact that there are many factors that should be considered in

learning writing.

D. Problem Formulation

As previously stated, the research is concerned with learning strategies in

writing used by students in Writing III. Therefore, the problems of the research

are formulated as follows:

1. What are the learning strategies used by the students in Writing III class of the

English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University?

2. How do students with different proficiency levels in Writing III class of the

English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University use

the learning strategies in writing?

E. Research Objectives

The objectives of the research are to answer the two questions mentioned

in the problem formulation. The objectives are:

1. To investigate the learning strategies in writing used by the students in

Writing III class of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata

Dharma University.


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2. To investigate how students with different proficiency levels in Writing III

class of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma

University use the learning strategies in writing.

F. Research Benefits

The research is aimed at bringing valuable inputs and information to

writing lecturers, students of English major in Indonesia, and other researchers.

Hopefully, the information about learning strategies used by the students in

writing may be used by the lecturers to help the students to improve their learning

strategies in writing. It is based on the fact that learning strategies can be trained.

The researcher also expected that the information about the learning strategies in

writing may be used by students of English major in Indonesia to develop their

learning strategies in writing. As a result, the quality of their writing will improve.

Finally, other researchers and those who are interested in language teaching and

learning could use this research as a reference in conducting further studies about

foreign language learners' learning strategies in writing.

G. Definition of Terms

There are some keywords used in the study. In order to avoid

misinterpretation, the researcher would discuss them. The keywords of the

research are defined as follows:

1. Writing

Zimmerman and Rodriguez (1992: 4) state that “writing is a way of

thinking, a way of learning, and a way of sharing idea with others.” They add that


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it is much more than putting letters together in a meaningful pattern. Moreover,

writing includes both processes and products. When someone treats each task as a

process, he/she will be a skillful writer. With each step, his/her skill becomes

sharper and the product becomes better. In the research, writing is viewed as

processes and products.

2. Writing III of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata

Dharma University

Writing III is a compulsory subject in the English Language Education

Study Program of Sanata Dharma University. Writing III has two credits.

According to Panduan Akademik of the English Language Education Study

Program of Sanata Dharma University, the goal of Writing III is to make the

students able to write well several written genres. The students are expected to be

able to deconstruct generic or schematic structure of each genre, to find the social

purposes and linguistic features of texts, and to write texts with the learned genre.

The evaluation is focused on the content, organization, and language.

3. Learning strategies

Strategies are specific means that the learners use to improve or to learn

their language. The term strategies has been used to refer to general approaches

and to specific actions or techniques used for learning a second language. Cohen

(1998: 12) states that ”strategies are sometimes labeled as belonging to

'successful' or 'unsuccessful' learners.”


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“Learning strategies are learning processes which are consciously selected

by the learners” (Cohen, 1998: 4). Chamot, as cited in Wenden and Rubin (1987:

71), states that “learning strategies are defined as techniques, approaches, or

deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of

both linguistics and content area information.” Learning strategies do not operate

by themselves. They are directly related to learners' learning styles. They are also

related to demographic factors such as sex, age, and ethnic differences. In the

research, the focus is on language learning strategies used by students in Writing

III of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma

University of the 2006/2007 academic year.


CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

The research is conducted to investigate learning strategies in writing used

by Writing III students of the English Language Education Study Program of

Sanata Dharma University. In order to answer the research questions, it is

necessary to describe theories that are relevant to the research. In the chapter, the

researcher clarifies some related theories that become the bases of the study.

The chapter comprises two main parts. The first part is theoretical

description. In this part, the researcher clarifies main issues and other issues

related to writing and the learning strategies in writing. The second part is

theoretical framework. This part provides the theoretical answers to the research

questions.

A. Theoretical Description

In the theoretical description, the researcher reviews theories of writing,

language learning strategies, and learning strategies used in writing.

1. Writing

Since the research deals with writing, it is necessary to review some

theories of writing that become the references in conducting the research. In the

research, the researcher elaborates some definitions of writing, processes of

writing, nature of writing, and elements of writing.

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a. Description of Writing

Sokolik, as cited in Nunan (2003: 88), defines writing in a series of

contrasts. The first definition is that writing is both physical and mental acts. The

second definition is that the purposes of writing are to express and to impress.

Finally, writing is both a process and a product.

Writing is a physical act of committing words or ideas to some medium,

for example an email message typed into a computer and a composition written by

a student. Besides, it is a mental act of inventing ideas and thinking about how to

express the ideas. Moreover, writers have to think about how to organize the ideas

into statements and paragraphs.

Writers write to express their ideas or feelings. They write not only for

their own desires, but also for the readers. Their compositions should be free from

grammar mistakes. Hence, the readers can enjoy reading the compositions.

Moreover, the contents of the compositions should be meaningful so that the

readers understand the ideas of the compositions.

Sokolik (2003: 88) adds that a writer imagines, organizes, drafts, edits,

reads, and rereads to serve a product (an essay, letter, or story). It reveals that

writing is not only an end result but also a process that helps the writers to

develop their ideas. In Writing III of the English Language Education Study

Program of Sanata Dharma University of the 2006/2007 academic year, the

lecturer helped the students to improve their writings by developing their writing

processes. The students were also expected to be able to develop the content,

organization, and language of their writings. The students learnt to revise their

writing and exchanged their compositions with their colleagues.


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In addition, Richards (1990: 100) states that “learning writing in either a

first or a second language is a difficult task a learner encounters and one that few

people can be said to fully master.” The goal of a written language is to convey

information correctly, effectively, and appropriately. It is not merely the

linguistic organization of written discourse that makes writing a difficult skill to

acquire. Nevertheless, it is also influenced by processes of moving from concepts,

thoughts, and ideas to written texts, which are considered complex processes.

b. Processes of Writing

As previously stated, writing is not merely a product, but also a process.

Langan (2002: 630-633) divides the process of writing into five steps, prewriting,

outlining, drafting, revising, and proofreading. The steps are described as follows.

1) Prewriting

Prewriting is the first step that allows writers to generate ideas, organize

thoughts, and prepare for writing the first draft. There are several prewriting

strategies. They are freewriting, questioning, mapping, and brainstorming.

In freewriting, writers write whatever comes into their minds about certain

topics, without stopping and without worrying the spelling and grammar rules.

The spelling and grammar can be revised later. In questioning, the writers think

about the topic by writing down questions and then answer them. In mapping, the

writers begin by stating a subject in a few words at the center of a blank sheet of

paper. They draw lines to connect some words related to the subject. By drawing

maps, the writers will be able to develop their ideas in later stages. In

brainstorming, the writers make lists of ideas and details that could be included in


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their compositions. The writers should not worry to put the lists in special order.

The writers may use bits and pieces of all four since the prewriting strategies are

not in order. The writers can choose what they will generate first.

2) Outlining

An outline is a brief plan for a paragraph. The outline becomes a

foundation of the paragraph. There are main ideas included in the outline. The

ideas are supported by some supporting details.

3) Writing the First Draft

The next step is writing the first draft. This step is concentrated on

contents, not on mechanics. It should be written quickly. If the writers have

problems in making the first draft, the writers may go back to the prewriting stage.

4) Revising

In the revising strategy, the writers look at the writings again and develop

them. They revise words, order, and flow to provide a better sequence of events.

They may omit sentences and paragraphs if they do not contribute to effective

pieces of writing.

5) Proofreading

In this final stage of writing processes, the writers check their

compositions carefully for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. They may

use dictionaries or other sources such as grammar books to check for spelling,


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grammar, and punctuation errors. However, in this step, the writers also check the

contents of their compositions.

c. Elements of Writing

There are elements that should be considered in writing. Brown (2001:

357) divides the elements into six. They are the content, organization, discourse,

syntax, vocabulary, and mechanics. The six elements must fulfill some criteria.

Below is the discussion of elements of writing.

1) Content

The writers should have clear main ideas. Moreover, the paragraph should

be convincing. It means that there should be enough logical points to support the

main ideas. In addition, there are no important points left out and no irrelevant

points included. The focus of the writing must be consistent.

2) Organization

Written texts should be well-organized so that readers want to continue

reading. The main ideas and supporting points should be understood easily after

the readers read the compositions. The writers should consider the effectiveness of

introductions, logical sequence of ideas, concluding sentences, and length of the

compositions.

3) Discourse

Here, the writers should concentrate on the topic sentences, paragraph

unity, and transition signals. It is also important to check the coherence and the


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order of the compositions. As a result, the writers can convey the intended

meaning successfully.

4) Syntax

In the compositions, there should be no crucial errors in grammar in order

not to create ambiguity. Ambiguous sentences may be wrongly interpreted by the

readers. As a result, the writers may fail to convey their intended ideas.

5) Vocabulary

Word choice is important in order to write good-quality compositions. The

writers should use the appropriate vocabulary based on the type of writing tasks.

The writers may consult dictionaries and thesauruses in choosing the right

vocabulary.

6) Mechanics

Spelling, punctuation, citation of references, neatness, and appearance of

the writings also need to be focused on. If there are errors in mechanics, the

readers may not enjoy reading the compositions. Moreover, the meaning which

wants to be conveyed by the writers may be differently perceived by the readers if

there are errors in mechanics.

d. The Nature of Writing

Since the study is concerned with writing, it is important to review the

nature of writing. It is related to approaches in teaching writing. There are two


14

approaches in teaching writing. The first approach is a product-oriented approach

and the second approach is a process-oriented approach. Below is the discussion

of the two approaches.

1) Product Approach

According to Richards (1990: 106), the focus of a product approach is on

the ability to produce correct texts or products. ”This approach is regarded as the

traditional approach in teaching writing” (Cohen, 1990: 105). He also states that

the major focus of this approach is on the finished product of writing.

Furthermore, the emphasis of the product approach is also put on the grade.

Nunan (1991: 86) states that “a product oriented approach is focused on the end

result of the learning processes - that the learners are expected to be able to do as

fluent and competent users.” He also states that “writing teachers who subscribe to

the product approach will be concerned to see that the end product is readable,

grammatically correct, and obeys discourse conventions related to main points,

supporting details, and so on” (Nunan, 1989: 36).

“A product approach concentrates on ends rather than means” (Richards,

1990: 108). The focus of this approach is on the final result and not on the

process. By focusing on the form and structure of writing rather than on how

writers create writing that has form and structure, the composing processes of

good writers are ignored.

2) Process Approach

In contrast to the writing product approach, the writing process approach is

seen as a more effective teaching writing approach. Cohen (1990: 105) states that


15

this approach emphasizes the notion that writing is a process whereby a finished

product emerges after series of drafts. He adds that “it puts emphasis on an

incubation period in which the written piece takes shape.” The process approach

focuses more on the various classroom activities that are believed to promote the

development of skilled language users. The approach focuses on means/processes

whereby complete texts were created rather than on the end product itself.

Richards (1990: 109) states that successful writers appear to produce

better-quality writing because they use more appropriate writing processes. The

successful use of writing processes such as planning, organizing, and revising

gives the learners better control on the content and form of what they write. A

number of changes toward the teaching of writing are emerging in order to apply a

process perspective into second language writing programs. These changes affect

the role of the learners, teachers, and kinds of teaching learning activities that are

employed in writing classrooms. Nonetheless, teachers should not only extremely

put emphasis on the writing process. ”Process is not the end. It is the means to the

end” (Brown, 2001: 337).

2. Learning Strategies

a. Description of Learning Strategies

“Learning strategies refer to actions taken by second and foreign language

learners to control and improve their own learning” (Oxford, 1990: ix). She adds

that “learning strategies are keys to greater autonomy and more meaningful

learning.” Learning strategies are employed by the students. However, teachers

play an important role in helping students to develop and employ the learning

strategies in more effective ways.


16

Wenden, as cited in Wenden and Rubin (1987: 6), defines the term

learning strategies as “language learning behaviors learners actually engage in

order to learn and regulate the learning of a second language.” It can be inferred

that students are often conscious that they are applying strategies when they learn

a language. While Nunan (1991: 168) defines learning strategies as “the mental

processes which are employed by learners to learn and use the target language.”

Learning strategies are not inherently good or bad, but have the potential

to be used effectively. The effectiveness may depend on the characteristics of the

learners, the language structure, the context, or the interaction of these. According

to Nunan (1999: 183), some strategies are used more frequently than others

depending on the age and proficiency of the students, the skills being focused on,

and the needs of the individual learner.

In the study, the language learning strategies meant by the researcher are

the learning behaviors that are employed by the learners in order to complete the

language learning tasks. The language task that becomes the focus of this study is

writing. The strategies that are employed by certain learners may differ from other

learners.

b. Features of Language Learning Strategies

Oxford (1990: 8-14) discusses some features of language learning

strategies. The first feature is that communicative competence is the main goal.

The emphasis of communicative competence is put on the semantic and

communicative dimensions rather than merely on the grammatical characteristics

of a language.


17

The second is that learning strategies allow learners to become more self-

directed. The language learning strategies encourage greater overall self-direction

for students. It is important because they will not always have the teacher to guide

them. Self-directed students gradually gain greater confidence, involvement, and

proficiency in learning a new language.

The third feature is that the learning strategies expand the role of teachers.

In a teaching-learning process, the teacher is a facilitator, helper, guide,

consultant, adviser, coordinator, and co-communicator. Identifying the students’

learning strategies, conducting training on the learning strategies, and helping

learners to be more independent are also the capacities of the teacher. It is due to

the fact that learning strategies can be taught.

The next feature is that learning strategies are problem oriented. The

language learning strategies are tools to solve problems, to accomplish tasks, to

meet an objective, or to attain a goal. Hence, the employment of learning

strategies eases the students’ efforts to achieve their purposes. Learning strategies

are also specific actions taken by the learners to enhance their learning. In

addition, learning strategies also involve many aspects of the learners. They

involve the learners’ cognitive, metacognitive, affective, social, and other

functions as well. The next feature is that learning strategies support learning both

directly and indirectly.

Furthermore, learning strategies are not always observable because the

strategies are kinds of a mental act. Since learning strategies are not always

observable, there are some ways to find out what is going on in the learners’ head


18

as they learn to use a language. Teachers could investigate the learners’ language

learning strategies by conducting interviews, class observations, verbal reports,

diary studies, note taking, and using questionnaires. The teachers may use one of

these methods or the combination of these methods.

Learning strategies are also often conscious. If the writers are conscious of

the processes underlying the learning that they are involved in, the learning will

be more effective. Learning strategies are also flexible. It means that the

employment of the learning strategies depends on a given problem. A learner may

combine some learning strategies to complete a language task. Finally, learning

strategies are influenced by a variety of factors. There are some factors affecting

the choice of strategies, such as degree of awareness, stage of learning, task

requirements, teachers’ expectations, age, sex, nationality, general learning style,

personality traits, motivation levels, and the purpose of the language learning.

c. Kinds of Learning Strategies

Christison, as cited in Nunan (2003: 269), states that there are many kinds

of learning strategies depending on the context and task. Nunan (1999: 182-184)

develops a typology of learning strategies. The learning strategies are cognitive,

interpersonal, linguistic, affective, and creative. The strategies are still divided

into some sub-strategies. Cognitive strategies deal with classifying, predicting,

inducing, taking notes, concept mapping, inferencing, discriminating, and

diagramming. Interpersonal strategies deal with cooperating and role-playing.

Linguistic strategies include conversational patterns, practicing, using context,

summarizing, selective listening, and skimming. Affective strategies deal with


19

personalizing, self-evaluating, and reflecting. The creative strategy is

brainstorming.

Chamot, as cited in Wenden and Rubin (1987: 77), classifies learning

strategies into three categories. The first strategy is metacognitive. It consists of

advance organizers, directed attention, selective attention, self-management,

advance preparation, self-monitoring, delayed production, and self-evaluation.

The strategies help language learning indirectly by helping learners to manage and

monitor their learning. They are essential in successful language learning. The

second strategy is cognitive. It includes repetition, resourcing, directed physical

response, translation, grouping, note-taking, deduction, recombination, imagery,

auditory representation, key word, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, and

inferencing. The strategies are used mainly for learning the target language. The

third strategy is social-affective. It contains cooperation and question for

clarification. The strategies are applied by the learners to manage their feelings or

their interaction with others.

Oxford (1990:16) categorizes six learning strategies, memory strategies,

cognitive strategies, compensation strategies, metacognitive strategies, affective

strategies, and social strategies. The first three strategies proposed by Oxford are

called direct strategies and the last three strategies are called indirect strategies.

I. Memory Strategies Direct strategies II. Cognitive Strategies III. Compensation Strategies LEARNING STRATEGIES

I. Metacognitive Strategies Indirect strategies II. Affective Strategies III. Social Strategies

Figure 2.1 Diagram of the Strategy System: Overview (Oxford, 1990:16)


20

The researcher reviews further the learning strategies proposed by Oxford

since the taxonomy of learning strategies is more specific compared with the

others’. Moreover, her taxonomy is comprehensible, practical, and consistent with

the condition of the learners in dealing with language tasks. The kinds of language

learning strategies proposed by Oxford then become the focus of this study.

Below is the discussion on the learning strategies proposed by Oxford (1990: 37-

147).

1) Direct Strategies

Oxford (1990: 37-51) states that direct strategies are language learning

strategies that directly involve the target language. Direct strategies are divided

into memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and compensation strategies. All of

the direct strategies require mental processing of the language. Memory strategy is

used for remembering and retrieving new information. This strategy is divided

into four sets, creating mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing

well, and employing action. Cognitive strategies used for understanding and

producing the language. It consists of practicing, receiving and sending messages,

analyzing and reasoning, and creating structure for input and output.

Compensation strategies allow learners to use the language despite their often

large gaps in knowledge. It involves guessing intelligently and overcoming

limitations in speaking and writing.

2) Indirect Strategies

According to Oxford (1990: 135), indirect strategies are language learning

strategies that are used for general management of learning. They support and


21

manage language learning without directly involving the target language. Indirect

strategies are divided into metacognitive, affective, and social strategies.

Metacognitive strategies are actions by using cognitive devices and

providing the learners a way to coordinate the learning process. Sets of

metacognitive strategies are centering the learning, arranging and planning the

learning, and evaluating the learning. Affective strategies used for regulating

emotions in learning. Kinds of affective strategies are lowering the learners’

anxiety, encouraging themselves, and taking the emotional temperature. Social

strategies are used for learning with others. There are three sets of social

strategies, asking questions, cooperating with others, and empathizing with others.

Oxford (1990: 14-16) states that the direct and indirect strategies are

related to one another. When using direct strategies, the language learners are like

performers in a play. On the other hand, the language learners’ indirect strategies

are closer to the role of the play’s directors. They deal with regulation and control.

The sets of the strategies that have been described are applicable for all

four language skills, listening, speaking, reading, and writing. However, the sets

of strategies are still divided into sub-strategies. Some of the sub-strategies are not

applicable for writing. Therefore, since this research deals with writing, the writer

will only review the sub-strategies of the learning strategies which are applicable

for learning writing.

3. Learning Strategies in Writing

There are six learning strategies that can be applied for learning writing.

Below is the discussion on the strategies in learning writing (Oxford, 1990: 37-

173).


22

a. Memory Strategies

Memory strategies help learners to link a new item with something known.

The strategies are useful for memorizing information. The strategies also enable

learners to retrieve information from their memory when they need to use it for

comprehension or production.

The first strategy is creating mental linkages. The only sub-strategy that

can be applied for learning writing is placing new words into a context. In this

strategy, the learners try to place words or phrases that have been heard or read in

a meaningful sentence or story in order to remember them. The second strategy is

reviewing well. Here, the learners review what they have learned in spaced

intervals. At first, they review in a close interval and then in a more widely spaced

interval. The goal is to be familiar with the information so that it becomes natural

and automatic. It is useful for remembering new material. The third strategy is

employing action. This strategy is suitable for learners who enjoy the kinesthetic

learning style. It involves using mechanical techniques. Here, the learners use

creative techniques in order to remember new information. To contextualize a

new expression and to practice writing, learners can write a new expression in a

full sentence on a flashcard (Oxford, 1990: 58-68).

b. Cognitive Strategies

Cognitive strategies help learners to associate between new and already

known information and facilitate the mental restructuring of information. The first

cognitive strategy is practicing. It consists of five strategies. They are repeating,


23

formally practicing with writing systems, recognizing and using formulas and

patterns, recombining, and practicing naturalistically.

The use of the repeating strategy is first to revise. It means that writers

read written drafts in detail in order to correct them. Imitation of native users of

the language is another repeating technique used for writing. Finally, the “lead

paragraph” is also a part of repeating strategies. This principle involves putting

into the paragraph all the details of who, what, when, where, why, and how. In

formally practicing with writing systems, the writers practice new writing systems

of the target language. Here, the writers learn alphabets, syllabaries, or idiographic

systems that differ from the learners’ own writing systems in their own language.

The next strategy, recognizing and using formulas and patterns, improves writers’

comprehension and production. In this strategy, the writers recognize formulas or

patterns of the target language. The strategy of recombining involves constructing

a meaningful sentence or longer expression by putting together known elements in

new ways. The last strategy, practicing naturalistically, is very important for

developing the writing skill. In this activity, real-readers are involved. Often

students read the writings of their peers. Moreover, they can also work together to

make a single product.

The second strategy is receiving and sending messages. It contains using

resources for receiving and sending messages. This strategy involves using

resources to find out the meaning of what is heard or read in the new language, or

to produce messages in the new language. To be able to write well, the writers

may use resources such as dictionaries, thesauruses, word lists, and grammar

books. Encyclopedias, magazines, newspapers, television and radio programs,


24

videocassettes, and general books on culture and history can also provide useful

background information.

The third cognitive strategy is analyzing and reasoning. The strategies in

this set help learners to use logical thinking to understand and use the grammar

rules and vocabulary of the new language. It includes reasoning deductively,

translating, and transferring. Reasoning deductively involves making hypotheses

about meaning by analyzing general rules the learners know. Sometimes, this

strategy leads into errors. The learners may overgeneralize some patterns. For

example, the question “What is it?” is overlapped in the ungrammatical sentence

“I do not know what is it.” Translating strategy can be helpful as long as it is used

with care. It allows learners to use their own language as the basis for

understanding what they write in the new language. However, word-for-word

translation can come to a wrong interpretation. The last of analyzing and

reasoning strategies is transferring, which means directly applying previous

knowledge to facilitate new knowledge in English. The transfer may be in the

forms of words, concepts, or structures from the learners’ language to English.

The last of cognitive strategies is creating structure for input and output. It

consists of taking notes, summarizing, and highlighting. In taking notes, the

writers write down the main ideas or specific points of new information. In

summarizing strategies, the learners make shorter versions of original passages.

At early stages of language learning, summarizing can be done by giving a title to

what has been read. As the learners become more advanced in English, they may

summarize passages in English. It allows the learners to practice writing. In


25

highlighting, the writers may highlight the main ideas and supporting details of

their writings (Oxford, 1990: 70-90).

c. Compensation Strategies

Compensation strategies help learners to overcome knowledge limitations

in language skills. They are intended to overcome the inadequate knowledge of

grammar and vocabulary. They also help the learners make up for missing

knowledge when using English in writing.

The compensation strategies contain overcoming limitations in speaking

and writing. Here, the writers may use strategies such as selecting the topic,

adjusting or approximating the message, coining words, and using a

circumlocution or synonym. In selecting the topic, the writers may select topics

that interest them. Of course, when choosing the topic for writing, the writers

should be aware of their audiences’ interests. However, on some occasions,

sometimes the writers should deal with the topics that they do not like. The

second strategy, adjusting or approximating the message, is used for altering the

message by omitting some points of information and making the ideas simpler.

Writers often use the strategy when they simply cannot come up with the desirable

or right expression. The third strategy is coining words. Here, the writers choose

new words to communicate a concept for which they do not know or have the

right vocabulary. Writers usually coin new words when they do not have time to

look up the correct words in the dictionaries, or when they have looked up in

dictionaries but they could not find the desirable words. The next strategy is using

a circumlocution or synonym. In this strategy, the writers use circumlocutions,


26

expressions which involve several words to describe or explain a single concept,

and synonyms, words that have the same meaning as other words in the same

language, to convey the intended meaning (Oxford, 1990: 91-97).

d. Metacognitive Strategies

Metacognitive strategies help the learners to manage themselves as

learners, the general learning processes, and the specific learning tasks. They are

kinds of learning behavior used for centering, arranging, planning, and evaluating.

The strategies are essential for successful language learning.

The first metacognitive strategy is centering your learning. It includes

overviewing and linking with already known material and paying attention. The

strategy of overviewing and linking with already known material involves

previewing the basic principles and/or material for an upcoming language activity,

and linking these with what the learners have already known. For example, writers

do ‘nonstop writing’, a kind of brainstorming, when doing writing assignments.

The second strategy, paying attention, involves directed attention and selective

attention. In writing, directed attention is more required than the selective ones.

In directed attention, the writers write what occurs in their minds and do not care

with noise and interruption. In selective attention, the writers focus on the aspects

of writing such as structures, contents, vocabulary, sentences, and punctuation.

The second metacognitive strategy is arranging and planning your

learning. The first strategy is finding out about language learning. This strategy

means uncovering what is involved in language learning. The knowledge of

mechanics of language learning makes the learners more effective learners. The


27

second strategy is organizing. This strategy includes a variety of tools such as

creating the best physical environment, making schedule, and keeping a language

learning notebook. The third strategy is setting goals and objectives. Goals are

considered as aims for a long term. It may be in some months or years. Objectives

are short-term aims for hours, days, or weeks. Goals for writing may include

developing enough writing skill to have correspondence with foreign friends, to

pass the writing course, and to succeed in university courses. The example of the

writing objective may be to finish essays as soon as possible in order to be

collected in few days. The fourth strategy is identifying the purpose of a language

task. This strategy involves determining the task purpose. By knowing the

purpose for doing something, the learners will be able to transfer their energy in

the right direction. The purpose of a writing task is related to the type of written

format and the needs of audiences. The possible purposes are providing factual

information, persuading someone to act and think in certain ways, and creating

certain mood. The next writing strategy is planning for a language task. This

strategy involves identifying general natures of a task, specific requirements of the

task, resources available, and need of aids. The last strategy is seeking practice

opportunities. The learners should seek or create opportunities to practice the

language skills. If students want to be proficient, classroom time may not provide

adequate practice opportunities. Therefore, they need to find additional chances to

practice writing.

The last of metacognitive strategies is evaluating your learning. It

contains self-monitoring and self-evaluating. In self-monitoring, the learners

monitor their learning. The teachers should not correct all of the students’ errors.


28

They should make the learners find the errors by themselves. In self-evaluating,

the learners can review samples of their own works, note the styles and contents

of the writings, and assess their progress over time (Oxford, 1990: 152-163).

e. Affective Strategies

Affective strategies include identifying one’s feeling and becoming aware

of the learning circumstances of tasks that evoke him/her. The techniques help

learners gain better control over their emotions, attitudes, and motivations related

to language learning. Affective strategies make the learners feel secure in

completing writing tasks.

The first affective strategy is lowering your anxiety. It contains using

progressive relaxation and deep breathing or meditation, using music, and using

laughter. Using progressive relaxation and deep breathing or meditation are

effective to reduce anxiety. Progressive relaxation involves overcoming tenseness

and relaxing muscles. Deep breathing is often an accompaniment to progressive

relaxation. Meditation means focusing on a mental image or sound to center one’s

thoughts. It helps to reduce anxieties that are often felt by language learners. This

strategy will help learners accomplish their learning tasks more peacefully and

more efficiently. The second strategy, using music, can calm learners and put

them in a more positive mood of learning. The third strategy, using laughter,

brings pleasure to the classroom. It can be stimulated by many kinds of classroom

activities.


29

The second affective strategy is encouraging yourself. The sub strategies

are making positive statements, taking risk wisely, and rewarding yourself. When

used before or during a language activity, positive statements are used for self-

encouragement. When used after a good performance, positive statements also

take on a self-reward function. The strategy of taking risk wisely involves a

conscious decision to take risk of the possibility of making mistakes or coming

into difficulties. This strategy is supported by the other affective strategies such as

making positive statements and rewarding yourself. Learners often expect to be

rewarded only by external sources such as a praise from the lecturer and a good

grade. On the other hand, learners need to discover how to reward themselves for

good work in language learning. Rewards differ from one person to another.

The third affective strategy is taking your emotional temperature. It

contains listening to your body, using a checklist, writing a language learning

diary, and discussing your feelings with someone else. The learners’ performance

in language is affected by their physical condition. Listening to the body can be a

first step toward greater emotional self-understanding and control. It is paying

attention to signals given by the body. The signal may be negative, reflecting

stress, tension, worry, fear, and anger; or they may be positive, indicating

happiness, calmness, and pleasure. The second strategy, using checklist, helps the

learners in a more structured way to ask themselves questions about their own

emotional state in language tasks. Language learning diaries can be used to

describe learners’ feelings, attitudes, and perception about language learning

processes. They also include specific information about strategies which learners

find effective for learning language skills. In discussing feelings with someone


30

else, learners can obtain benefits from discussing certain topics with peers and

with the teachers. Discussion on feelings can also take place outside of the writing

class with friends, parents, or native speakers of English (Oxford, 1990: 163-168).

f. Social Strategies

Learning a language involves other people and appropriate social

strategies are important in this process. The strategies facilitate learning with

others and help learners understand the culture of the language they are learning.

These strategies make the learners feel secure in learning the language.

The first social strategy is asking questions. The only strategy in this set

that can be applied for learning writing is asking for correction. This strategy is

mostly used in speaking and writing because errors which are most obvious to

other people occur in producing the new language. Language learners should ask

for corrections of some writing difficulties, but the kind and amount of the

corrections depend on the level of the learners and the purpose of the writing.

The second strategy is cooperating with others. It covers cooperating with

peers and cooperating with proficient users of the new language. Cooperating

with peers involves an effort to work together with other learners on an activity

with a common goal or objective. Games, simulations, and other active exercises

challenge students to develop their abilities to cooperate with peers while using a

variety of language skills. The learners can also share comments with their peers

and obtain feedback from them. In cooperating with proficient users of the new

language, students may need to cooperate with proficient language users, such as

their teachers and native language users.


31

The third social strategy is empathizing with others. First, the learners can

use the strategy of developing cultural understanding. Background knowledge of

the new culture often helps learners understand better what is heard or read in the

new culture. Such knowledge also helps learners know what is culturally

appropriate in writing. It can be done by comparing and contrasting behavior in

the learners’ native culture and the target culture. The second strategy is becoming

aware of others’ thoughts and feelings. Learners can become aware of the feelings

of others as expressed in writing. Such awareness brings learners closer to the

readers and helps them understand what is written more clearly. Students can

sense the feelings of people with whom they communicate informally through

letters or notes (Oxford, 1990: 168-173).

Those are learning strategies that can be used to learn writing proposed by

Oxford. From this point on, the researcher’s investigation is concentrated on the

learning strategies in writing used by the students based on the typology of

learning strategies proposed by Oxford. Furthermore, the researcher will select the

learning strategies that are suitable to the level of the students and the learning

tasks.

B. Theoretical Framework

Writing is an activity in which many factors influence writers in writing

compositions. In writing processes, students are influenced by their learning

strategies, learning styles, motivation, age, and other personality factors. All of the

factors make the students have different abilities in writing. In the research, the


32

researcher focuses on the learning strategies used by the students in writing since

learning strategies have a close relationship with the students’ writing processes.

There are many typologies of learning strategies which are proposed by

some experts. Each has its advantages and weaknesses when it is employed in a

certain situation. In this study, the researcher uses the typology of learning

strategies proposed by Oxford which consists of six categories, namely memory,

cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies. The

strategies are all suitable for learning the four language skills in English, speaking,

listening, reading, and writing. However, the sets of strategies are still divided into

sub-strategies and not all of the sub-strategies can be used for learning writing. In

the study, the researcher only investigates the strategies that can be used in

learning writing.

There are two research problems in the study. The first research problem is

concerned with the learning strategies used by the students in Writing III class.

The second research problem is how students with different proficiency levels in

Writing III class of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata

Dharma University use the learning strategies in writing. In order to answer the

two research questions, some theories are employed. The first is theories of

writing. It covers the nature of writing, processes in writing, and elements of

writing. The theories suggest that writing is difficult since there are many aspects

that should be considered in learning writing. Therefore, it is important to conduct

a research in this field. The second is theories of learning strategies. It covers

features of learning strategies and kinds of learning strategies that can be applied

for learning writing. In the study, the researcher uses a typology of learning


33

strategies proposed by Oxford. To answer the two research questions, the

researcher distributes a questionnaire. Class observations are also conducted in

order to verify the questionnaire results.


CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The chapter presents the methodology of the research used by the

researcher to answer the research questions. The chapter covers the research

method, research participants, research instruments, data gathering technique, data

analysis technique, and research procedure.

A. Research Method

The study is a descriptive study. Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh (1990: 381)

state that “descriptive study is designed to obtain information concerning the

current status of phenomena. It is directed to determine the nature of a situation,

as it exists at the time of the study.” Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh (1990: 33) also

state that “in descriptive study, the major purpose is to tell what it is.” In the

research, a descriptive study is done to gain information about students’ learning

strategies in writing and also to investigate how students with different

proficiency levels in writing use the learning strategies in writing.

B. Research Participants

Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh (1990: 169) define population as “all members

of any well-defined class of people, events, or objects.” In the research, the

population was all students of the English Language Education Study Program of

Sanata Dharma University who took Writing III. The researcher chose the

34


35

population because the researcher was interested to investigate the learning

strategies used by the students. Moreover, the researcher also wanted to give the

students a view about learning strategies in writing. From the whole population, a

sample was selected.

“A sample is a portion of a population” (Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh, 1990:

169). It is the small group that is observed by the researcher. The population of the

research was the students of Writing III classes. Since it was not possible to

involve all of the writing classes, the researcher applied random cluster sampling

to select the subject of the study. From five classes, one class was chosen

randomly as the representation of the whole population. It was Writing III class E.

From the class, the researcher chose students who were in semester III during the

2006/2007 academic year. The students other than those who were in semester III

were not included as the sample. The consideration was because the level of the

students might affect the use of the learning strategies.

C. Research Instruments

In order to gather the data, the researcher used two kinds of research

instruments. They were the questionnaire and class observations.

1. Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a kind of data gathering instrument. It obtains

information through the respondent’s written responses to a list of

questions/statements. In the research, the questionnaire was designed in order to

investigate students’ learning strategies in writing. The questionnaire was also


36

intended to investigate how students with different proficiency levels in writing

use the learning strategies in writing. The type of questionnaire employed in the

research was closed question. A Likert scale, one of the rating scales, was used.

A Likert scale assesses respondents’ attitudes, opinions, and views toward

a topic. In the research, the respondents were expected to indicate whether they

never used the learning strategies, rarely, sometimes, usually, or always used

them. Most of the statements expressed a clearly favorable attitude and the rest

expressed clearly unfavorable ones. For favorable or positively stated items, the

numerical values were 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1. For example, “always” with a favorable

statement would receive a weight of 5, “usually” would receive a 4, “sometimes”

would receive a 3, “rarely” would receive a 2, and “never” would receive a 1. For

unfavorable/negatively stated items, the weighting was reversed.

There were fifty questions in the questionnaire, containing six categories.

The first category was about memory strategies. It contained four questions,

including questions number one to four. The second category was about cognitive

strategies. There were nineteen questions. They were questions number five to

twenty-three. The third category was about compensation strategies. It involved

four questions. They were questions number twenty-four to twenty-seven. The

fourth category was about metacognitive strategies. It consisted of ten questions.

The questions were number twenty-eight to thirty-seven. The fifth category was

about affective strategies. It contained eight questions. They covered questions

number thirty-eight to forty-five. The last category was social strategies. It

included five questions. They were questions number forty-six to fifty. The


37

numbers of items for the six learning strategies were varied since each learning

strategy has different numbers of sub-learning strategies that can be applied to

learn writing.

To answer the research questions, the researcher also used the lists of

students’ final marks in Writing III class E. For the sake of the research, the

students were divided into three groups based on the final grades. They were high

proficient writers, medium proficient writers, and low proficient ones. The

researcher tried to describe the learning strategies used by the three groups of

learners.

Since the research employed a questionnaire as its instrument, the validity

and reliability of the questionnaire needed to be discussed. The characteristics of

the validity and reliability of the questionnaire were discussed further below.

a. Validity

Validity is defined as “the extent to which an instrument measures what it

is intended to measure” (Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh, 1990: 256). There were three

categories of validity used in the research. They were content validity, criterion-

related evidence of validity, and construct validity.

1) Content Validity

In this form of validity, the instrument must show that it covers items

intended to be measured. The questionnaire in the study had content validity since

the content was relevant to the purpose of the questionnaire, which was to

investigate the students’ learning strategies in writing. Moreover, it covered the


38

six learning strategies in writing, namely memory, cognitive, compensation,

metacognitive, affective, and social strategies.

2) Criterion-Related Evidence of Validity

There are two kinds of criterion-related evidence of validity. They are

predictive validity and concurrent validity. Fraenkel and Wallen (1993: 144) state

that predictive validity is achieved if the researcher administers the same

instrument twice. The first implementation is used to predict and then compare the

score with the second implementation. Concurrent validity is achieved when the

instrument and the criterion are gathered at nearly the same time, and the results

were compared. Here, to achieve the validity, the researcher used a criterion to

verify the questionnaire result. The criterion used was class observation.

3) Construct Validity

In this third category of validity, the researcher looked at the

intercorrelations among the items to determine whether the instrument measures a

single construct or more than one. The questionnaire achieved construct validity

since the researcher categorized the learning strategies items into six sub-

strategies. It consisted of fifty items of learning strategies which represented the

six learning strategies in writing, memory, cognitive, compensation,



39

b. Reliability

Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh (1990: 169) define reliability as “the extent to

which a measuring device is consistent in measuring whatever it measures.”

Reliability is related to the consistency of an instrument. According to Fraenkel

and Wallen (1993: 147), there are three best-known ways to gain a reliability

coefficient. They are test-retest method, the equivalent-forms method, and the

internal consistency methods. The reliability coefficients must range from 0.00 to

1.00. “When used to check reliability of scores, the coefficient should be at least

0.70, preferably higher” (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1993: 296).

To measure the reliability of the instrument, the study used the Cronbach’s

alpha coefficient procedure, one of the internal consistency methods. The

coefficient can be used to calculate the reliability of items when the items are not

scored as right or wrong. The alpha coefficient obtained described the inter-item

consistency of the instrument. The formula for alpha was presented as follows:

⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛ −⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛

−= ∑

2

22

1 x

ix

sss

KKα

where

K = number of items on the test

= sum of variances of the item scores ∑ 2is

= variance of the test scores (all K items) 2xs

From the calculation by using the Cronbach’s alpha, it turned out that the

correlation coefficient was 0.84 (see Appendix F). The coefficient met the


40

criterion of instrument reliability proposed by Fraenkel and Wallen (1993: 296)

since it was higher than 0.70.

2. Observation Forms

Class observations were conducted to gain complete descriptions of

students’ behavior in Writing III class E. It was expected that from the class

observations, the researcher would obtain some inputs related to the learning

strategies of the students through their behavior in the class. In the research, the

results of the class observations were used to verify the data that were obtained

through the questionnaire. The class observations were conducted three times. In

order to ease the class observations, class observation guidelines were used.

D. Data Gathering Technique

The research was conducted in the Writing III class E of the English

Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University of the

2006/2007 academic year. To gather the data, the researcher conducted class

observations and used a questionnaire. The class observations were conducted

three times. In observing the participants, the researcher did not participate in the

teaching learning activities. On the other hand, she acted as a non-participant

researcher. To obtain the data, the researcher took notes of the teaching learning

processes, the students’ behavior, and their learning strategies used in the class.

After the observations, the researcher distributed the questionnaire. The

questionnaire was distributed once and took for about thirty minutes.


41

E. Data Analysis Technique

After obtaining the results of the questionnaire, the researcher coded the

raw data of the questionnaire into numbers. From the raw data, means were

drawn. The means were used to find out the tendency of the respondents toward

the statements in the questionnaire. By drawing the means, the researcher knew

the tendency of learning strategies used by the students. Then, the researcher

presented the data in tables, where each statement was described. The researcher

also made a table which presented the means of the six learning strategies used by

all of the students. The learning strategies were memory, cognitive, compensation,


Then, the researcher classified the students based on their proficiency

levels. The researcher classified the students into three groups: high proficient

learners, medium proficient learners, and low proficient ones. After classifying the

students, the researcher analyzed the results of the questionnaire. The researcher

made tables which presented the means of the six learning strategies in writing,

memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies,

used by the students with different proficiency levels in writing. The researcher

would also discuss the tendency of each strategy item applied by the students.

There are fifty strategy items that would be discussed. Based on the analysis, the

researcher would report the learning strategies in writing used by the three groups

of students. The next step was making the report of the observation results. The

researcher reported the results in paragraphs.


42

F. Research Procedure

The research was conducted through procedures. First, the researcher

made the statement of the problems. There were two problems that became the

focus of the research. The first was concerned with the learning strategies used by

students in Writing III class of the English Language Education Study Program of

Sanata Dharma University. The second problem was concerned with how students

with different proficiency levels in Writing III class of the English Language

Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University use the learning strategies

in writing.

Then, the researcher gathered information needed to solve the problems.

The information included the literature review and related sources. The

information gathered was the information on writing and learning strategies. Next,

the researcher designed the research. It included the method to be used, what data

would be gathered, where, how, and from whom. The method used in the research

was the descriptive research method. The data were on the students’ learning

strategies in writing. The sample that was finally chosen was the Writing III

students class E of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata

Dharma University of the 2006/2007 academic year. After designing the research,

the researcher collected the data. The data were collected through the

questionnaire and class observations. The next step was analyzing the data. From

the raw data, the researcher drew the means of the learning strategies used by the

students. The researcher verified the questionnaire results by analyzing the results


43

of the class observations. Finally, the researcher prepared the report on the

research findings.


CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The chapter consists of two main sections. The first section is the data

presentation, which covers the presentation of the data. The second section is the

discussion, which is the elaboration of the data presentation.

A. Data Presentation

The data were obtained from twenty-five copies of questionnaire

distributed to the third semester students in a Writing III class of the English

Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University of the

2006/2007 academic year. The researcher used a Likert scale. In the

questionnaire, there were positively stated items and negatively stated ones. As

stated in Chapter III, the numerical values were 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1. For example,

“always” with a positive statement would receive a weight of 5, “usually” would

receive a 4, “sometimes” would receive a 3, “rarely” would receive a 2, and

“never” would receive a 1. For negatively stated items the weighting was

reversed. From the questionnaire, the researcher drew the means for each strategy.

The first data presentation covered six learning strategies in writing,

memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies

used by the twenty-five students. There would be some discussions, followed by

some tables. The second data presentation presented the learning strategies used

by students with different proficiency levels in writing.

The researcher analyzed students’ learning strategies by drawing the

means of each item. The means were categorized into five. They were “almost

44


45

always used”, “generally used”, “sometimes used”, “generally not used”, and

“almost never used”. The categories were based on the frequency of learning

strategies used by the students. The mean was categorized into almost always used

when the range was from 4.50 to 5.00. Generally used was ranged from 3.50 to

4.49. Sometimes used was 2.50 to 3.49. Generally not used was 1.50 to 2.49.

Finally, almost never used was ranged from 1.00 to 1.49.

1. Learning Strategies Used by Students


From Table 4.1, it is found that three of the memory strategies were

sometimes used by the students. One of the strategies was generally not used. The

strategies sometimes used by the students were placing new words into a context

(statements 1 and 4) and reviewing well (statement 2). The strategy that was

generally not used was using mechanical techniques (statement 3).

Table 4.1 Memory Strategies Used by the Students

No. Statement Mean Category 1. I use new English words in sentences so I can

remember them. 3.08 Sometimes used

2. I do not review what I learn from the writing class. 3.32 Sometimes used 3. I use flashcards with the new English word on one

side and the definition on the other. 1.72 Generally not

used 4. I write a new English word in different sentences

or contexts. 2.88 Sometimes used


Table 4.2 presents the cognitive strategies used by the students. From the

analysis of cognitive strategies, it could be inferred that nine of the strategies were


46

generally used. Six of the cognitive strategies were sometimes used. Four of the

strategies were generally not used.

The strategies that were generally used by the students were repeating

(statement 5 and 21), using resources/printed resources (statements 12, 13, 22, and

23), translating (statement 16), taking notes (statement 19), and highlighting

(statement 20). The strategies that were sometimes used by the students were

repeating (statement 6 and 18), practicing naturalistically (statements 7, 9, and

11), and summarizing (statement 17). The strategies generally not used by the

students were practicing naturalistically (statements 8 and 10), using

resources/unprinted resources (statement 14), and translating (statement 15).

Table 4.2 Cognitive Strategies Used by the Students

No. Statement Mean Category 5. I never revise my writing. 3.80 Generally used 6. I learn a model written by a native writer or a

more proficient writer. 2.64 Sometimes used

7. I exchange my writing with my peers’ or my lecturer’s.

2.92 Sometimes used

8. I write for newspapers, magazines, or newsletters in English.

1.56 Generally not used

9. I write my own stories and poems in English. 2.64 Sometimes used 10. I write a diary in English. 2.44 Generally not used 11. I write messages or notes in English in order to

practice my English. 2.92 Sometimes used

12. I gather information from articles, books, or newspapers to write about a certain topic.

3.76 Generally used

13. I gather information from dictionaries. 3.60 Generally used 14. I gather information from videocassettes. 2.32 Generally not used 15. I practice translating an Indonesian article into

English. 2.48 Generally not used

16. I try not to translate word-for-word. 3.56 Generally used 17. I make summaries of English texts. 2.96 Sometimes used 18. I start writing by having a written plan. 3.44 Sometimes used 19. I write down ideas as soon as the ideas come

into my mind. 3.88 Generally used


47

Table 4.2 Continued No. Statement Mean Category 20. I highlight important points of my writing in the

writing process. 3.56 Generally used

21. I make drafts as a process of my writing. 3.76 Generally used 22. If I do not know words in English, I stop writing

and look up the correct words in the dictionary. 4.36 Generally used

23. I do not use dictionaries when revising. 4.20 Generally used


There were four statements related to compensation strategies. One of the

strategies was almost always used and three of the strategies were generally used.

The strategy that was almost always used was selecting the topic (statement 26),

while the strategies generally used by the students were coining words (statement

24), using synonym (statement 25), and adjusting the message (statement 27).

Table 4.3 lists the compensation strategies used by the students.

Table 4.3 Compensation Strategies Used by the Students

No. Statement Mean Category 24. I make up new words if I do not know the right

words in English. 3.60 Generally used

25. If I do not know a word in English, I find a similar English word that I know.

3.96 Generally used

26. I choose a topic which interests me to write. 4.56 Almost always used

27. I simplify what I want to write if I do not know how to express my thought in English.

3.96 Generally used


Table 4.4 shows the metacognitive strategies used by the students. There

were ten statements of metacognitive strategies. Four strategies were generally


48

used. Five of the strategies were sometimes used. One of the strategies was

generally not used.

The strategies generally used by the students were self evaluating

(statement 28), finding out about language learning (statements 29 and 34), and

self monitoring (statement 36). The students sometimes used the strategies of

organizing (statement 30), selecting goals (statement 31), paying attention

(statement 33), seeking practice opportunities (statement 35), and identifying the

purpose of the language task (statement 37). The strategy generally not used by

the students was selecting objectives (statement 32).

Table 4.4 Metacognitive Strategies Used by the Students

No. Statements Mean Category 28. I notice my English mistakes and use that

information to help me do better. 3.72 Generally used

29. I never try to find out how to be a better writer. 4.00 Generally used 30. I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to

write. 2.68 Sometimes used

31. I plan my goals for writing, for instance, how proficient I want to become.

2.96 Sometimes used

32. I plan what I am going to accomplish in writing each day or each week.

2.44 Generally not used

33. I only read what I have written when I have finished the whole paper.

2.80 Sometimes used

34. I never ask questions and share ideas with my peers about effective strategies they have tried.

3.92 Generally used

35. I seek opportunities to practice my writing outside the writing class.

2.72 Sometimes used

36. I never compare my writing with my peers’. 4.16 Generally used 37. I know the purpose of my writing, such as to

persuade or entertain the audiences. 3.40 Sometimes used


There were eight statements of affective strategies. Three of the eight

strategies were generally used by the students. Five strategies were sometimes


49

used by the students. The strategies of using progressive relaxation (statement 38),

using music (statement 44), and making positive statements (statement 45) were

generally used. The strategies of rewarding yourself (statement 39 and 40),

listening to your body (statement 41), writing a language learning diary (statement

42), and discussing feeling with someone else (statement 43) were sometimes

used. Table 4.5 summarizes the affective strategies used by the students.

Table 4.5 Affective Strategies Used by the Students

No. Statement Mean Category 38. I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of writing

compositions. 3.92 Generally used

39. I give myself a reward for completing writing assignments.

2.88 Sometimes used

40. I give myself a reward when I have done well in writing.

3.12 Sometimes used

41. I notice it when I am tense or nervous while I am writing English.

3.24 Sometimes used

42. I write down my feeling related to writing. 3.04 Sometimes used 43. I talk to someone else about how I feel when I am

learning writing. 3.48 Sometimes used

44. I use music in order to increase my mood for writing.

3.56 Generally used

45. When I had difficulties in writing, I told myself, ”You can do it. Try again.”

4.08 Generally used


From Table 4.6, it can be inferred that there were three social strategies

generally used by the students. They are asking for corrections (statement 46),

cooperating with proficient users of English (statement 47), and cooperating with

others (statement 48). Two strategies were sometimes used by the students. They

were the strategies of becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings (statement

49) and developing cultural understanding (statement 50).


50

Table 4.6 Social Strategies Used by the Students

No. Statement Mean Category 46. I never ask my writing lecturer to mark my

serious difficulties in writing. 3.76 Generally used

47. I try to revise my writing after my lecturer gives my writing feedback.

4.20 Generally used

48. I show my writing to somebody and ask for his/her opinion.

3.80 Generally used

49. I consider my readers’ feeling as they read my composition.

3.28 Sometimes used

50. I never try to learn about the culture of English writers.

3.48 Sometimes used

From the presentation of the learning strategies, it could be concluded that

all of the sub-strategies were employed by the students. The means of the

strategies revealed the frequency of the strategies used by the students. From the

means, it was found that most of the learning strategies were frequently used.

After presenting the data of the six learning strategies, the researcher

presented the mean of each learning strategy used by all students in Table 4.7. It

was aimed to identify the means and the rank of the learning strategies used by the

students in Writing III class E.

Table 4.7 Learning Strategies Used by the Students

No. Learning Strategies Mean Category 1. Memory Strategies 2.75 Sometimes used 2. Cognitive Strategies 3.20 Sometimes used 3. Compensation Strategies 4.02 Generally used 4. Metacognitive Strategies 3.28 Sometimes used 5. Affective Strategies 3.41 Sometimes used 6. Social Strategies 3.70 Generally used

From the data on Table 4.7, it could be summarized that the students

employed all of the learning strategies in the processes of their writing. It could

also be inferred that most of the learning strategies were frequently used by the


51

students. The mean of the compensation strategies was the highest. Then, it was

followed by social strategies, affective strategies, metacognitive strategies, and

cognitive strategies. The memory strategies were used least frequently by the

students in Writing III class E.

2. Learning Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in

Writing

After presenting the data on the learning strategies used by all students, the

researcher presented the data on the learning strategies employed by learners with

different proficiency levels in writing. There were twenty-five students becoming

the sample of this study. The students were divided into three. They were the

high, medium, and low proficient learners. The students were divided into three

based on their final grades. The students who gained As were categorized as high

proficient learners. There were two students. Students who gained Bs were

included as the medium proficient learners. There were sixteen students. There

were six students who gained Cs and one student who gained a D. They were

categorized as low proficient learners.

There were 50 items discussed. The items included the six learning

strategies, memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social

strategies. Besides presenting the tables on the sub-learning strategies used by the

students, the researchers also presented the summary of the learning strategies

used by the students.


Table 4.8 shows the memory strategies used by the students with different

proficiency levels in writing. The strategy of using new English words in


52

sentences is a part of the strategy of placing new words into a context. The

strategy was sometimes used by the high proficient learners and the medium

proficient learners. The low proficient learners generally used the strategy.

Reviewing what was learned from writing class is a part of the strategies

of reviewing well. The strategy was generally used by the high proficient learners.

The medium proficient learners and the low proficient learners sometimes used

the strategy. Next, using flashcards is a part of using mechanical technique

strategies. The strategy was generally not used by the high, medium, and low

proficient learners. It can be assumed that flashcards were rarely used by the

students in remembering new English words. The last memory strategy, writing a

new English word in different sentences or contexts, is a part of the strategy of

placing new words into a context. The students of all proficiency levels sometimes

used the strategy.

The memory strategies used by the students with different proficiency

levels were categorized as medium. They were sometimes used by the students.

High proficient learners employed memory strategies more frequently than the

students of other proficiency levels by gaining a mean of 2.87.

Table 4.8 Memory Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing

No. Strategies High

Proficient Learners

Medium Proficient Learners

Low Proficient Learners

1. Using new English words in sentences in order to remember them

3.00 (sometimes

used)

2.88 (sometimes

used)

3.57 (generally

used) 2. Reviewing what was learned from

writing class 3.50

(generally used)

3.31 (sometimes

used)

3.29 (sometimes

used)


53

Table 4.8 Continued No. Strategies High

Proficient Learners



3. Using flashcards 2.00 (generally not used)

1.75 (generally not used)


4. Writing a new English word in different sentences or contexts

3.00 (sometimes

used)

2.81 (sometimes

used)

3.00 (sometimes

used) Means of the memory strategies used by the students

2.87 (sometimes

used)

2.69 (sometimes

used)

2.86 (sometimes

used)


The revising strategy was sometimes used by the high and low proficient

learners. It was generally used by the medium proficient learners. Learning a

model written by a native writer or a more proficient writer is a part of repeating

strategies. The high and medium proficient learners sometimes used the strategy.

The strategy was generally not used by the low proficient learners. Exchanging

writing with peers or the lecturer is included in the strategies of practicing

naturalistically. The high, medium, and low proficient students sometimes used

the strategy. The high and medium proficient learners almost never used the

strategy of writing for newspapers, magazines, or newsletters in English. The

strategy was generally not used by the low proficient learners. The strategy of

writing stories and poems in English was generally not used by the high and low

proficient learners. The strategy was sometimes used by the medium proficient

learners.

The medium proficient learners wrote diaries in English more frequently

than the students of other proficiency levels. They sometimes used the strategy.

Meanwhile, the high proficient learners almost never used the strategy and the low


54

proficient learners did not generally use the strategy. The strategy of writing

messages or notes in English in order to practice English was sometimes used by

the medium and low proficient students. The high proficient learners did not

generally use the strategy. The strategy of gathering information from articles,

books, or newspapers to write about a certain topic is categorized as the strategies

of using resources. The strategy was sometimes used by the high and low

proficient learners. The medium proficient learners generally used the strategy.

The strategy of gathering information from dictionaries was generally used

by the medium proficient learners. The strategy was sometimes used by the high

and low proficient learners. Gathering information from videocassettes was used

more frequently by the low proficient learners. The low proficient students

sometimes used the strategy, while the high and medium proficient learners did

not generally use the strategy. Translating an Indonesian article into English is

included in the translation strategy. The high and low proficient learners

sometimes used the strategy. The medium proficient learners did not generally use

it. Trying not to translate word-for-word is also categorized as a translation

strategy. The strategy was generally used by the students.

The medium and low proficient learners sometimes used the summarizing

strategy. The strategy was generally not used by the high proficient learners.

Starting writing by having a written plan is a part of repeating strategies. The

strategy was generally used by the high proficient learners. The medium and low

proficient learners sometimes used the strategy. Writing down ideas as soon as the

ideas come into the minds is the strategy of taking notes. The strategy was

generally used by the high and medium proficient learners. It was sometimes used


55

by the low proficient learners. The highlighting strategy was generally used by the

high and low proficient learners. The medium proficient learners sometimes used

the strategy.

Making drafts as a process of writing is a kind of repeating strategy. The

strategy was generally used by the high and medium proficient learners. It was

sometimes used by the low proficient learners. Checking unknown words in the

dictionaries when writing was almost always used by the high proficient learners.

It was generally used by the medium and low proficient learners. The last of

cognitive strategies, using dictionaries when revising, was almost always used by

the high proficient learners. It was generally used by the medium and low

proficient learners.

The cognitive strategies were sometimes used by the students. The

strategies were more frequently employed by the medium proficient learners.

Table 4.9 summarizes the means of the cognitive strategies employed by the

students.

Table 4.9 Cognitive Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing

No. Strategies High

Proficient Learners



5. Revising 3.00 (sometimes

used)

4.13 (generally

used)

3.29 (sometimes

used) 6. Learning a model written by a

native writer or a more proficient writer

3.00 (sometimes

used)

2.69 (sometimes

used)


7. Exchanging writing with peers’ or the lecturer’s

2.50 (sometimes

used)

3.00 (sometimes

used)

2.86 (sometimes

used)


56


Proficient Learners



8. Writing for newspapers, magazines, or newsletters in English

1.00 (almost

never used)

1.44 (almost never

used)


9. Writing stories and poems in English


2.88 (sometimes

used)


10. Writing a diary in English 1.00 (almost

never used)

2.63 (sometimes

used)


11. Writing messages or notes in English in order to practice English


3.19 (sometimes

used)

2.57 (sometimes

used) 12. Gathering information from

articles, books, or newspapers to write about a certain topic

2.50 (sometimes

used)

4.06 (generally

used)

3.43 (sometimes


dictionaries 3.00

(sometimes used)

3.81 (generally

used)

3.29 (sometimes


videocassettes 2.00

(generally not used)

2.25 (generally not

used)

2.57 (sometimes

used) 15. Translating an Indonesian

article into English 2.50

(sometimes used)

2.44 (generally not

used)

2.57 (sometimes

used) 16. Trying not to translate word-

for-word 3.50

(generally used)

3.56 (generally

used)

3.57 (generally

used) 17. Summarizing English texts 2.00

(generally not used)

3.06 (sometimes

used)

3.00 (sometimes

used) 18. Starting writing by having a

written plan 4.00

(generally used)

3.44 (sometimes

used)

3.29 (sometimes

used) 19. Writing down ideas as soon

as the ideas come into the minds

4.00 (generally

used)

4.06 (generally

used)

3.43 (sometimes

used) 20. Highlighting important points

in the writing process 4.00

(generally used)

3.31 (sometimes

used)

4.00 (generally

used) 21. Making drafts as a process of

writing 3.50

(generally used)

3.94 (generally

used)

3.43 (sometimes

used) 22. Checking unknown words in

the dictionaries when writing 5.00

(almost always used)

4.31 (generally

used)

4.29 (generally

used)


57


Proficient Learners



23. Using dictionaries when revising

4.50 (almost

always used)

4.13 (generally

used)

4.29 (generally

used) Means of the cognitive strategies used by the students

2.89 (sometimes

used)

3.28 (sometimes

used)

3.10 (sometimes

used)


Table 4.10 summarizes the compensation strategies used by the students

with different proficiency levels in writing. There were four compensation

strategies. Making up new words when the students do not know the right words

in English is called coining words. The strategy was generally used by the high

and low proficient learners. The medium proficient learners sometimes used the

strategies. Using synonym was generally used by the medium and low proficient

learners. The high proficient learners sometimes used the strategy. Choosing

topics is a kind of selecting topics strategy. The high and medium proficient

learners almost always used the strategy. The low proficient learners generally

used the strategy. Simplifying the writing is called adjusting the message strategy.

The strategy was generally used by the high, medium, and low proficient students.

The compensation strategies were generally used by the learners. The

medium proficient learners employed the compensation strategies more frequently

than the other students. They gained a mean of 4.05.

Table 4.10 Compensation Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing

No. Strategies High

Proficient Learners



24. Making up new words when the students do not know the right words in English

4.00 (generally

used)

3.44 (sometimes

used)

3.86 (generally

used)


58


Proficient Learners



25. Finding synonyms of difficult words

3.00 (sometimes

used)

4.00 (generally

used)

4.14 (generally

used) 26. Choosing topics 5.00


4.69 (almost

always used)

4.14 (generally

used) 27. Simplifying the writing

3.50

(generally used)

4.06 (generally

used)

3.86 (generally

used) Means of the compensation strategies used by the students

3.87 (generally

used)

4.05 (generally

used)

4.00 (generally

used)


Noticing English mistakes, the strategy of self evaluating, was almost

always used by the high proficient students. It was generally used by the medium

and low proficient learners. Finding out how to be a better writer is a part of the

strategies of finding out about language learning. The means of the learning

strategies used by all levels were the same. They were 4.00. It meant that the

strategy was generally used by students with different proficiency levels in

writing. Planning schedule, the organizing strategy, was generally used by the

high proficient learners. The strategy was sometimes used by the medium and low

proficient learners. The strategy of selecting goals was generally used by the high

proficient learners. The medium and low proficient learners sometimes used the

strategy. The strategy of selecting objectives was sometimes used by the high

proficient learners. The medium and low proficient learners did not generally use

the strategy.

Reading what has been written after finishing the whole paper is the

strategy of paying attention. The strategy was sometimes used by the high and


59

medium proficient learners. The low proficient learners generally used the

strategy. Asking questions and sharing ideas with peers about effective strategies

they have tried is a part of the strategies of finding out about language learning. It

was generally used by the high, medium, and low proficient students. The strategy

of seeking practice opportunities was sometimes used by the learners. Comparing

writing with peers, the strategy of self monitoring, was almost always used by the

high proficient learners. The strategy was generally used by the medium and low

proficient students. The strategy of identifying the purpose of writing was

generally used by the high and medium proficient students. The low proficient

students sometimes used the strategy.

The metacognitive strategies were employed more frequently by the high

proficient learners. The strategies were generally used by the high proficient

learners. The mean was 3.50. The strategies were sometimes used by the low and

medium proficient learners. Table 4.11 summarizes the means of the

metacognitive strategies employed by the students.

Table 4.11 Metacognitive Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels

in Writing

No. Strategies High Proficient Learners



28. Noticing English mistakes 4.50 (almost

always used)

3.50 (generally

used)

4.00 (generally

used) 29. Finding out how to be a better

writer 4.00

(generally used)

4.00 (generally

used)

4.00 (generally

used) 30. Planning schedule 3.50

(generally used)

2.63 (sometimes

used)

2.57 (sometimes

used) 31. Planning goals for writing

3.50

(generally used)

3.00 (sometimes

used)

2.71 (sometimes

used)


60


Proficient Learners



32. Planning objectives in writing 2.50 (sometimes

used)



33. Reading what have been written after finishing the whole paper

2.50 (sometimes

used)

2.50 (sometimes

used)

3.57 (generally

used) 34. Asking questions and sharing

ideas with peers about effective strategies they have tried

4.00 (generally

used)

4.06 (generally

used)

3.57 (generally

used) 35. Seeking opportunities to practice

writing 2.50

(sometimes used)

2.63 (sometimes

used)

3.00 (sometimes

used) 36. Comparing writing with peers 4.50


4.13 (generally

used)

4.14 (generally

used) 37. Identifying the purpose of writing 3.50

(generally used)

3.56 (generally

used)

3.00 (sometimes

used) Means of the metacognitive strategies used by the students

3.50 (generally

used)

3.24 (sometimes

used)

3.30 (sometimes

used)


From Table 4.12, it can be concluded that means of the affective strategies

used by the students were considered as medium. They were sometimes used by

the students. The low proficient learners employed the affective strategies more

frequently than the other proficiency levels by gaining a mean of 3.45.

Trying to relax, the progressive relaxation strategy, was generally used by

the medium and low proficient learners. The high proficient learners sometimes

used the strategy. Giving rewards for completing writing assignments, the strategy

of rewarding yourself, was sometimes used by the learners with different

proficiency levels in writing. Giving rewards when doing well in writing strategy

was also sometimes used by the learners. Noticing tenseness or nervousness, the


61

strategy of listening your body, was generally used by the high proficient learners.

The medium and low proficient learners sometimes used the strategy. The strategy

of writing a language learning diary was sometimes used by the learners. Next, the

strategy of discussing feeling with someone else was generally used by the

medium proficient learners. The strategy was sometimes used by the high and low

proficient learners. The strategy of using music was generally used by the high

and low proficient learners. The medium proficient learners sometimes used the

strategy. Making positive statements was generally used by the high, medium, and

low proficient students.

Table 4.12 Affective Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing

No. Strategies High

Proficient Learners



38. Trying to relax 3.00 (sometimes

used)

3.94 (generally

used)

4.14 (generally

used) 39. Giving rewards for completing

writing assignments 2.50

(sometimes used)

2.88 (sometimes

used)

3.00 (sometimes

used) 40. Giving rewards when doing well in

writing 2.50

(sometimes used)

3.13 (sometimes

used)

3.29 (sometimes

used) 41. Noticing tenseness or nervousness 3.50

(generally used)

3.38 (sometimes

used)

2.86 (sometimes

used) 42. Writing down feelings related to

writing 2.50

(sometimes used)

3.13 (sometimes

used)

3.00 (sometimes

used) 43. Talking to someone else about the

feelings when learning writing 3.00

(sometimes used)

3.56 (generally

used)

3.43 (sometimes

used) 44. Using music in order to increase

mood for writing 3.50

(generally used)

3.44 (sometimes

used)

3.86 (generally

used)


62


Proficient Learners



45. Making positive statements 4.00 (generally

used)

4.13 (generally

used)

4.00 (generally

used) Means of the affective strategies used by the students

3.06 (sometimes

used)

3.44 (sometimes

used)

3.45 (sometimes

used)


Table 4.13 lists the social strategies used by the students with different

proficiency levels in writing. From Table 4.13, it is seen that the strategy of

asking for corrections was generally used by the medium and low proficient

learners. The high proficient learners sometimes used the strategy. Revising

writing after the lecturer gives the writing feedback was a strategy of cooperating

with proficient users of English. It was almost always used by the high proficient

learners and generally used by the medium and low proficient students.

Asking for opinions about the writing is a part of the strategy of

cooperating with others. The high, medium, and low proficient students generally

used the strategy. Considering readers’ feeling as they read the compositions is the

strategy of becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings. The strategy was

sometimes used by the students. Trying to learn about the culture of English

writers is a part of developing cultural understanding. The high and low proficient

learners generally used the strategy. The medium proficient learners sometimes

used the strategy.

Means of the social strategies used by the learners were considered as

high. They were generally used by the students. The medium proficient learners


63

employed the social strategies more frequently than the other students by gaining

a mean of 3.74.

Table 4.13 Social Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing

No. Strategies High

Proficient Learners



46. Asking writing lecturers to mark serious difficulties in writing

2.50 (sometimes

used)

3.88 (generally

used)

3.86 (generally

used) 47. Revising writing after the lecturer

gives the writing feedback 4.50


4.25 (generally

used)

4.00 (generally

used) 48. Asking for opinions about the

writing 4.00

(generally used)

3.88 (generally

used)

3.57 (generally

used) 49. Considering readers’ feeling as

they read the compositions 3.00

(sometimes used)

3.38 (sometimes

used)

3.14 (sometimes

used) 50. Trying to learn about the culture

of English writers 4.00

(generally used)

3.31 (sometimes

used)

3.71 (generally

used) Means of the social strategies used by the students

3.60 (generally

used)

3.74 (generally

used)

3.66 (generally

used)

From the presentation of the data on the learning strategies used by

students with different proficiency levels in writing, it is found that most of the six

learning strategies were sometimes used and generally used by the students. It

meant that the students had employed the learning strategies frequently.

B. Discussion

The first discussion would be the discussion on the data presentation. The

second would be the discussion on the results of class observations. The

discussions on the class observation results would verify the results of the

questionnaire.


64

1. Learning Strategies Used by the Students

a. Questionnaire Results

Students in Writing III class used all of the six learning strategies. From

the analysis, the compensation strategies were mostly used. Compensation

strategies were followed by the social, affective, metacognitive, cognitive, and

memory strategies. Compensation and social strategies were generally used by the

students, while the other strategies were sometimes used. By investigating the

means of the strategies used by the students, it can be inferred that the students in

Writing III class E of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata

Dharma University of the 2006/2007 academic year had used the learning

strategies in writing frequently.

b. Class Observation Results

After discussing the questionnaire results, the researcher would report the

results of the class observations. The class observations were conducted in order

to verify the data obtained through the questionnaire. There were three times of

class observation conducted in Writing III class E of the English Language

Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University.

The first class observation was on 2nd October 2006. The topic was

recount. The students were given the feedback of their first drafts. After the

students obtained the feedback, they revised the drafts. Many of the students

consulted the dictionaries. Most of them asked their friends and the lecturer. Some

of the students exchanged their writings and asked for their friends' comments.

The lecturer walked around the class and asked whether the students had any

difficulties.


65

Next, the lecturer asked the students who could not revise their

compositions to write their ungrammatical sentences on the whiteboard. After

some students wrote the sentences, other students tried to help the students in

revising the mistakes. From the researcher's observation, most of the sentences

were the results of word-for-word translation. It made the ideas of the sentences

confusing. Moreover, the sentences were complicated and not meaningful.

In the session, all of the students in the class could give inputs to make

well-formed sentences. At last, all of the sentences written in the board were

revised. The students were motivated in correcting their peers' mistakes when the

sentences were written on the board. During the class activities, some of the

students were daydreaming. The lecturer sometimes used laughter and it was

positively responded to by the students. From the whole class activities, the

teaching learning activities were interesting. Moreover, the students learned a lot

about sentences construction and recount.

In the first class observation, there were some learning strategies observed

by the researcher. They were cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies,

affective strategies, and social strategies. The first cognitive strategy was one of

the repeating strategies, revising. The second cognitive strategy was practicing

naturalistically (exchanging writing with peers). Then, the students also used

resources. The resources were dictionaries.

The metacognitive strategies employed by the students were sharing ideas

with their peers, self monitoring (monitoring their mistakes), and self evaluating

(comparing their compositions with their peers). The affective strategies used by

the students were using progressive relaxation and using laughter. The social


66

strategies used by the students were asking for corrections and cooperating with

peers.

The second class observation was on 16th October 2006. The topic of the

meeting was interpreting data, graphs, charts, and diagram. The students chose the

materials by themselves. There were kinds of data, graphs, charts, and diagram

brought by the students. They found the materials in the authentic texts such as

newspapers and magazines. Based on the materials, the students should make their

own reports.

Some of the students wrote drafts first. After writing the drafts, they

revised the drafts. Some of them moved to another place in order to write in a

more comfortable place. Most of the students stopped writing and asked their

peers what strategies they used in writing the reports. From the students’

conversations, the researcher found that some students made Indonesian version

first before they wrote the English sentences. In order to ease the report process,

the students read the reports in the newspapers and magazines as models. They

also checked the dictionaries.

From the class observation, the researcher found that the students used

cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies. The cognitive strategies

were repeating (revising and modeling), practicing naturalistically (exchanging

writing with peers), and using resources (dictionaries, newspapers, and

magazines). The metacognitive strategies were self monitoring and self

evaluating. The affective strategies were using progressive relaxation and deep

breathing, using laughter, making positive statements, and discussing felling with


67

someone else. The social strategies were asking for corrections and cooperating

with others.

The third class observation was on 20th November 2006. The topic was

narrative essay. The lecturer gave the students handouts with some descriptions

and further explanation about narrative essay. After some explanations, the

teacher asked the students to do some tasks. The students were given pieces of

paper with some topics written on them. There were five topics and each student

should choose a topic according to his/her interest.

The students were divided into some groups. Each group consisted of for

about four students. They worked individually. One student must write one

narrative essay. However, it was a group scoring. One’s work would influence the

other students’ scores. As a result, in order to gain good scores, the students in

each group should cooperate.

Most of the students made drafts and revised them. They exchanged their

compositions with the other students in the group and their peers gave comments.

They also compared their compositions with their peers’. Some students

highlighted the main points of the paragraphs. They highlighted points related to

5W+1H questions (what, who, where, why, when, and how) and they also

highlighted the topic sentences. Some of the students changed the topics they have

chosen for they were stuck on their previous topics. Some of the students made

jokes and laughed. Some others daydreamt and sang songs. Still, they focused

their attention on the task. In the researcher’s opinion, the teaching learning

activities were effective. The lecturer also helped the students to improve their

learning strategies.


68

The learning strategies employed by the students were cognitive,

compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social. The cognitive strategies were

repeating (revising), practicing naturalistically, using resources (dictionaries), and

highlighting important points. The compensation strategy was selecting the topic.

The metacognitive strategies were sharing ideas or problems and asking questions

about the strategies, self monitoring, and self evaluating. The affective strategies

were using progressive relaxation, using deep breathing, using music, and using

laughter. The social strategies used by the students were asking for corrections

and cooperating with others.

Although it was difficult to investigate what were going in the students

head, the class observations were useful to identify the students’ learning

strategies through their behaviors in the teaching learning activities. There were

five learning strategies observed by the researcher. They were cognitive,

compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social learning strategies. The

researcher did not find any memory strategies used by the students in the class.

2. Learning Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in

Writing

The students with different proficiency levels in writing employed the

learning strategies differently. From the data presentation, it was found that the

high proficient learners employed compensation strategies mostly. Then, it was

followed by social, metacognitive, affective, cognitive, and memory strategies.

The mean of the compensation strategies used by the high proficient learners was

3.87. The mean of the social strategies was 3.60. The mean of the metacognitive


69

strategies was 3.50. Compensation, social, and metacognitive strategies were

generally used by the students. Affective strategies gained a mean of 3.06. The

mean of the cognitive strategies was 2.89. Memory strategies gained a mean of

2.87. Affective, cognitive, and memory strategies were sometimes used by the

students.

The medium proficient learners used compensation strategies more than

the other strategies. Then, it was followed by social, affective, cognitive,

metacognitive, and memory strategies. The mean of the compensation strategies

employed by the medium proficient students was 4.05. The social strategies

gained a mean of 3.74. The compensation and social strategies were generally

used by the students. Affective strategies gained a mean of 3.44. The mean of the

meatacognitive strategies was 3.24 and the mean of the memory strategies was

2.69. The three strategies were sometimes used by the students with the medium

proficiency level in writing.

The low proficient learners employed compensation strategies more

frequently. Then, it was followed by social, affective, metacognitive, cognitive,

and memory strategies. The mean of the compensation strategies used by the low

proficient learners was 4.00. The mean of the social strategies was 3.66. The

strategies were generally used by the students. The mean of the affective strategies

was 3.45. Metacognitive strategies gained a mean of 3.30. The mean of the

cognitive strategies was 3.10. Memory strategies gained a mean of 2.86.

Affective, metacognitive, cognitive, and memory strategies were sometimes used

by the students.


70

Based on the data presentation on the learning strategies used by the

students, it also could be inferred that memory and metacognitive strategies were

mostly used by the high proficient learners. Cognitive, compensation, and social

strategies were more frequently used by the medium proficient learners. Affective

strategies were mostly employed by the low proficient learners. Memory and

metacognitive strategies contributed more for the students in Writing III class

because the students who used the strategies more frequently achieved a higher

grade.

Memory strategies are useful for memorizing information. The strategies

also make learners able to retrieve information from their memory when they need

to use it for comprehension or production. By using the memory strategies, the

students are easier in expressing their ideas in a better way.

Metacognitive strategies help the learners to manage themselves as

learners, the general learning processes, and the specific learning tasks. They are

kinds of learning behavior used for centering, arranging, planning, and evaluating.

The strategies are essential for successful language learning. When the students

use the metacognitive learning strategies, they will have the good learning

management and control. Successful writers are aware that the goal of writing is

to communicate massages and the students tend to choose effective strategies to

accomplish the goal. The strategies include planning, monitoring and evaluating.

The students who prioritize these aspects perform better on the final assessment

than those who prioritize the grammatical aspects.


CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

The chapter presents the conclusion of the study. It is the summary of the

answers to the two research questions that become the bases of the study. In the

chapter, the researcher gives some suggestions to those whose fields are closely

related to learning strategies.

A. Conclusions

There were two research questions that became the focus of the study. The

first was related to the learning strategies used by the students in Writing III and

the second was how students with different proficiency levels in writing use the

learning strategies in writing. In order to answer the questions, the researcher

distributed a questionnaire and conducted class observations.

The students in Writing III class used all of the six learning strategies in

writing, memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social.

They also employed all of the sub-learning strategies in writing. The

compensation strategies were used more frequently by the students. Then, it was

followed by social strategies, affective strategies, metacognitive strategies, and

cognitive strategies. The memory learning strategies were used least frequently.

The students with different proficiency levels in writing employed the

learning strategies differently. It was found that the high proficient learners

employed compensation strategies mostly. Then, it was followed by social,

metacognitive, affective, cognitive, and memory strategies. The medium

71


72

proficient learners used compensation strategies more than the other strategies.

Then, it was followed by social, affective, cognitive, metacognitive, and memory

strategies. The low proficient learners employed compensation strategies more

frequently. Then, it was followed by social, affective, metacognitive, cognitive,

and memory strategies.

From the research findings, it could be concluded that memory and

metacognitive learning strategies were most frequently used by the high proficient

learners. Cognitive, compensation, and social strategies were mostly used by

medium proficient learners. Affective strategies were mostly used by low

proficient learners. Memory and metacognitive strategies contributed more for the

students because the strategies were used more by the high proficient learners.

B. Suggestions

Since learning strategies contribute to the students’ learning, the researcher

would like to give some suggestions to lecturers and students of Writing of the

English Language Education Study Program. The suggestions are also addressed

to other researchers. For the lecturers, they first may learn the learning strategies.

Then, they may identify the students’ learning strategies and then, they conduct

the strategy training to improve the effectiveness of the students’ learning. The

lecturers may identify the students’ learning strategies by observing the students,

conducting interviews and distributing questionnaires, asking the students to do

note-taking on their learning difficulties, and also to describe the strategies they

employ. In addition, the lecturers may ask the students to write language learning

diaries.


73

After identifying the students’ learning strategies, the lecturer may provide

training on the learning strategies so the students can learn new strategies. The

training includes giving the students some instructions, learning materials, and

some tasks which can explore the students’ learning strategies. In the training, the

lecturers should not be the students’ directors, but their facilitators. It makes the

students enjoy their learning. Moreover, they would be responsible for their own

learning. The lecturers should consider the appropriateness between the learning

strategies and the learning tasks and also should consider the time limitation.

The researcher suggests that the students study the learning strategies

because the learning strategies contribute to their academic success. The students

may evaluate their learning, modify their learning strategies, and share the

strategies with their classmates. The students are also suggested to use the

learning strategies in writing wisely. As a result, they will be more independent

and become better learners.

There are still many scopes of learning strategies that can be investigated

by the researchers. For other researchers, they may use this research as a reference

in conducting researches on the learning strategies used by the students. They may

use different methodology and may also conduct researches on learning strategies

used by different levels of writing classes.


REFERENCES

Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Razavieh, A. 1990. Introduction to Research in Education (4th ed.). Orlando, Florida: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc.

Brown, H. D. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.

Chamot, A. U. 1987. The Learning Strategies of ESL Students. In Anita Wenden and Joan Rubin (Eds.), Learner Strategies in Language Learning (pp. 71-83). New York: Prentice Hall International.

Christison, M. A. 2003. Learning Styles and Strategies. In David Nunan (Ed.), Practical English Language Teaching (pp. 267-288). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Cohen, A. D. 1990. Language Learning: Insight for Learners, Teachers, and Researchers. New York: Newbury House Publishers.

Cohen, A. D. 1998. Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. Harlow: Longman.

Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. 1993. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education (2nd ed.). Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

Hyland, K. 2002. Teaching and Researching Writing. Harlow: Longman.

Langan, J. 2002. Reading and Study Skills (7th ed.). New York: McGraw- Hill.

Nunan, D. 1989. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nunan, D. 1991. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers. New York: Prentice Hall.

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Nunan, D. 1999. Second Language Teaching and Learning. New York: Newbury House.

Oxford, R. L. 1990. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House.

Prasetya, A. H., Aji, G. P., & Budiraharja, M.(Eds.). 2002. Panduan Akademik: Program Studi Bahasa Inggris untuk Dosen dan Mahasiswa. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Richards, J. C. 1990. The Language Teaching Matrix. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sokolik, M. 2003. Writing. In David Nunan (Ed.), Practical English Language Teaching (pp. 87-108). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Wenden, A. L. 1987. Conceptual Background and Utility. In Anita Wenden and Joan Rubin (Eds.), Learner Strategies in Language Learning (pp. 3-13). New York: Prentice Hall International.

Zimmerman, D., & Rodrigues, D. 1992. Research and Writing in the Disciplines. Philadelphia: Harcourt Brace Javenovich, Inc.


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APPENDIX A Writing III Course Outline


76


77

APPENDIX B Data on the Students’ Final Grades


77

Subject : Writing 3 E Lecturer : C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd.


78 78


78

APPENDIX C The Questionnaire on Learning Strategies in Writing


79

QUESTIONNAIRE ON LEARNING STRATEGIES IN WRITING This questionnaire is aimed to identify your learning strategies in writing. It will not influence your mark in writing class. Please circle the number of each statement honestly. Your participation is highly appreciated. Thank you. Student number: ____________ Direction: You will find statements about learning strategies in writing. Please read each statement and circle the number indicating how true of you the statement is.

1. Never 2. Rarely 3. Sometimes 4. Usually 5. Always

No Statements never 1

rarely 2

sometimes 3

usually 4

always 5

1. I use new English words in sentences so I can remember them.

1 2 3 4 5

2. I do not review what I learn from the writing class.

1 2 3 4 5

3. I use flashcards with the new English word on one side and the definition on the other.

1 2 3 4 5

4. I write a new English word in different sentences or contexts.

1 2 3 4 5

5. I never revise my writing. 1 2 3 4 5 6. I learn a model written by a native writer

or a more proficient writer. 1 2 3 4 5

7. I exchange my writing with my peers’ or my lecturer’s.

1 2 3 4 5

8. I write for newspapers, magazines, or news-letters in English.

1 2 3 4 5

9. I write my own stories and poems in English.

1 2 3 4 5

10. I write a diary in English. 1 2 3 4 5 11. I write messages or notes in English in

order to practice my English. 1 2 3 4 5


80


rarely 2

sometimes 3

usually 4

always 5

12. I gather information from articles, books, or newspapers to write about a certain topic.

1 2 3 4 5

13. I gather information from dictionaries. 1 2 3 4 5 14. I gather information from videocassettes. 1 2 3 4 5 15. I practice translating an Indonesian article

into English. 1 2 3 4 5

16. I try not to translate word-for-word. 1 2 3 4 5 17. I make summaries of English texts. 1 2 3 4 5 18. I start writing by having a written plan. 1 2 3 4 5 19. I write down ideas as soon as the ideas

come into my mind. 1 2 3 4 5

20. I highlight important points of my writing in the writing process.

1 2 3 4 5

21. I make drafts as a process of my writing. 1 2 3 4 5 22. If I do not know words in English, I stop

writing and look up the correct words in the dictionary.

1 2 3 4 5

23. I do not use dictionaries when revising. 1 2 3 4 5 24. I make up new words if I do not know the

right words in English. 1 2 3 4 5

25. If I do not know a word in English, I find a similar English word that I know.

1 2 3 4 5

26. I choose a topic which interests me to write.

1 2 3 4 5

27. I simplify what I want to write if I do not know how to express my thought in English.

1 2 3 4 5

28. I notice my English mistakes and use that information to help me do better.

1 2 3 4 5

29. I never try to find out how to be a better writer.

1 2 3 4 5

30. I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to write.

1 2 3 4 5

31. I plan my goals for writing, for instance, how proficient I want to become.

1 2 3 4 5

32. I plan what I am going to accomplish in writing each day or each week.

1 2 3 4 5

33. I only read what I have written when I have finished the whole paper.

1 2 3 4 5


81


rarely 2

sometimes 3

usually 4

always 5

34. I never ask questions and share ideas with my peers about effective strategies they have tried.

1 2 3 4 5

35. I seek opportunities to practice my writing outside the writing class.

1 2 3 4 5

36. I never compare my writing with my peers’.

1 2 3 4 5

37. I know the purpose of my writing, such as to persuade or entertain the audiences.

1 2 3 4 5

38. I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of writing compositions.

1 2 3 4 5

39. I give myself a reward for completing writing assignments.

1 2 3 4 5

40. I give myself a reward when I have done well in writing.

1 2 3 4 5

41. I notice it when I am tense or nervous while I am writing English.

1 2 3 4 5

42. I write down my feeling related to writing. 1 2 3 4 5 43. I talk to someone else about how I feel

when I am learning writing. 1 2 3 4 5

44. I use music in order to increase my mood for writing.

1 2 3 4 5

45. When I had difficulties in writing, I told myself, ”You can do it. Try again.”

1 2 3 4 5

46. I never ask my writing lecturer to mark my serious difficulties in writing.

1 2 3 4 5

47. I try to revise my writing after my lecturer gives my writing feedback.

1 2 3 4 5

48. I show my writing to somebody and ask for his/her opinion.

1 2 3 4 5

49. I consider my readers’ feeling as they read my composition.

1 2 3 4 5

50. I never try to learn about the culture of English writers.

1 2 3 4 5


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APPENDIX D Raw Data on the Questionnaire Results


82

Memory Strategies Used by Students

No. 1 2 3 4 1. 3 3 2 3 2. 3 4 3 3 3. 3 4 1 3 4. 3 3 2 2 5. 3 5 1 3 6. 3 3 2 3 7. 4 3 1 3 8. 3 5 1 3 9. 5 4 1 2

10. 3 3 1 4 11. 4 2 3 3 12. 3 2 1 1 13. 3 2 3 3 14. 3 3 2 3 15. 3 4 3 3 16. 3 2 1 4 17. 3 5 2 3 18. 3 4 2 4 19. 3 3 3 3 20. 3 3 1 2 21. 3 3 1 3 22. 2 4 2 3 23. 3 4 2 3 24. 3 2 1 2 25. 2 3 1 3

Means 3.08 3.32 1.72 2.88


83

Cognitive Strategies Used by Students

No. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 231. 4 5 3 1 3 3 3 5 5 3 3 4 3 5 4 3 5 5 5 2. 4 5 2 1 4 3 4 4 5 2 3 3 3 4 4 3 4 4 5 3. 2 2 2 1 3 5 4 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 3 3 4. 3 2 2 1 3 3 3 4 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 5. 3 4 4 1 3 1 1 5 5 3 2 3 4 3 5 4 3 5 5 6. 4 4 2 2 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 4 5 4 7. 5 2 3 2 2 2 2 3 4 2 4 3 3 4 3 4 4 5 5 8. 5 1 3 2 3 3 4 5 5 3 2 4 5 3 5 3 4 4 5 9. 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 5 3 2 1 5 4 3 4

10. 5 2 5 1 2 3 5 5 5 1 3 4 2 4 5 4 5 5 4 11. 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 4 3 2 1 3 2 3 4 3 3 4 4 12. 3 1 3 1 3 3 3 4 4 1 2 4 3 4 3 1 4 4 1 13. 4 3 4 1 2 2 3 4 4 2 3 4 3 4 4 5 3 4 4 14. 5 2 3 1 3 1 3 3 3 2 2 3 4 3 5 4 4 5 5 15. 3 4 4 1 2 1 3 3 3 3 3 4 2 4 3 4 4 5 5 16. 3 2 2 1 1 2 3 4 4 2 3 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 17. 5 1 3 2 4 4 3 5 5 4 2 4 5 3 3 4 4 4 5 18. 5 4 4 1 3 4 4 4 3 2 3 5 3 3 5 5 5 5 3 19. 5 3 3 4 3 3 3 4 3 3 2 3 3 4 5 5 4 5 4 20. 5 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 5 3 1 5 2 3 5 3 3 5 5 21. 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 4 5 4 3 5 4 22. 3 3 4 1 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 3 3 4 2 3 3 4 23. 4 3 2 2 2 2 3 4 4 2 3 2 2 4 4 4 4 3 4 24. 2 1 4 2 3 3 4 4 4 3 2 3 3 4 4 4 3 5 4 25. 5 3 1 1 4 4 3 4 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 4

Means 3.80 2.64 2.92 1.56 2.64 2.44 2.92 3.76 3.60 2.32 2.48 3.56 2.96 3.44 3.88 3.56 3.76 4.36 4.20


84

Compensation Strategies Used by Students

No. 24 25 26 27 1. 4 5 5 32. 3 4 5 43. 3 3 2 34. 3 3 4 45. 3 4 5 56. 4 4 5 57. 4 4 4 48. 2 4 5 49. 4 4 5 4

10. 4 4 5 411. 4 4 5 512. 5 4 5 513. 3 4 5 214. 5 4 5 415. 4 3 5 316. 4 5 5 317. 2 4 4 418. 2 5 5 519. 5 5 3 320. 4 4 5 521. 4 3 5 422. 4 4 4 523. 3 3 4 324. 3 3 4 425. 4 5 5 4

Means 3.60 3.96 4.56 3.96


85

Metacognitive Strategies Used by Students

No. 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 1. 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 2. 4 4 3 4 3 5 3 4 3 5 3. 3 3 3 2 3 5 3 3 3 2 4. 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 5. 5 5 2 3 2 3 5 5 5 5 6. 3 3 1 2 2 2 4 2 4 3 7. 4 3 2 2 2 3 3 2 5 4 8. 3 5 2 3 3 2 4 3 5 4 9. 4 5 2 4 3 5 4 3 4 4

10. 4 5 3 4 4 1 5 3 4 4 11. 3 4 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 12. 2 3 1 1 1 2 4 1 3 4 13. 4 3 2 3 2 2 4 2 4 3 14. 4 5 2 3 2 3 5 2 5 3 15. 5 5 5 4 4 2 5 3 5 4 16. 5 4 2 2 1 2 4 1 5 1 17. 3 4 2 3 3 2 4 3 5 4 18. 4 5 5 4 2 4 5 3 5 3 19. 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 20. 3 5 3 3 3 1 4 3 4 4 21. 4 3 2 3 1 3 3 2 4 3 22. 5 4 1 4 1 2 5 4 5 3 23. 3 4 4 3 3 2 4 3 4 3 24. 4 3 3 2 2 3 4 1 3 4 25. 3 4 4 4 3 3 4 3 5 3

Means 3.72 4.00 2.68 2.96 2.44 2.80 3.92 2.72 4.16 3.40


86

Affective Strategies Used by Students

No. 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 1. 4 3 3 4 3 2 4 4 2. 4 2 1 3 3 3 3 5 3. 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 3 4. 3 4 4 3 4 2 3 4 5. 5 3 3 2 3 4 4 4 6. 4 4 4 3 3 4 1 5 7. 4 2 2 3 3 3 4 3 8. 4 5 5 3 3 4 5 5 9. 5 4 5 3 4 5 5 5

10. 4 3 4 3 4 5 5 5 11. 3 3 3 2 3 4 5 5 12. 5 1 1 5 1 5 1 3 13. 4 3 4 3 3 4 4 5 14. 3 1 2 3 4 3 2 4 15. 3 4 4 3 1 4 4 5 16. 5 4 5 3 2 2 1 5 17. 4 5 5 3 3 4 5 4 18. 5 3 3 5 3 4 5 5 19. 5 3 3 4 3 3 4 3 20. 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 21. 3 1 1 4 4 2 3 3 22. 4 1 1 3 2 4 4 5 23. 3 2 3 3 4 4 2 3 24. 4 2 2 4 2 3 4 2 25. 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 4

Means 3.92 2.88 3.12 3.24 3.04 3.48 3.56 4.08


87

Social Strategies Used by Students

No. 46 47 48 49 50 1. 3 4 3 4 42. 3 5 3 3 23. 4 3 4 3 34. 3 3 2 3 35. 3 4 5 4 56. 5 3 4 2 37. 5 5 4 3 38. 3 5 4 3 49. 4 4 1 2 5

10. 4 4 4 4 411. 3 3 3 3 412. 4 5 3 4 213. 4 3 3 4 314. 5 5 5 4 415. 2 5 5 3 516. 3 5 4 2 217. 3 5 4 3 318. 4 5 5 3 419. 5 4 4 5 420. 4 3 4 2 321. 3 4 3 3 322. 5 5 5 5 423. 4 3 3 3 424. 4 5 5 4 225. 4 5 5 3 4

Means 3.76 4.20 3.80 3.28 3.48


88

Raw Data on the Memory Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing

No.

1

2

3

4

High 1 3 4 3 3 High 2 3 3 1 3 Means 3.00 3.50 2.00 3.00 Med 1 3 3 2 3 Med 2 3 4 3 3 Med 3 3 3 2 2 Med 4 3 3 2 3 Med 5 3 5 1 3 Med 6 3 3 1 4 Med 7 3 2 1 1 Med 8 3 2 3 3 Med 9 3 3 2 3 Med 10 3 5 2 3 Med 11 3 4 2 4 Med 12 3 3 1 2 Med 13 2 4 2 3 Med 14 3 4 2 3 Med 15 3 2 1 2 Med 16 2 3 1 3 Means 2.88 3.31 1.75 2.81 Low 1 3 4 1 3 Low 2 3 5 1 3 Low 3 4 3 1 3 Low 4 5 4 1 2 Low 5 4 2 3 3 Low 6 3 2 1 4 Low 7 3 3 3 3 Means 3.57 3.29 1.57 3.00


89

Raw Data on the Cognitive Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing

No.

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

High 1 3 4 4 1 2 1 3 3 3 High 2 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 Means 3.00 3.00 2.50 1.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 2.50 3.00 Med. 1 4 5 3 1 3 3 3 5 5 Med. 2 4 5 2 1 4 3 4 4 5 Med. 3 3 2 2 1 3 3 3 4 2 Med. 4 4 4 2 2 1 1 3 4 2 Med. 5 5 1 3 2 3 3 4 5 5 Med. 6 5 2 5 1 2 3 5 5 5 Med. 7 3 1 3 1 3 3 3 4 4 Med. 8 4 3 4 1 2 2 3 4 4 Med. 9 5 2 3 1 3 1 3 3 3 Med. 10 5 1 3 2 4 4 3 5 5 Med. 11 5 4 4 1 3 4 4 4 3 Med. 12 5 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 5 Med. 13 3 3 4 1 3 2 2 3 3 Med. 14 4 3 2 2 2 2 3 4 4 Med. 15 2 1 4 2 3 3 4 4 4 Med. 16 5 3 1 1 4 4 3 4 2 Means 4.13 2.69 3.00 1.44 2.88 2.63 3.19 4.06 3.81 Low 1 2 2 2 1 3 5 4 2 2 Low 2 3 4 4 1 3 1 1 5 5 Low 3 5 2 3 2 2 2 2 3 4 Low 4 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 Low 5 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 4 3 Low 6 3 2 2 1 1 2 3 4 4 Low 7 5 3 3 4 3 3 3 4 3 Means 3.29 2.43 2.86 2.00 2.29 2.43 2.57 3.43 3.29


90

Raw Data on the Cognitive Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing

(Continued)

No.

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

High 1 3 3 4 2 4 3 4 4 5 5 High 2 1 2 3 2 4 5 4 3 5 4 Means 2.00 2.50 3.50 2.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.50 5.00 4.50 Med. 1 3 3 4 3 5 4 3 5 5 5 Med. 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 3 4 4 5 Med. 3 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 Med. 4 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 4 5 4 Med. 5 3 2 4 5 3 5 3 4 4 5 Med. 6 1 3 4 2 4 5 4 5 5 4 Med. 7 1 2 4 3 4 3 1 4 4 1 Med. 8 2 3 4 3 4 4 5 3 4 4 Med. 9 2 2 3 4 3 5 4 4 5 5 Med. 10 4 2 4 5 3 3 4 4 4 5 Med. 11 2 3 5 3 3 5 5 5 5 3 Med. 12 3 1 5 2 3 5 3 3 5 5 Med. 13 2 2 4 3 3 4 2 3 3 4 Med. 14 2 3 2 2 4 4 4 4 3 4 Med. 15 3 2 3 3 4 4 4 3 5 4 Med. 16 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 4 Means 2.25 2.44 3.56 3.06 3.44 4.06 3.31 3.94 4.31 4.13 Low 1 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 3 3 Low 2 3 2 3 4 3 5 4 3 5 5 Low 3 2 4 3 3 4 3 4 4 5 5 Low 4 3 3 5 3 2 1 5 4 3 4 Low 5 2 1 3 2 3 4 3 3 4 4 Low 6 2 3 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 Low 7 3 2 3 3 4 5 5 4 5 4 Means 2.57 2.57 3.57 3.00 3.29 3.43 4.00 3.43 4.29 4.29


91

Raw Data on the Compensation Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing

No.

24

25

26

27

High 1 4 3 5 3 High 2 4 3 5 4 Means 4.00 3.00 5.00 3.50 Med 1 4 5 5 3 Med 2 3 4 5 4 Med 3 3 3 4 4 Med 4 4 4 5 5 Med 5 2 4 5 4 Med 6 4 4 5 4 Med 7 5 4 5 5 Med 8 3 4 5 2 Med 9 5 4 5 4 Med 10 2 4 4 4 Med 11 2 5 5 5 Med 12 4 4 5 5 Med 13 4 4 4 5 Med 14 3 3 4 3 Med 15 3 3 4 4 Med 16 4 5 5 4 Means 3.44 4.00 4.69 4.06 Low 1 3 3 2 3 Low 2 3 4 5 5 Low 3 4 4 4 4 Low 4 4 4 5 4 Low 5 4 4 5 5 Low 6 4 5 5 3 Low 7 5 5 3 3 Means 3.86 4.14 4.14 3.86


92

Raw Data on the Metacognitive Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing

No.

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

High 1 5 5 5 4 4 2 5 3 5 4 High 2 4 3 2 3 1 3 3 2 4 3 Means 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.50 2.50 2.50 4.00 2.50 4.50 3.50 Med. 1 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 Med. 2 4 4 3 4 3 5 3 4 3 5 Med. 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 Med. 4 3 3 1 2 2 2 4 2 4 3 Med. 5 3 5 2 3 3 2 4 3 5 4 Med. 6 4 5 3 4 4 1 5 3 4 4 Med. 7 2 3 1 1 1 2 4 1 3 4 Med. 8 4 3 2 3 2 2 4 2 4 3 Med. 9 4 5 2 3 2 3 5 2 5 3 Med. 10 3 4 2 3 3 2 4 3 5 4 Med. 11 4 5 5 4 2 4 5 3 5 3 Med. 12 3 5 3 3 3 1 4 3 4 4 Med. 13 5 4 1 4 1 2 5 4 5 3 Med. 14 3 4 4 3 3 2 4 3 4 3 Med. 15 4 3 3 2 2 3 4 1 3 4 Med. 16 3 4 4 4 3 3 4 3 5 3 Means 3.50 4.00 2.63 3.00 2.44 2.50 4.06 2.63 4.13 3.56 Low 1 3 3 3 2 3 5 3 3 3 2 Low 2 5 5 5 3 2 3 5 5 5 5 Low 3 4 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 5 4 Low 4 4 5 5 4 3 5 4 3 4 4 Low 5 3 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 Low 6 5 4 4 2 1 2 4 1 5 1 Low 7 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 Means 4.00 4.00 4.00 2.71 2.43 3.57 3.57 3.00 4.14 3.00


93

Raw Data on the Affective Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing

No.

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

High 1 3 4 4 3 1 4 4 5 High 2 3 1 1 4 4 2 3 3 Means 3.00 2.50 2.50 3.50 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 Med. 1 4 3 3 4 3 2 4 4 Med. 2 4 2 1 3 3 3 3 5 Med. 3 3 4 4 3 4 2 3 4 Med. 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 1 5 Med. 5 4 5 5 3 3 4 5 5 Med. 6 4 3 4 3 4 5 5 5 Med. 7 5 1 1 5 1 5 1 3 Med. 8 4 3 4 3 3 4 4 5 Med. 9 3 1 2 3 4 3 2 4 Med. 10 4 5 5 3 3 4 5 4 Med. 11 5 3 3 5 3 4 5 5 Med. 12 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 Med. 13 4 1 1 3 2 4 4 5 Med. 14 3 2 3 3 4 4 2 3 Med. 15 4 2 2 4 2 3 4 2 Med. 16 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 4 Means 3.94 2.88 3.13 3.38 3.13 3.56 3.44 4.13 Low 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 3 Low 2 5 3 3 2 3 4 4 4 Low 3 4 2 2 3 3 3 4 3 Low 4 5 4 5 3 4 5 5 5 Low 5 4 3 3 2 3 4 5 5 Low 6 5 4 5 3 2 2 1 5 Low 7 5 3 3 4 3 3 4 3 Means 4.14 3.00 3.29 2.86 3.00 3.43 3.86 4.00


94

Raw Data on the Social Strategies Used by Students with Different Proficiency Levels in Writing

No.

46

47

48

49

50

High 1 2 5 5 3 5 High 2 3 4 3 3 3 Means 2.50 4.50 4.00 3.00 4.00 Med. 1 3 4 3 4 4 Med. 2 3 5 3 3 2 Med. 3 3 3 2 3 3 Med. 4 5 3 4 2 3 Med. 5 3 5 4 3 4 Med. 6 4 4 4 4 4 Med. 7 4 5 3 4 2 Med. 8 4 3 3 4 3 Med. 9 5 5 5 4 4 Med. 10 3 5 4 3 3 Med. 11 4 5 5 3 4 Med. 12 4 3 4 2 3 Med. 13 5 5 5 5 4 Med. 14 4 3 3 3 4 Med. 15 4 5 5 4 2 Med. 16 4 5 5 3 4 Means 3.88 4.25 3.88 3.38 3.31 Low 1 4 3 4 3 3 Low 2 3 4 5 4 5 Low 3 5 5 4 3 3 Low 4 4 4 1 2 5 Low 5 3 3 3 3 4 Low 6 3 5 4 2 2 Low 7 5 4 4 5 4 Means 3.86 4.00 3.57 3.14 3.71


95

APPENDIX E Observation Results


95

OBSERVATION CHECKLIST ON STUDENTS’ LEARNING STRATEGIES IN WRITING

Date : 2nd October 2006 Topic : Recount

No. Learning strategies Exist/notexist

Comments

1. a.

Memory Strategies Using mechanical techniques

- Using flashcards or other mechanical techniques to remember new English words

-

√

Students revised their compositions

-

√

Some students exchanged their writing with their peers.

√

The students used dictionaries.

-

2. a. b. c. d. e.

Cognitive Strategies Repeating

- Revising

- Modeling Practicing naturalistically

- Exchanging writing with peers

Using resources for receiving and sending messages - Using dictionaries, books, newspapers, articles,

etc.

Taking notes Summarizing

-


96

√ The students used the strategy of translating. However, most of the compositions were the result of word-for-word translation.

f. g.

Translating Highlighting important points -

-

-

-

-

3. a. b. c. d.

Compensation Strategies Selecting the topics Adjusting or approximating the messages Coining words Using circumlocutions or synonyms

- Using circumlocutions - Using synonyms

-

√

The students shared their ideas on the compositions. Some of the students asked the peers the steps on how they wrote the compositions.

√

By gaining the feedback from the lecturer, the students tried to find and correct their mistakes.

-

4. a. b. c.

Metacognitive Strategies Finding out about language learning

- Sharing ideas or problems, and asking questions about the strategies

Self-monitoring

- Monitoring mistakes in writing

Self-evaluating - Comparing writing with lecturers

- Comparing writing with peers

√

Most of the students compared their writing with their peers.


97

√

The students moved the parts of their body to avoid tenseness.

- - -

√ The lecturer tried to make the students involved in discussions.

-

-

5. a. b. c. d. e. f.

Affective Strategies Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing or meditation

- Using progressive relaxation - Using deep breathing

- Using meditation

Using music Using laughter Making positive statements Using checklists Discussing feelings with someone else -

√

The students asked the lecturer about the mistakes of their compositions.

√

The students were motivated to correct their peers’ mistakes.

-

6. a. b.

Social Strategies Asking for correction

- Asking the lecturer - Asking peers

Cooperating with others - Cooperating with the lecturer

- Cooperating with peers

√ The students cooperated with their peers by sharing their corrections on the mistakes.


98


Date : 16th October 2006 Topic : Interpreting Data, Graphs, Charts, and Diagram No. Learning strategies Exist/not

exist Comments

1. a.



-

√

Some students made drafts and then revised the drafts.

√

The students used articles as models to make essays.

√

Students gave their handwriting to their peers and asked for the peers’ opinion on their composition.

√

The students used dictionaries and articles from newspapers and magazines.

-

2. a. b. c. d. e.


- Revising




etc.

Taking notes Summarizing

-


99

√ Some students made the Indonesian versions first before translating their compositions into English

f. g.

Translating Highlighting important points -

-

-

-

-

3. a. b. c. d.


- Using circumlocutions - Using synonyms -

-

√

The students realized that they made mistakes and tried to correct the mistakes.

-

4. a. b. c.



Self-monitoring - Monitoring mistakes in writing


- Comparing writing with peers √ Some students compared the compositions after they

have finished writing the compositions.


100

√

Some students raised their hands while yawning.

-

- - √

It seemed that the students talked about something funny.

√ The lecturer gave the students positive statements related to the result of their compositions.

-

5. a. b. c. d. e. f.


- Using progressive relaxation - Using deep breathing - Using meditation

Using music Using laughter Making positive statements Using checklists Discussing feelings with someone else √ Some students complained that the assignment was

difficult and they thought that they could not finish it. √

Some of the students asked the lecturer for did not know the suitable words for the sentences.

√ Some students asked their peers to correct their mistakes.

-

6. a. b.



Cooperating with others

- Cooperating with the lecturer - Cooperating with peers

√

Some students asked for inputs from their peers.


101


Date : 20th November 2006 Topic : Narrative Essay No. Learning strategies Exist/not

exist Comments

1. a.



-

√

The students made drafts and revised them in their notebook. Then, they rewrote the composition.

-

√

In groups, the students should exchange the compositions with their peers. They gave comments and checked others’ compositions.

√

Dictionaries were used.

2. a. b. c. d.


- Revising




etc.

Taking notes -


102

-

-

e. f. g.

Summarizing Translating Highlighting important points √

The students highlighted some points, such as the topic sentences and also points related to 5W+1H questions.

√

Students were given some different topics to choose. Some of them changed the topics they have chosen.

-

-

-

3. a. b. c. d.


- Using circumlocutions - Using synonyms -

√

Some students asked their peers what they wrote in their notebooks and also the strategies they employed.

√

Before exchanging the compositions, the students have corrected their compositions by themselves.

4. a. b. c.



Self-monitoring - Monitoring mistakes in writing


-


103

- Comparing writing with peers √ Some students compared the compositions in groups.

√

√

- - √

Some students in some groups joked while doing the assignments.

- -

5. a. b. c. d. e. f.


- Using progressive relaxation - Using deep breathing - Using meditation

Using music Using laughter Making positive statements Using checklists Discussing feelings with someone else -

-

√

Some students asked their peers to correct their mistakes.

-

6. a. b.



Cooperating with others

- Cooperating with the lecturer - Cooperating with peers

√

Some students gave comments on each others’ compositions.


103

APPENDIX F The Reliability Analysis


104

Reliability R E L I A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C A L E (A L P H A) N of Statistics for Mean Variance Std Dev Variables SCALE 166.5200 248.0100 15.7483 50 Item-total Statistics Scale Scale Corrected Mean Variance Item- Alpha if Item if Item Total if Item Deleted Deleted Correlation Deleted ITEM.1 163.4400 249.3400 -.0918 .8417 ITEM.2 163.2000 237.1667 .3418 .8350 ITEM.3 164.8000 242.8333 .1844 .8382 ITEM.4 163.6400 237.1567 .5076 .8330 ITEM.5 162.7200 229.2933 .4971 .8306 ITEM.6 163.8800 236.0267 .2798 .8367 ITEM.7 163.6000 232.8333 .4453 .8323 ITEM.8 164.9600 246.1233 .0364 .8415 ITEM.9 163.8800 241.7767 .2053 .8379 ITEM.10 164.0800 245.4933 .0324 .8431 ITEM.11 163.6000 241.7500 .1699 .8389 ITEM.12 162.7600 233.3567 .4879 .8318 ITEM.13 162.9200 234.3267 .3632 .8343 ITEM.14 164.2000 241.1667 .2703 .8366 ITEM.15 164.0400 246.6233 .0391 .8405 ITEM.16 162.9600 239.1233 .3022 .8359 ITEM.17 163.5600 238.0900 .3329 .8353 ITEM.18 163.0800 243.5767 .1256 .8396 ITEM.19 162.6400 232.9067 .3861 .8336 ITEM.20 162.9600 232.2900 .4075 .8330 ITEM.21 162.7600 233.6067 .5795 .8309 ITEM.22 162.1600 238.5567 .3514 .8350 ITEM.23 162.3200 236.0600 .3963 .8338 ITEM.24 162.9200 255.3267 -.2915 .8476 ITEM.25 162.5600 236.2567 .5438 .8324 ITEM.26 161.9600 240.3733 .2959 .8362 ITEM.27 162.5600 247.7567 -.0171 .8421 ITEM.28 162.8000 239.5833 .3183 .8357 ITEM.29 162.5200 229.2600 .7314 .8276 ITEM.30 163.8400 231.7233 .4298 .8324 ITEM.31 163.5600 230.6733 .6513 .8289 ITEM.32 164.0800 235.0767 .4565 .8327 ITEM.33 163.7200 252.4600 -.1604 .8477 ITEM.34 162.6000 238.9167 .3358 .8353 ITEM.35 163.8000 233.0000 .4697 .8319 ITEM.36 162.3600 235.2400 .4943 .8324 ITEM.37 163.1200 239.8600 .2588 .8368 ITEM.38 162.6000 238.4167 .3561 .8349 ITEM.39 163.6400 233.6567 .3515 .8346 ITEM.40 163.4000 234.1667 .2958 .8364 ITEM.41 163.2800 250.7100 -.1407 .8435 ITEM.42 163.4800 247.3433 -.0044 .8422 ITEM.43 163.0400 241.4567 .2001 .8381 ITEM.44 162.9600 227.2900 .4883 .8304 ITEM.45 162.4400 235.0067 .4135 .8333 ITEM.46 162.7600 252.6067 -.2002 .8455 ITEM.47 162.3200 238.4767 .3284 .8354 ITEM.48 162.7200 236.4600 .3270 .8352 ITEM.49 163.2400 244.2733 .1149 .8396 ITEM.50 163.0400 233.7067 .4794 .8320


105

Reliability Coefficients N of Cases = 25.0 N of Items = 50 Alp


plagiat merupakan tindakan tidak terpuji learning ... · strateg ies w ere mos tly employed by the...

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