WUA EMPOWERMENT FOR IMPROVED

IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN CHHATTISGARH

Chhattisgarh Irrigation Development Project (CIDP)

Asian Development Bank and the State of Chhattisgarh

First Assignment Report

of the

Irrigation Agriculture Development Specialist(International)

James A. Litsinger

18 July to 3 October 2006

KBR-JPS ConsultantsOffice: Water Resources State Data Centre, Sihawa Bhawan

Complex, Civil Lines, Raipur (CG) – 492 001( +91-771-5532115; Tele-Fax: +91-771-2445117

Acronyms and AbbreviationsADB Asian Development BankACZ Agro-Climatic ZoneADO Agriculture Development OfficerAICRIP All India Coordinated Commodity Programs ATIC Agricultural Technology Information Center or BDO Block Development OfficerCADA Command Area Development AuthorityCTDP Chhattisgarh Tribal Development ProjectDA Department of AgricultureCIMMYT International Institute for Wheat and Maize

MexicoCG ChhattisgarhCIDP Chhattisgarh Irrigation Development ProjectEU European UnionFAO Food and Agriculture Organization United

NationsFFS Farmer field schoolFT Farmer trainerGIS Geographic Information SystemGOC Government of ChhattisgarhGOI Government of Indiaha hectareIEC Information, Education, and Communication IFAD International Fund for Agricultural

Development IGAU Indira Gandhi Agriculture UniversityIRRI International Rice Research Institute,

PhilippinesIT Information technologyK potassiumkg kilogramkharif Monsoon seasonKVK Krishi Vigyan KendraMIS Management Information SystemMS Master of Science degreeN nitrogenNGO Non-Government OrganizationNGO-CO NGO community organizerO&M Operation And MaintenanceP phosphorousPET Potential Evapo-transpirationPIM Participatory Irrigation ManagementPMU Project Management Unit

PPTA Project Preparatory Technical AssistancePRA Participatory Rural AppraisalPRDIS Participatory Rural Development Initiatives an

NGOrabi Winter season

RAEO Rural Agriculture Extension Officer

RBO River Basin OrganizationRs Rupees = Rs 46 per $1RRP Report and Recommendation to the President of

ADBRTA Rapid training appraisalSADO Senior Agricultural Development OfficerSDO Sub-Divisional OfficerSMS Subject Matter SpecialistSRI System for rice intensificationT/ha Metric tons per hectareTA Technical AssistanceTC Territorial ConstituenciesTNA Training Needs AssessmentTOR Terms of Referencewk weekWMO World Meteorological Organization WRD Water Resources Department of ChhattisgarhWRMC Water Resource Management Committee (proposed)WTC Water Tariff Committee (proposed)WUA Water User Association zaid Hot season, pre-monsoon

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Table of Contents

Executive Summary............................................1A. Introduction..............................................3B. Project Targets and Expected Benefits.....................4C. Major Constraints to Rice and Rabi Crops..................5D. Technical Potential for Rice and Rabi Crops...............8E. Institutional Linkages and Support.......................13F. Agricultural Training Program............................14G. Recruitment of the NGO Package...........................28H. Revised Training Plan and NGO Package....................30I. Program Parameters for Grant Assistance..................34J. Accomplishments..........................................34K. Reports Prepared.........................................37L. Plans for the Second Mobilization........................37M. References...............................................38N. List of Tables, Figures, and Annexes.....................41

Executive SummaryIndia averted impending famine in the 1980s by making great strides in production of staple cereal crops through adoption of Green Revolution technologies based on genetic improvements and usage of agro-chemicals particularly inorganic fertilizers. In response to the new high yielding potential and development of photoperiod insensitive rices, rivers were tamed with tank-based irrigation systems and more recently use of tubewells and shallow-well pumps to draw up groundwater. Irrigation doubled the yield potential of rice and allowed double cropping resulting in a four-fold increase in production.

A quarter of a century later, self sufficiency in food grains is in jeopardy as irrigation systems have fallen into disrepair, input costs have risen at a greater rate than farmgate commodity prices, and population increases have outstripped the ability of farmers and research system-derived new technologies to keep pace. P.L Pingali formerly of IRRI termed this new letdown as the ‘Green Revolution Blues’. Without an economic upwelling of all its citizens, self sufficiency in food becomes a myth. As shown by the recent uplifting of the rural populations in China, those gaining new wealth first spend on purchases of more food. There has never been food sufficiency in India for all its people, as if the rural population (some 60-70% of all Indians) had greater purchasing power they would no doubt have bought more food too leading to shortages and the need for greater importation. The Green Revolution only kept the majority of the Indian population from starving. There still is and always has been

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great pockets of life-taking illnesses and retarded development exacerbated by malnutrition. Many children are sent to school just to eat.

Those that benefited from the Green Revolution were the better-off farmers who had more resources, both in terms of land and capital. Farmers tilling less than 2 ha still live on the margins of society. Their hopes have been uplifted based on optimism that the great progress made in some sectors of the society such as industries and IT will pull up the whole nation. This is not happening at a fast enough rate for the rural majority and signs of frustration are palpable. Governments of all political parties are trying to help the small-scale and marginalized farmers by offering subsidies and give-aways. This paternalistic attitude, however, does not get at the root of the problems and the old Chinese adage that ‘it is better to teach a person to fish than give him fish’ rings true.

There are other constraining factors affecting Chhattisgarhi farmers from wasteful irrigation practices thus only a few farmers plant a rabi crop. Investment in agriculture is low, severely constraining research and extension institutions and stifling innovation. Having few advocates, farmers are unorganized and powerless to affect change. Not trusting the water delivery from irrigation, top-end farmers hoard water at the peril of the crop and denying their tail-end neighbors access. In addition technologies are universally recommended at high input levels which only the larger farmers can afford. Small-scale farmers are risk averse and can only borrow modest amounts. Due to their ignorance instead of using proportionally less of balanced fertilizer they will use only one element which can lead to lower yields. Farmers carryout unsustainable practices of non-judicious use of pesticides, applying insufficient quantities of organic fertilizer, and siltation of tanks. Labor requiring activities such as weeding often cannot be met due to lack of capital or labor resulting in low yields. Farmers lack farm implements to properly level fields and sow a rabi crop on residual moisture from the rice crop.

The Project is poised to address a surprisingly large number of these constraints, even more so if the agricultural component had more funding. The most significant planned interventions are:

1. Fine tuning agricultural technologies to match farmers’ risk levels.

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2. Undertaking economic analyses of recommended practices to determine not only yield but profit.

3. Marked increase in double cropping based on upgrading of WRD irrigation systems and sowing the rabi crop using zero tillage techniques.

4. Introduction of a number of water saving technologies such as SRI rice culture, mechanical seeders to sow rabi crops on residual soil moisture from rice crop, and field leveling.

5. More sustainable farming practices: less dependence on pesticides, increased use of organic fertilizer, multiple usage of irrigation water, and erosion control to reduce siltation of tanks.

6. Introducing a new extension method, the Farmer Field School, found effective for less educated farmers.

7. Training a cadre of farmer trainers who can supplement extension officers.

An action plan, based on the above interventions, was approved by the recent review by ADB and implementation of the plan will be the thrust of the following five mobilizations of the Irrigated Agriculture Consultant.

A. Introduction

The organization of the Duty Report for the first mobilization is centered around the TOR tasks (Annex I) which are grouped into broader categories. The Duty Report itself covers each topic briefly allowing the reader to access more detail from the indicated annexes. The Table of Contents also gives an outline of the Report.

A current review of the status of the agricultural sector was undertaken for India, with emphasis on Chhattisgarh state. In this regard most of the consultant’s efforts were spent reviewing CIDP (hereafter referred to as the Project) literature especially the extensive Project Preparatory Technical Assistance (PPTA) report as well literature in the Indira Gandi Agricultural University Raipur (IGAU) library and current new magazines and newspapers as well as searching relevant sites on the internet. Project orientation came through visiting Chhattisgarh state Water Resources Department (WRD) irrigation sites in the state. The list of constraints presented below in Section C was derived from those studies and visits. Finally offices of the various departments of IGAU were visited to debrief scientists regarding the most recent agricultural technologies to be introduced into the training programs. The first mobilization focused mostly on irrigated rice while the second will target rabi crops. Relevant key

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informants and offices of the Chhattisgarh Department of Agriculture (DA) allowed a review of the current status of the extension services to be made. The Project management unit (PMU) kindly prepared a letter of introduction for the consultant to use during visits making them official visits. From the results of these contacts a plan to improve the extension methods was developed which hopefully that hopefully will lead to greater farmer adoption particularly among the more marginal and smaller-scale farmers who have been bypassed by the Green Revolution. All of the persons contacted are listed in Annex II and notes taken in those interviews are in Annex III. A Plan of Work was made after three weeks (Annexes IVa and IVb) and an input into the Inception Report was made in the final two weeks of mobilization (Annex XI).

A workshop was held to review Project plans with the stakeholder institutions, namely WRD, DA, and IGAU. The informal workshop was convened on 11 Sep 06 at Raipur in the WRD Data Centre and 83 WRD staff from all of the districts attended (Annex V). Each of the TA Consultants presented a short report of their findings to WRD. A handout was prepared summarizing the plans made for Agricultural Component. In the second half of the full day program the attendees were divided into six groups including a group on Agriculture. Group members were invited to respond to questions posed. The purpose of the questions was to guide them to begin thinking about the irrigation needs of farmers and to highlight some of the issues the Project will be addressing. The WRD staff showed a command of the issues in their responses. The responses to the questions are given in Annex V as well.

B. Project Targets and Expected Benefits

The main positive benefits stated in the PPTA for the agricultural component of CIDP include:

more efficient use of water resources for irrigated agriculture to allow more irrigation in rice and much more in rabi crop;

improved sustainability of irrigation schemes with greater participation by the community in design, construction and Operation & Management (O&M);

increased agriculture production; an improved standard of living among the villages.

The Project Framework as per the Report and Recommendation to the President (RRP) state an overarching goal of “improving rural livelihoods and reduce rural poverty” which would be obtained in part by improving agricultural practices for

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increased yields and expanded area of rabi (dry winter) season and more diversified cropping including the kharif (wet season) to replace rice in marginal areas. These objectives would be obtained from rehabilitated irrigation systems. A more specific target not stated in the Project Framework but added later is to rehabilitate 200 minor schemes and 20 medium schemes for a total command area of 200,000 ha. The number of total beneficiaries is stated only in terms of the landless population and there will be at least 15,000 who will benefit through a 60% increase in labor-days from mainly increases in rabi season cropping of non-rice crops.

Project targets are also to decrease the area irrigated to rice in the kharif, especially on farms with sandy (high in-filtration) and poor soil which would be low yielding. No nu-merical target is set for the non-rice crops, only that the irrigation systems would deliver water in the kharif to non-rice crops as part of a diversified cropping goal. Tradition-ally rice is grown in the state in all types of soils irre-spective of the fact that whether the land is suitable for rice cultivation or not. As a result it has not only lowered the average productivity of rice in the state but has also ad-versely affected the economic conditions of the farmers. So the economic strengthening of the farmers is possible only through introduction of alternate crops like oilseeds, pulses, coarse cereals, medicinal and aromatic plants, commercial crops like sugarcane, cotton, horticultural crops, etc in place of rice where its cultivation is uneconomic or agronomi-cally not feasible.

It will be difficult to grow non-rice crops in the kharif within the command area of an irrigation system due to the flooding that often occurs after heavy rainfall. The areas would have to be along the margins of the system, those occupying more elevated locations in the toposequence. We did see many areas where farmers planted maize and other non-rice crops along the edges of the irrigation system in upland soils, but not within the command areas. The objective is clear however to increase water use efficiency by replacing marginal irrigated rice areas, particularly on more sandy soils, with crops that will take less water.

There is a target to achieve 3.3 t/ha for the kharif rice crop, up from the current average of < 3 t/ha. A further target is for the irrigation systems to reach at least 90% of the command areas in the wet season. The main thrust of the Project is to greatly expand rabi season cropping to reach 40% of the command areas with an overall cropping intensity of 130%.

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C. Major Constraints to Rice and Rabi Crops

In order to achieve the Project objectives in the agricultural component through meeting its targets, it is useful to identify factors that may restrict the realization of our achievements. Undertaking this exercise will provide a good introduction to the current status of agricultural development in India and specifically to Chhattisgarh and may open windows of opportunity. Each of the constraints wherever possible when turned around can become the objectives of the Project. How each constraint will be addressed is discussed for each one listed. Many of the constraints will be beyond the scope of the Project to overcome but others will not. The constraints are grouped into classes: institutional, economic, social, technical, cultural, and environmental and are enumerated and described in Annex VI.

Some development experts paint a dire picture of the life of rural India. Stating that overall socio-economic conditions in the Project area have been deteriorating gradually, accelerating the process of landlessness, unemployment, need to seasonally migrate, abject poverty, thus, adversely affecting the all sections of the state’s population especially the poor and vulnerable. The forces driving this unhappy trend are decreasing farm size due to population increases and lack of job opportunities elsewhere. The sons and daughters of farmers must continue to farm thus the land gets divided with each generation. There also is a paternalistic attitude among government officials who think that farmers need handouts such as subsidized inputs or free cattle. Markets and prices of commodities also are set by government, all in the name of ‘helping’ the farmers. The extension methods are not working for the large majority of small-scale farmers thus farmers lack knowledge and ability to take advantage of modern agricultural technologies. Due to the constellation of hardships faced by small-scale farmers such as the number of suicides has reached alarming numbers. Reasons are frustrations at not being able to lift themselves out of the cycle of poverty. Government a both federal and state levels seem unable to cope. The number of extension workers is declining as there have been none hired for a decade as part of an overall freeze on new hires. The extension workers are under-trained and lack the skills to assist small scale farmers. Development and dissemination of new technologies are central to farmers improving production and livelihood. On the other hand what farmers need most is knowledge and an open market system not handouts and subsidies.

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An article in the Christian Science Monitor of 27 June 06 stated that frustrated farmers tipped the 2004 national elections and a rural Maoist (Naxalite) insurgency spread across the heartland, India’s new government has offered only some short term solutions (handouts and subsidies). But Indian analysts say that if the country wishes to sustain its economic boom, it must broaden the benefits of economic reform to the 60% of its citizens – and a quarter of the economy- linked to agriculture. Rajiv Kumar director of the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations says there is no way that manufacturing or high tech can pull up the rest of the economy. More than 110 million Indians are farmers and an estimated 500 million more make a living off the agricultural sector. The high tech industry, by comparison, employs only 1.2 million.

Substantial unemployment and persistent poverty contribute to the severity of household nutritional food insecurity. The lack of gainful employment opportunities in Chhattisgarh leaves many rural and urban residents unemployed or underemployed for a large portion of the year. Farm sizes are so small the food they produce does not feed a family for a large portion of the year. Many need to migrate to nearby worksites where they work for pitiable wages. As a result, they lack the income needed to purchase a full complement of food, nutrients, and other goods and services as most of the income is spent on food. Inadequate consumption of food and essential nutrients contributes to poor health, which reduces labor productivity and wage earning potential. Most farmers are unable to break out of this vicious circle in which inadequate earnings lead to degraded health and further reductions in household income. Some are selling their farms to the larger farmers but have no jobs to go to afterwards.

Farm indebtedness is rising. Average monthly per capita consumption expenditure of farm households nationally is around Rs500 ($12). Endemic hunger is high both in families without assets of land or livestock, as well as in families with small holdings without access to irrigation. Policy reform in agriculture is overdue. Such policy reform should be pro-small farmer and pro-women and pro-landless. The Indian enigma of the co-existence of enormous technological capability and entrepreneurship on the one hand and the deprivation on the other will not only persist but lead to social upheaval (M.S. Swaminathan 2006).

Not only do farmers need to be educated they need to pay for the education of their children to break the cycle of poverty.

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It is ironic that the Indian economy is riding the wave spurred by the IT sector on the international stage while farm communities languish in ignorance for lack of knowledge that exists in many research centers.

Farming needs to be thought of as a business not subsistence. Farmers need to earn money and need higher production opportunities such as are derived from irrigation and multiple crops per year. The Project will concentrate on expanding irrigated areas and growing a crop after rice, especially in the rabi season. To take advantage of rehabilitated irrigation systems farmers need to organize their allocation and delivery of timely water flow to their crop. Rabi cropping also will be a challenge in a number of ways. First is that most farmers in the command areas of Project tanks are now not growing rabi crops. In 8 of the 12 schemes visited no rabi cropping occurred (Table 1). The highest was 20% area cropped in the 405 ha command area in the Baherakhar tank, Kawardha. The average was 15% area cropped among the four tanks where rabi cropping occurred but the average of all tanks was 5%.

In addition in tribal areas there is resistance to growing a second crop of any kind because the people harvest in the forests where they believe they make more money from their efforts. If they were to grow a rabi crop their first choice would be rabi rice which would take large amounts of irrigation water, beyond the capacities of most tank systems. Most irrigation schemes involve small tanks which are highly dependent on the current season’s rainfall just to irrigate rice let alone crops that may follow. Most farmers spend time helping their neighbors harvest rice in order to get shares from harvest, thus the rice fields dry out and an irrigation is needed just for land preparation. Currently the scarce water resource that is available is not efficiently used, thus limiting potential benefits.

D. Technical Potential for Rice and Rabi Crops

The distinction between intensive and extensive production is particularly important in regions with limited supplies of supplemental irrigation water, relative to the availability of agricultural land. Water development Projects often are implemented in such regions to augment the supply of irrigation water, with the goals of increasing agricultural output and enhancing rural incomes. The greatest gains in output will be achieved by allocating water in a way that maximizes the incremental values obtained with respect to output and incomes. An equivalent statement of this approach is to maximize the incremental values generated with the

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limited water supply. This can be achieved most readily in Chhattisgarh by intensifying production on existing irrigated areas, rather than extending production to new lands. The intensification program should include efforts to improve the use of labor, seeds, fertilizer, and other agricultural inputs. Better use of those inputs will enhance the incremental value of water in production, just as additional water supply enhances the incremental value of the complementary inputs.

There is substantial interest among government officials and public agency directors and staff members in Chhattisgarh in diversifying the crops produced by farmers. In its Tenth Five-Year Plan, the state government assigns high priority to improving agricultural production and increasing the area planted in commercial crops such as pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, and spices (GOC, 2003b). The government also calls for better coordination among agricultural research and extension personnel to provide the information and training required to achieve crop diversification.

A successful strategy to improve agriculture in Chhattisgarh must include measures for increasing the incremental value of agricultural labor, while also creating opportunities for non-agricultural laborers to find employment in productive activities. To this end, efforts to diversify the cropping pattern appear attractive, particularly when considering crops that can be processed or enhanced before final sale or before they are transported from Chhattisgarh to other states. Crop diversification likely should be included as one component of a new agricultural strategy, although substantial work will be needed in Chhattisgarh before such a component can be implemented with success.

One business model that seems sensible for Chhattisgarh with high value crops is contract farming that involves smallholders and private firms. The firms can evaluate market opportunities and determine optimal strategies for producing, processing, and selling agricultural products. They can implement their strategies by obtaining crop production contracts with smallholders. The contracts might include specific production targets or ranges of production values, in conjunction with quality parameters to ensure that crops are produced with suitable quality. The private firms would coordinate the collection of farm products from smallholders and prepare the output for processing or sale. However before Chhattisgarhi farmers can embark on contract farming they need to increase their farming skills on lower value crops with

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more ready markets as they have never had to produce quality crops in their experience.

Through the efforts of IGAU, the center for agricultural technology generation in the state, there are many useful farming methods that farmers can utilize to increase productivity and income that would be applicable for CIDP. The research and extension linkage is very strong, unusual in most countries let along states. Each year a joint committee meets between IGAU and DA to update agricultural practices based on the latest findings. These are embodied in the extension booklet called the IGAU Agriculture (Krishi) Diary. The publication is updated annually and forms the basis for extension recommendations.

One problem with the recommendations is that input levels are specified to achieve maximum yields. For example there is no choice among different rates of fertilizer that smaller scale farmers would feel comfortable with in terms of being able to repay creditors if the crop failed. In short, smaller-scale farmers cannot risk borrowing at the input levels in the recommendations as they do not want to risk possibly losing their land if the crop should fail. Therefore applied researchers need to test technologies using a range of treatments from low to high rates. Net benefit curves can then be constructed to determine the best treatment for each cost. For example if the farmer could only afford 50% of the maximum rate what would be the best mix of NPK, including number of applications and rates of each. An example of a trial is given below using increasing seeding rates with and without insecticide seed treatment in a crop was under high pressure from an insect pest. This produced 12 treatments, each with different marginal costs and each resulted in different yields. When yields are converted to profits then a net benefit curve can be drawn as was done in the example (Figure 1).

Each treatment involved a variable cost on the x-axis which included the following: 1) value of the seed, 2) cost of the insecticide, 3) interest at the going rate for both costs (we assume that the farmer will borrow money to purchase both inputs). On the y-axis we plot the net benefit which composes: 1) yield, 2) dollar value of rice yield, and 3) less the variable cost. Net benefit in other words is the profit. Treatment 1 (T1) involves the lowest variable cost and is simply a treatment involving a rate of 50 kg rice seed/ha. This is the farmers’ common practice. Treatments 1 to 6 involve increasing seeding rates. We see that as we increase the seeding rate the net benefit increased as well. Treatments

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2, 4, and 6 are lower and below the line but their places reflect more variability than differences due to the treatment itself. The net benefit curve is drawn by hand to capture the trend (frontier) that combines highest benefit at the lowest variable cost. Treatments along this line represent the best selection for a given variable costs level (=risk level).

This can be done for any number of technologies that involve increasing rates of inputs. By carrying out such trials with over six treatments, meaningful net benefit curves can be derived. Treatments (T) 11 (130 kg/ha seed) and 12 (150 kg/ha seed) actually resulted in decreased yield due to the overcrowding of seedlings from high densities. Damage that the seedling maggot does is to cause deadhearts or dead tillers. With insecticide treatment in T11 and T12 the damage was prevented leading to the greatest plant to plant competition and hence lowest yields. The greatest benefit per unit cost was T10 which was 110 kg/ha of insecticide treated seed. Farmers with limited resources could chose their level along the x-axis in increasing steps costing from $12-36/ha: 1) 90 kg seed/ha, 2) 130-150 kg/ha, 3) 50 kg seed/ha treated, 4) 70 kg seed/ha treated, 5) 90 kg/ha treated, and finally 6) 110 kg/ha treated. Technology verification trials and recommendations to farmers could incorporate such choices spanning large and small scale farmers.

As per the TOR the TA Consultant is to work with Irrigation O&M and Water Management Specialists to identify the linkages between irrigation system and farm water requirements to improved agricultural production with an emphasis on rabi cropping. Collaboration was developed and both of us visited 12 irrigation schemes together allowing ample time for discussion. The TA Consultant was asked to develop some irrigation delivery scenarios for the rabi crop which was carried out and delivered to the international and domestic Irrigation O&M and Water Management Specialists.

South Asia historically had depended upon its monsoon rice crop to feed its populations. However, as its populations have exponentially expanded, the need to use the dry season winter months for cropping has grown. While many parts of South Asia lack irrigation for the dry winter months, those having irri-gation facilities are exercising options for diverse cropping patterns.

Looking at the rice-based cropping patterns in Figure 2 beginning at the bottom, as one looks upwards the patterns increase in irrigation frequency. The cropping pattern which is most conserving in terms of irrigation water requirements

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in relay cropping lentil, Indian pea (Lathyrus), or linseed by the farmers broadcasting seed 1-2 weeks before harvest. During rice harvest the harvesters push the seed into the still moist soil. These crops can even mature without irrigation water but if one irrigation is delivered at flowering yields can be much higher. In practice this would be difficult to do as there are no irrigation furrows in the no tillage fields.

The most common method of sowing chickpeas after rice is to wait for the field to dry and then give an initial irrigation to wet the soil to allow plowing several times before making furrows, also with the plow. The reason farmers wait for the field to dry is that they are busy harvesting the fields of their neighbors where they receive a share of the harvest as payment (they also gave out shares of their harvest to those that helped them). This is a necessary social practice where farmers till small fields. Farmers also are too busy to undertake the full tillage that normally is carried out for rabi crops. However water is wasted by the delay in planting which causes the soil to dry out and the need to be rewetted.

Lathyrus and similar crops can grow on the residual moisture from the irrigation. IGAU has developed seeders that are pulled by either tractors or bullocks. There are farmers that have developed their own seeders. In this method there is no plowing of the field. Soon after harvest when the soil is still wet the seeders knife through the soil and deposit seed in one pass. This is termed as zero tillage on the figure. This is a very rapid method and needs only one person to sow a hectare in one day. It is believed that farmers can afford this short time given that they have small holdings even less than 1 ha. It is hoped that most rabi crops, despite vast differences in seed size, will be able to be sown by this method. Otherwise the top two cropping patterns will be followed where an irrigation is needed for soil preparation and the crops are established in high tillage.

Allocation of irrigation water can be most effectively carried out based on the priorities of each WUA, but they may need assistance from WRD to determine cost benefits as a basis of decision making. Choices depend on local policies. There may be a policy to serve as many farmers as possible in the command area for all crops or to serve fewer for the rabi crops and chose crops requiring varying number of irrigations. Allocation will of course be affected by rainfall. There are long historical records of rainfall throughout the state and these could be analyzed for the probability of rainfall throughout the season based on current rainfall. Other data would be an economic assessment of whether it would be more

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effective to save irrigation water for the early kharif season and irrigate to initiate land preparation in years where rainfall is delayed. It may be found that irrigation to initiate land preparation may actually save more water for a rabi crop than holding off. However the rains may fail during the rice crop whereupon more irrigation would be needed and therefore less for the rabi crop.

There seems to be a need for an irrigation allocation model where decisions based on the most economical usage of irrigation water is determined from historical data as well as that gathered week to week. The decision would also be influenced by the number of water saving technologies that farmers have adopted. In high rainfall years and with adoption of efficiencies farmers would be able to grow a rabi crop where the system could provide 3-4 irrigations. In another year there may be enough for four. Due to the fickle nature of rainfall such a model would make such decision based on criteria set by each WUA. It would be very useful for such a model to exist.

The role of shallow wells needs to be explored as a method of supplemental irrigation for rabi cropping. Water harvesting methods should also be evaluated by the WRD and the WUAs to take advantage of the heavy runoff after downpours. Barrages of different types can be constructed along natural drainage ways which will have the added advantage of recharging shallow aquifers and can be used for seasonal fish culture. WRD and DA should work together to determine the feasibility of farmers constructing their own reservoirs. These reservoirs would have the added advantage of reducing flooding and loss of life that comes from it.

E. Institutional Linkages and Support

The key institutional linkage for CIDP is between WRD and WUAs for more sustainable operation of the irrigation systems. Regarding agriculture two more institutions are important. The Department of Agriculture is the main extension arm and fields grass roots extension officers extensively to serve all villages. With budgetary freezes in the state government there have not been new staff for almost 10 years therefore the density of RAEOs has significantly declined with a result that one extension worker often has to cover more than 20 villages. This of course limits the amount of contact an individual farmer can receive. Farmers therefore either phone the RAEO or visit his home (there are few women RAEOs) when they have questions. For an organogram of the DA see Figure 3. The immediate supervisor of RAEOs is the Agricultural Development

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Officer (ADO) who in turn is headed at the block level by the Senior ADO (SADO). Unfortunately most RAEOs do not have a BS degree in agriculture as would be desired but higher level officers do and Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) have MS degrees. SMSs are pegged by IGAU to be the key link to receive training every six months on new technologies. SMS staff in turn train the RAEOs to keep them updated.

Research is carried out almost exclusively by the main agricultural university IGAU in Raipur. University staff are able to maintain a strong research extension linkage through training programs that are carried out in the regions from the regional research stations. The extension headquarters of the DA is on the campus of IGAU and there are regular trainings for the Subject Matter Specialists. Agricultural recommendations are codified in the annually published Diary handbook given to all extension workers.

The Project Agricultural Program will necessarily need to link both DA and IGAU to the training programs. During the Curriculum Development Workshop representatives from IGAU will be invited to present the results of their research work and the technologies will be prioritized based on the results of the training needs assessments. Technologies will be elaborated in step by step activities that farmers will follow to transfer the concepts of each technology which will be the key extension method and will be codified into guides to be used by trainers. For an organogram of IGAU see Figure 4.

F. Agricultural Training Program

According to CIDP documents the Project (in close collaboration with DA, WRD, and WUAs) will develop and implement a comprehensive farmer training (extension) program that will address:

1) new farming techniques, 2) new seed varieties, 3) improvements in managing inputs, 4) rabi cropping strategies, and5) improvements in water management.

A goal of 10,000 beneficiaries has been set and an estimated 25% of those farmers will be women cultivators and indigenous persons. This program will be implemented by the Agricultural Support Services sub-Project covered the NGO program (‘Package D’).

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A number of adoption studies have been carried out at IGAU, mostly by via MS and PhD treatises in the Agricultural Extension and Agricultural Economics Departments (see References for a partial listing). They all show the same results. High adoption of modern (Green Revolution) agricultural technologies, such as recommended by IGAU and the DA, is correlated with farmers having more education, greater knowledge levels, higher income, larger land holding, irrigation, and favorable opinions towards modern technology (ie, willing to invest in high levels of inputs). These parameters fit the large-scale farmer (> 2 ha) profile who have most benefited from the current extension system and new technologies. The Green Revolution technology, initiated in the mid 1970s, was based new semi-dwarf, high tillering varieties that boosted yields and stopped an impending famine. But over the decades livelihoods of the rural masses in India did not significantly improve as farmers are among the poorest citizens and more than half live on less than $1 per day. Sluggish growth and grinding poverty is partly due to the way the government insulates farming from market forces. The stagnation of the current Green Revolution has been blamed on the fact that the majority of smaller-scale farmers (< 2 ha) and minorities groups have been passed by. Their hope for a better life has been raised recently due to the success of India’s ‘new economy’ based on information technology (IT). However this turn of events has not benefited the smaller farmers who have low adoption rates. Prices for their crops remain low while input costs are increasing and each generation farm sizes decrease. Many are at the stage of being less than half of the farmer’s income.

Solutions must be found for the problems facing the average farmers. The Government has called for a Second Green Revolution based on growing crops of higher value than staple cereals which now dominate the farming landscape. Small farmers are growing crops for food, not profit thus are still in a subsistence mode. Ramesh Chand of the National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research replies that instead of focusing on a Second Green Revolution, India should focus on targeting lower performing states because farmers have not modernized within the context of the First Green Revolution. Thus before starting on a second one the nation should concentrate on solving the low adoption conundrum.

Lack of adoption is correlated with lack of knowledge and lack of capital/affordable credit. But there is more to the second factor as was discussed in an earlier session which involves risk. Small-scale farmers are hesitant to adopt high levels of inputs thus the Project needs to provide choices instead of

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focusing only on maximum yields from high input rates. The Project will stress this issue. The second is to improve the extension method that targets those passed by in the First Green Revolution. The large-scale farmers are doing fine but they cannot supply the nation’s needs alone. Large-scale farmers continue to buy land from smaller-scale farmers, but inheritance is a countervailing force that is causing farm size to shrink. The latter force is greater thus over time the scale is tipping towards proportionally fewer large-scale farmers. Due to the lack of the economy to increase the rate of job creation, this increasing rural community is forced to stay on the farm. And for the first time in decades population increase is outstripping increases in agricultural production and the Government has to import staple cereals.

The current extension method is based on Government sponsored demonstration plots which involves providing subsidized inputs targeted for plot sizes of 0.5 ha. Cooperating farmers will receive training for one day using the lecture method. Only one set of recommendations is involved in the demonstrations, and that has a goal of maximum yield. The adoption studies show that this method only works for large-scale farmers who can afford to risk those levels of inputs. Small-scale farmers are afraid they might default and lose their farm if they invested so highly. This fact of life cannot change, thus a suite of recommendations is needed covering a wider range of yield potentials. The Agricultural Component of CIDP will focus on uplifting the smaller-scale farmers by offering them 1) a range of input choices as well as 2) introduce a new extension method, the Farmer Field School that increases the number of contact hours between trainer and trainee.

According to the PPTA, training activities of CIDP will include not only demonstration plots and programs but formal training sessions, educational workshops, study tours (cross visits) to observe successful irrigation schemes in Chhattisgarh and nearby states as well as a list of other methods (Annex VII). Many of these include mass media methods of all sorts (including providing televisions to each panchayat) to be followed by fairs, field days, etc. Sadly no detail was given on how all of these methods were to be organized and integrated.

Results of adoption studies show the current extension method is not benefiting the small-scale farmers. There is no sense in continuing with the same extension methods, the obvious conclusion is to change the method. The methods suggested by the PPTA only work well with large-scale and educated farmers but not with less educated majority. For this we need to

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design a method that incorporates more contact hours and a learn by doing approach focused on adult education methods and learning theory.

A detailed training plan has been developed (see Annex VIII) which identifies the DA as the lead agency to provide the trainers from the government side which strengthens and provides sustainability. The main objective is to train local training teams that can continue after the Project ends. One of the major constraints is the low numbers of extension workers. The main thrust of the new extension method is to increase the training time significantly. This cannot be done with the current number of RAEOs. To supplement the overworked RAEOs, farmers will be trained as trainers who can implement training programs under their guidance.

WRD does not have a training center in Chhattisgarh but does in Mahadya Pradesh state but is mainly for engineers and not agricultural extension workers or farmers. The training will first focus on the few pilot schemes to demonstrate its viability before expanding to more Project areas. RAEOs assigned to the villages of the pilot irrigation schemes will be trained to train farmers not individually but in subgroups of 25 within each WUA. A training program for trainers (TOT) will precede that for farmers.

The training plan begins by carrying out a training needs assessment (TNA) for both recipients of the training program: the trainers and farmers. This is traditionally done by either focused group visits by multi-disciplinary teams to rural areas, a process known as a Participatory Rural Assessment (PRA). It can also be carried out by a formal survey using questionnaires. PRAs probably are not necessary in the case of CIDP which is posting NGO catalysts in the villages who will be gathering the same background data on farmers’ needs, social structures and relationships, cultural practices and sensitivities, as well as an economic and agronomic description of each village.

Four questionnaires have been prepared (see Annex IX) which the NGO team can utilize. The first is for the trainers which can be given to members of potential training teams (RAEOs and ADOs) for them to fill out. All the extension staff in the pilot areas will be censused. A second village questionnaire is for the NGO team to fill out, one per village. A third questionnaire will be for farmers, and as they can not fill them out by themselves, the Project is asking the NGO team to carry out this function as part of their village assessment in the first phase of their work. Each NGO staff will be asked to

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interview 30 individual farmers using the questionnaire. As there will be some 100 NGO community catalysts and up to 60 additional NGO trainers this could be a large sample. The TA consultants will analyze the questionnaires before the other formal training activities begin. Time and budget may allow for some PRAs to be carried out as supplemental data gathering exercises. A fourth questionnaire is for agro-input stores.

The Project through the NGO package will hire eight Training Coordinators cum master trainers to implement the training program at the 3-4 regional training centers. These staff along with the 60 NGO trainers will be supervised by the domestic and international Irrigated Agricultural Development consultants. Two to three Training Coordinators will be assigned to each Training Center (it is proposed that the number be reduced to only three to correspond to the number of Agro-climatic Zones) and preferably they should have experience with the Farmer Field School (FFS) extension method which will be the training method of choice. FFS has been successfully used worldwide to teach under-educated and illiterate farmers. The method dramatically increases the number of contact hours between trainer and the farmer and follows adult education principles and experiential methods based on learning theory (the science of how people learn). Lecturing, which is the backbone of the current one day trainings by IGAU and DA, is avoided and farmers learn from each other and from the results of experiments and activities they perform. The method was developed in Indonesia in the mid 1980s so is now well tested on a wide range of commodities and social classes. FFSs have been introduced in 2004 in the IFAD CTDS program in Bilaspur and Ambikapur on rice and rabi crops. The NGO that has coordinated this (PRDIS) has had extensive experience in FFS programs for almost 10 years beginning with the FAO-EU Cotton IPM Programme. PRDIS (Participatory Rural Development Initiatives) registered in 1999 is based in Hyderabad.

The TNA exercises will be followed by Curriculum Development Workshops in each of the 3 or 4 regional centers. These will be held in the hot season when there are few crops and there will be separate venues for irrigated rice (2007) and rabi crops (2008). Both cannot be scheduled at the same time as each is essentially an independent training program although the trainees will be the same for both. There is too much material that needs to be introduced to be able to combine them. It will be a large effort to design even one of these commodity based training curricula in one year. Two would be beyond current budgetary capabilities. These two-day workshops will be held only once in each region and will develop a

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prioritized listing of technologies to be introduced in the training programs.

All training programs need a curriculum (subject matter). In Chhattisgarh there is only one agricultural research entity, the Indira Gandhi Agricultural University (IGAU). The Department of Agriculture (DA) has no research focus and is totally devoted to extension. The key staff in the DA who are trained in agricultural technologies are the Subject Matter Specialists who have MS degrees. They receive regular training at IGAU to update them on the latest technological developments. IGAU and its branch stations form the center for technology development and regional adaptation.

While it will be important to make a thorough search of relevant technologies (subject matter), it is important for the sustainability of the training program that the curricula be locally developed. The major stakeholders to be invited to the regional curriculum development workshops will be IGAU agricultural specialists as speakers as well as regional and district level DA managers and Subject Matter Specialists. In addition selected WRD, PIM Unit, PMU, NGO Project managers and some NGO trainers and staff will be invited plus selected WUA leaders and key farmers (those likely to be farmer trainers). The output will be a prioritized listing of the most important 30 technologies for each course that should be included in the training course. Prioritization includes an assessment of each technology as being those that are essential to the successful production of a commodity and that farmers currently do not know and have not adopted. The TNA results will be presented so that the participants have firm data on farmers current knowledge levels. Each technology is broken down into concepts that must be learned by farmers in order to adopt the technology. These are incorporated into learning exercises.

A second round of one-day Curriculum Development Workshops will be held in each district. The functional training teams include from DA (the RAEO, ADO, SADO), NGO catalysts and trainers, WUA leaders, local government leaders, and farmer trainers. The district curriculum development workshops will also be organized by the NGO master trainers and will fine tune the curricula to the most relevant technologies for the district. The objective here is to train the training teams to work together and to tailor the curricula to local conditions and commodities in the case of rabi crops. It is recommended that no more than four rabi crops be selected for each district and even fewer is better as there is a limit of the amount of information that can be effectively accommodated in the training programs.

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The first training will be to train the trainers, known as TOT. The NGO master trainers and NGO trainers will be the key trainers in this three-week exercise before farmer training can start. The trainees will be RAEOs, ADOs, NGO staff and farmer trainers. Here the prioritized technologies will be transformed into activities that teach each principle. The curriculum for TOT is exactly like that for the farmers curriculum except that training methods are added. RAEOs will be the main trainer if they are able and willing and are given an honorarium for each training conducted. The FFS method is for each training group to establish a study field where farmers can make observations and carry out learning exercises. The farmers will make a shelter out of local materials next to the study field for their classroom. Mats will be placed on the ground. In carrying out learning exercises the farmers will assimilate the technologies. This is a key to the FFS method and its success depends on the worthiness of each exercise. Many of the exercises will be based on the farmers carrying out small experiments and observing the results. Farmers learn by analyzing the results of the exercises and not from the trainer directly.

As an example of a learning exercise let’s take the concept that with hybrids the farmers need to purchase the seed each crop and cannot use harvested seed to be replanted next season. First the farmers would be asked to discuss what they know about hybrid rices, what they are and how they are different from HYVs. They then will plant seed taken from a field in their study plot and observe the result. The result will be that the small plot will not look like normal rice and will have very low yields. The farmers will then be asked to explain why this occurs. The trainer will guide them to the correct reason, perhaps by making an analogy to the parents of a mule being a horse and donkey. Stressing that mules cannot beget other mules.

Master trainers will train the trainers on to carry out the activities with farmers and to replace lecturing with the art of answering a question with another question. By not answering the farmer’s question the trainer is forcing the farmer to think and make his or her own decisions. These skills will serve the farmers during times when the extension workers can not be with them. Farmers learn to be more dependent and to work with each other. This is where the farmer trainers who live in the village will be important. Trainers will practice on the farmer trainers to gain experience and confidence.

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In addition to learning exercises, the FFS curriculum will include an agro-ecosystem analysis for each weekly session. Here the farmers, divided into permanent sub-groups of 5, will inspect the study field to determine management needs and to take data from experiments. Upon returning from the field the subgroup members will assess what they have found and draw a plant in its correct growth stage on poster paper with crayons noting any symptoms, pests, beneficial arthropods, water level, weather. Subgroup members then make crop management recommendations based on the observations. One member of each sub-group will in turn tell the class the findings of the sub-group using the poster taped to the wall of the meeting place as evidence of their findings. There will be a short session for questions from the other farmers on the findings. The sub-group members then defend their findings. The trainer is more appropriately called a facilitator who give instructions to the farmers as to the new activities and then asks questions to get them to think more clearly. There is no lecturing.

The FFS method stresses group learning rather than individual learning thus a conscious effort to foster group cohesiveness was the introduction of group dynamics exercises in each FFS. A large number of them that have been developed and these can be readily adapted for all training. Even though the exercises are used to provide a break from the tedium of the predominantly technical curriculum, the exercises are primarily designed to enhance group collaboration, communication skills, leadership, social interaction, problem analysis and solving, confidence building, team work and group trust, and leadership skills.

There will be 16 weekly sessions in the FFS farmer training that follows the crop cycle in the field. Each week one or two concepts (activities = technologies) will be introduced. It will be recommended that 25 farmers be trained in a group based on where their fields are situated but as important will be to group by social class. Some three preliminary meetings usually are held from the WUA to subgroup level to determine which group is trained, how to select the farmers, what the obligations are and to have the selected farmers pledge to attend all trainings as a social contract. Large-scale farmers probably will not benefit from the FFS method as it would be too time consuming and repetitive for them. If they are interested in Project trainings they can be taught using the conventional extension method by the RAEO. Groupings for the FFS can be by gender, tribe, farm size, or language. Small scale farmers with < 2 ha can form one grouping, women another, and minority tribes a third to receive FFS training. If members of several tribes are in the same village they each

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should form separate groups. If caste mixing is not conducive to social interaction then groups can be separated by caste. The point is that the more homogeneous the social grouping the more each member will participate. Full participation is a prerequisite to learning by the FFS method. Introducing only one or two topics per week focuses the training which has been found by the IGAU Department of Agricultural Extension to be highly correlated with better adoption rates.

During all training twice a month the trainers by district will meet (bi-monthly trainers meetings) in the district DA headquarter to reflect on how well the classes have gone over with the farmers and to share experiences in order to improve performance. All of the activities conducted over the two week period are reviewed and suggestions for improvement are made. These scheduled meetings among the training team and supervisors are an indispensable part of the FFS method.

Cross visits will be conducted to expose prospective farmers to the FFS training method. Visits by new class members, scheduled the following year, allow them to take advantage of ongoing classes to talk to the current trainees to gather their reactions. Either selected representatives or all of the farmers from a class scheduled for the following year should travel to an ongoing FFS class, this is called a cross visit. Cross visits will take advance planning but is the best method to illustrate to soon-to-be trainees what the FFS training method is like. In this way when farmers make the learning contract, which is a social obligation to their community to attend all classes and actively participate, they will do so with greater conviction.

An internal performance monitoring instrument that was developed for FFS programs is the ballot box test which quantifies the improvement in knowledge and skills of farmers as a result of training. The ballot box test involves both pre- and post-training exams given with the same questions asked both times. The test takes place in a field and is given during the first FFS class to note the base level of farmers technical knowledge before training. Many of the 25 or so test questions are provided by Nature in the field but represent key technologies that will be introduced.

At the end of each training season a field day will be held, one per village, by all of the FFSs that completed training in the village. A graduation ceremony is held and farmers report the results of their training in terms of what they learned from their studies in the study fields. Besides an extension mechanism it also serves as a confidence building tool for the

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newly trained farmers. Local government and DA supervisors are normally invited to the half day affair. This is also a way of promoting the training as well as the Project within the local community and often creates a demand for more farmer training which hopefully in time would be paid by district funds.

For sustainability of the training which is expected to continue in each farmer group for three years for rice and three years for rabi crops in each farmer group. This is extended training is called follow-up. It has been noted from FFS training experiences that farmers do not readily change their practices after just one season’s exposure to FFS training. Adoption rates rise with more prolonged contact with trainers. Follow-up activities in succeeding seasons have been carried out and have lead to the greatest adoption rates as more time is needed for the group to coalesce. One or two farmers will first adopt then the next season if the benefits are perceived to be worthwhile more adopt. Farmer groups often branch out into new endeavors such as credit, marketing, bulk purchase of inputs based on stronger mutual bonds and trust based on working together. Experience has shown in other countries that it takes five years or more for a farmer group to coalesce and to begin to engage in other activities.

Rule of thumb from other country programs is that for the second year follow-up only half the number of meetings (classes) are needed (8 meetings or every other week). And if farmers want to continue with formal training, a third year could be budgeted with even fewer sessions (4 meetings or once a month). FFS alumni, as one of their follow-up activities, will be encouraged to engage in farmer-led research. In this program, FFS alumni work with their facilitator to design simple experiments that fine tune technologies. This can be testing a new variety of a crop, different planting methods, varying fertilizer or seeding rates, or testing new pest control methods.

After the season, farmers will interpret the results of their on-farm trials and a 1-day workshop will held where representatives of each participating WUA will present their research findings to other participating WUAs. They will also make posters showing the results to be placed in strategic locations in the farm communities for all farmers to see and learn from. This activity is called farmer-led extension.

The FFS method trains farmers to be trainers. In the first trainings there will be three farmers in each FFS who will be identified as being suitable candidate trainers. They will be paid a small sum for their efforts. In addition within each

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FFS one farmer will be selected to be a trainer at the end of the class. Nominated farmer trainers will receive a 2-week TOT for farmer trainers. These will be smaller in scope than the first TOT. It is hoped that Project grant funds or funds from local governments will pay for the follow-up trainings.

Each farmer training team will be first composed of the RAEO, NGO trainer, and three farmer trainers. In succeeding years after the NGO catalysts and trainers leave, the RAEO and farmer trainers will form the teams and eventually the input of the RAEO can be withdrawn as more farmer trainers gain confidence to handle classes themselves. Two farmer trainers should run a class, but one who is very well trained could do it alone. This is a common evolutionary process in the FFS method and generates high sustainability and eventual Project withdrawal and replacement by local government. It is for this reason that each FFS has the field day.

Finally the FFS curriculum is written up in the form of training guides that the trainers be they RAEOs, NGO trainers, or farmer trainers can follow for each session. The guides are step by step descriptions incorporating all of the activities in the training sessions. The guides for each course will contain some 30 sessions and farmers can chose ahead of time which subjects they want in their course. Those not covered in the first season can be covered in succeeding seasons during follow-up.

After the third year of each commodity curriculum thesis students from IGAU or other entities can conduct impact evaluations of the FFS method by comparing farmers trained in the village with untrained farmers both from the same village as well as a neighboring village which has not had FFS.

There are few RAEOs and they need to be supplemented by farmer trainers. Thus the key to the sustainability of the training program will be to train as many trainers as possible. A team of NGO trainers will assist is the training both the NGO trainer and their supervisors and hopefully the NGO organizers as much as possible. The latter will be involved as the training will also reinforce PIM. The more the NGO trainers are skilled in the FFS method the quicker the operation will go. It is preferred if each of them had prior experience in training in FFS techniques even more so if they have experience with tribals. The NGO master trainers cum counterparts of the TA consultants will need to oversee the TOT program and follow on trainings in the villages very closely to monitor quality control and completeness of the curricula.

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Trainers have to acquire not only skills in the FFS non-lecture, learn by doing format, but they need to learn the curriculum itself, primarily crop management and irrigation system monitoring, the introduced technologies, as well as the group dynamics exercises. This is why it would be best if the Project selected an NGO or several NGOs that have a proven track record for delivering quality FFS training. There are a number of groups that purport to be carrying out the FFS but it may be in an abbreviated form. It is very tempting for training programs to lecture to the farmers rather than having the patience to allow them to learn by themselves. The IPM Centre based in Raipur unfortunately is doing just this. This is the heart of the method. There are several that have worked in Chhattisgarh as well as neighboring states. It is possible that other NGO firms would provide the community organizers but for trainers it will behoove the Project to select those that can deliver already experienced FFS trainers. If not, valuable time will be lost in training them, and targets will not be met. It is possible that over time these NGOs will remain in the districts and be hired by WUAs to provide FFS training when WUAs become sufficiently organized to be able to hire their own extension workers from the NGO trainer pool.

The implementation scheme on Table 1 in the Training Plan (Annex VIII) gives an illustration from a minor tank in which two villages will initially be selected. Some definitions may be helpful. There will be two courses, one for irrigated rice and one for rabi. A cycle is three years of a course that started in a given year. In other locations with double cropped rice it would be three seasons, but CIDP in wanting to diversify cropping in the rabi season discourage rabi rice. For example 2007 will be cycle 1 or rice and 2008 with be cycle 2. A class is composed of the group of 25 farmers to be trained and there will be 16 sessions the first year followed-up with 8 sessions the second year and 4 sessions the third year.

There may be only one or two RAEOs in the area, but most likely one as they are overstretched. The other factor is that the NGO input will only be for 2-3 years in any village. In the beginning while the Project is evolving the methodology, NGO staff will need to stay for 3 years. In order for enough farmer trainers to be on hand in 3 years’ time, three farmer trainers will be introduced into the first FFS cycle. Later cycles will produce one farmer trainer candidate each. The class in cycle 1 will encompass 25 farmers, all of whom belong to a similar social category, plus three farmer trainers, the NGO trainer and perhaps the NGO community organizer, plus the

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RAEO. The RAEO should play a leading role if he can. All trainers should try to attend as many classes as possible and fill in for others who may be absent or late.

It is important that the classes be punctual both for the trainers and farmers. Farmers coming late or when they are drunk should also be disciplined. They should be made to understand that this intensive training is a once in a lifetime occurrence and should not be squandered or wasted. A great deal of time, resources, and effort are being put in place to conduct the training and it is not a trivial activity. It will take literally decades to train all farmers in the command areas of WRD tanks even if everything goes well and funds are available. Those are big ‘ifs’. Ideally we should train both men and women farmers plus adult children who will take over the farm. This becomes very expensive and beyond our Project.

Each slot in the training class needs careful scrutiny regarding selecting the farmer that will fill it. Mass media training will not achieve the desired goal of adoption even if the Project provided each farmer with a television and video demonstrations. There is no substitute for one-on-one learning in a social context for the less educated who generally have great difficulty to grasp new concepts and many resist change. That is why they are slow adopters. This is also why formal training should continue in each course for three years, albeit at decreasing frequency over time. CIDP is different from other FFS training programs in that each farmer is expected to take two courses, one in irrigated rice and the other in rabi cropping.

The rabi cropping to be effective will need to scale down the number of crops that will be introduced. There are over 20 commonly planted rabi crops even exclusive of vegetables. The courses will be more generic for most of the curriculum and focus on only a few of the crops which will be a much different course than for irrigated rice. But the fact that the same farmers will be attending both that will double their time, meaning three seasons for each course for a total of 6 seasons of formal FFS training. As the rainfall each year can vary between above average or below average the selection of rabi crops should include some that require few irrigations and some that require three or four, the selection in any given year will depend on how much water is stored in the tank at the beginning of rabi. If new rabi crops are introduced to the village at a later date locally funded courses could be introduced with that focus. The fact that they have been

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exposed to the FFS training method will make the new course easier for farmers to learn.

The three farmer trainers would have attended the TOT course before joining the FFS class. They would be the contact farmers that the RAEO had worked with or be selected from the general community as a whole based on desire and potential. It would be desirable that such a person were also from the same social class as the trainees. In Table 1 these are listed under the heading of trainers FT#1 to FT#18 for the six classes in the two villages in 2007 rice season. They will be following an on-the-job training, learning while doing. They would have been exposed to all of the lessons in the 3-week TOT training. It is normal for the first few years of FFS programs that there is a learning curve with respect to the course curriculum, both in terms of subjects introduced as well as the methodology. We hope to speed up the de-selection of activities and methods that do not work well via the monthly district meetings scheduled for all of the trainers including the farmer trainers. Sharing experiences of what went well and what did not in each of the classes will hopefully speed up this process. During the first year especially the 2 NGO master trainers will spend their time going from class to class to monitor progress and suggest changes. The TA consultants will also join them as much as possible.

Table 1 was developed at a time when it was expected that there would be 144 FFSs each year but as a result of the ADB review this had now been reduced to 28. Thus trainers will not be overburdened. But in Table 1 we see what a maximum class load would look like for illustrative purposes should more funds become available after ADB Mid-term Evaluation. A trainer can participate in two classes in one day as classes can be scheduled in either the morning or afternoon. It is important to note that Table 1 only shows the rice training course. From Table 1 we can see that the same farmer trainers will continue in the following years’ trainings. These same trainers can also continue in the rabi cropping training. From the training schedule given in Figure 3, we see that once the rabi crop course is introduced in 2008, farmers will be in training almost continually. It may make sense to stagger the training just as in Figure 3 so that in one year they have the full 16 week rice course and the following year then as FFS alumni they would only be in 8 sessions in the second year before beginning the 16-week rabi crop classes. Taking two back-to-back 16-week courses is not only intense on the farmers but probably more so among the trainers. The column in Table 1 entitled ‘Maximum no. classes/wk’ shows how many

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classes each trainer will be involved with during a rice crop season. An NGO trainer would participate in 3-6 classes per week. NGO organizers will leave the village after the third year (2010 in Table 1) but this is not necessarily so with NGO trainers. We will wait and see how the training goes before committing.

In the former program each RAEO was expected to participate in 6-10 classes per week. Ten classes in a week is a high expectation as that would be two per day for 5 days a week. One day is needed for the weekly meeting with the ADO and to catch up on paper work. This indeed may be needed in the first year or so but after that, farmer trainers can take over much of the day to day classes with the RAEO playing only a monitoring role. There should be a minimum of two trainers per class. This is shown in Table 1. Farmer trainers are numbered in table 1 to show that after they are selected from among the members of each class they will then go to a 2-week TOT at the beginning of the following season before joining the training teams. Only in the first year of the Project will three farmer trainers be in the FFS classes. After farmer trainers become veterans or master trainers can they take over a whole class themselves. In the meantime they act as apprentices. It is certainly done in other countries and will be expected here as well. It must also be said that not every extension worker can make the conversion from lecturing to the FFS method thus there will be some attrition among the RAEOs and even farmer trainers who do not have the right attitude. They can concentrate on extension programs for the large-scale farmers.

This brings us to a discussion of how the Project will handle training of large-scale farmers. It is expected that they will want to join the FFS training. But from experience elsewhere many highly educated farmers feel that the FFS method is ‘childish’ and takes too long. The group dynamics games for example are often shunned as being not subjects for extension courses. However they have been very popular among small-scale farmers elsewhere. The Project (and more importantly the WUAs) should decide on who attends and what kind of training will be provided. Large-scale farmers will become more involved in the adaptive research that will be needed to find ways to best sow rabi crops using mechanized seed drills. They can play a key role here as in other countries the large-scale farmers adopted zero tillage methods first and only later did small-scale farmers. Once the method becomes popular many tractors are locally purchased and can be rented by small-scale farmers, but this only happens after the large-scale farmers’ needs are met.

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G. Recruitment of the NGO Package

The Team Leader wrote up a draft TOR for Package D, the hiring of the NGO-Project staff. These included eight positions in the Agricultural Component plus some 100 NGO community organizers (NGO-COs). The TA consultant then added his comments to the TOR as reported in Annex X. Since the above was written there have been several changes in thought due to new information and a much reduced budget. There are four new considerations.

1. Reduce WRD Training Centers from 4 to 3

The first change would be to reduce the number of proposed WRD training centers from four to three. None has been built to date. Reasons are first that there are only 16 districts in the state and with four centers there would only be four districts per center. This is too few to justify funding and to keeping separate institutions busy. Other countries have built training centers and many of them become ‘white elephants’ due to low operational budgets and the rise in private training centers. In addition much of the training of farmers will be in the villages not training centers. By reducing the number to three, each one would cover 5-6 districts which gives each a larger service area. The result would be savings of Project funds and more importantly more savings afterwards in WRD’s annual budget to maintain the centers and to keep trainers busy. With the government hiring freeze it will be difficult to find sufficient staff to be trainers and training managers.

2. Hire 2 Training Coordinators

The original budget called for hiring of 8 NGO Training Coordinators. Now at the beginning of the implementation phase, the training program will now only be working in 7 districts in its pilot scheme rather than 21. It still will be a large undertaking to train the trainers in the FFS method so a more scaled down target is beneficial. Thus there is currently only a need for 2 Training Coordinators cum master trainers to supervise the 7 NGO trainers. If the ADB Midterm Evaluation in 2008 calls for an expanded training effort the Project can hire more Training Coordinators if more funds become available. There will be a need for continuity and the TA consultant’s input is only periodic, thus more local staff with FFS training skills will be needed to monitor ongoing trainings in the villages and to assist the NGO trainers.

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3. Postpone hiring Marketing Specialist and Home Garden and Marginal Land Developers

Most farmers do not have skills in growing rabi crops for lack of practice and lack of tertiary canals and need to perfect them before we can think of growing high value crops that would require markets. The field crops, pulses, and oil seeds have ready markets now. Vegetable growing is more complicated and requires a market and quality control which is a concept that most farmers probably do not have at this stage. Most of the target farmers grow only rice and their wives grow some vegetables near their house for home consumption. It is another matter to grow vegetables commercially as this will require an irrigation system that is highly developed at the tertiary level, a situation that does not exist.

The former ‘revised’ plan in Annex X calls for 2 Marketing Agents and 2 Women’s Group Trainers. If the ADB Midterm Evaluation in 2008 calls for an expanded effort and one that will take up marketing and women’s groups, the Project can hire Marketing Agents and Women’s Group Coordinators if more funds become available. It will be very difficult to combine the women’s’ groups (which is essentially what the home garden and marginal land areas are) and marketing in the beginning as there are so few staff to carry out the programs and the irrigation systems will not be renovated by then.

4. NGO package to include village level trainers

The original plan was to hire some 100 NGO village workers (= mobilizers, catalysts, community organizers) whose chief role would be to strengthen WUAs and to introduce PIM. They were being pegged to assist in the FFS training program. Now due to the realization that there will not be enough DA extension workers (RAEOs) who can lead the training in the villages, this role will have to be supplemented by NGO’s. These will not be master trainers but will be village level trainers that would conduct the FFS to supplement the effort expected by the RAEOs. They will be supervised by the 2 NGO Training Coordinators. RAEOs already have a full plate in terms of work load, more so that because of government hiring freeze and natural attrition the number of villages has jumped from under 10 to more than 20, an impossibility in terms of a single person. For them to undertake a time consuming role in FFS training is problematic as it would requires weekly attendance in half day sessions per class for entire crop seasons.

H. Revised Training Plan and NGO Package

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On 15 September 2006 the ADB mission reviewed the progress of the ‘Package B’ consultants’ team, and decision were not to provide further funds to support the farmer training program, the budget for the training plan had to be cut five-fold. Most savings occurred by reducing the number of districts and villages per district, although savings were made in the training components as well. It is believed that the newly revised budget will not reduce the expected quality of the training program. Due to the reduction in budget the target of 10,000 trained farmers cannot be attained, thus the goal should instead be to test the FFS as an extension method for the less educated farmers. A summary of the revised training plan is outlined below with greater details in Table 5 of Annex VIII:

Revised training plan as of September 2006Item per year Original plan Revised plan

Districts (no.) 21 7Irrigation schemes 6 medium, 15 minor 7 minorWUAs 21 7RAEOs 21 7NGO Training Coordinators 8 2NGO village trainers 20-60 7Villages 48 14Farmer groups per village 3 2Total farmer groups 3 x 48 = 144 3 x 14 = 28Total FFSs 144 28Total farmers trained 25 x 144 = 3600 25 x 28 = 700Farmer trainers 1/ 9 x 48 = 432 6 x 14 = 84Curriculum development workshops

4 1

District curriculum development workshops

14 7

TOT Rice 4 1TOT Rabi crops 4 1TOT Farmer trainers 4 1WUA seasonal planning meetings

21 7

Trainers monthly meetings 5 mo. X 21 = 105 5 mo. X 7 = 35Total farmers trained per year

25 x 144 = 3600 25 x 28 = 700

Total farmers trained to 2012 (6 years)

25 x 144 x 6 = 21600

25 x 28 x 6 = 4200

Budget for FFS with follow up (3 year funded cycle)

$2,500,00 $500,000

Budget for FFS without follow up (1 year funded

$2,000,000 $425,000

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cycle)Training cost per farmer with follow-up

$115 $120

Training cost per farmer without follow-up

$95 $100

1/ In the first year there will be 3 farmer trainers trained per FFS so as by the third year when the NGOs leave they can take over, otherwise there will be 1 farmer trainer trained per FFS.

Realizing that there will be no Project funds for applied research it was felt necessary to add some to the NGO budget package. It is planned to budget $1000 a year to IGAU and each of the 7 FFS districts for five years totaling $40,000. There will be three uses. The first will be to provide for study tours to NW India and Bangladesh by farmers, WRD staff, IGAU staff to see ongoing CIMMYT research teams developing zero tillage and permanent ‘bed and furrow’ rice and wheat culture. Irrigation water savings in both rice and wheat are over 50% for each crop (Hobbs et al. 2001, Meisner et al. 2001). A second use will support research that the Project will contract with IGAU scientists. An example aside from developing zero tillage seed drills will be to introduce a laser leveler for use by the Dept of Engineering and Dept of Land and Water Management. The purpose of contracting this work would be for IGAU scientists to conduct more precise experiments in farmers’ fields in Project sites to measure the losses farmers suffer from undulating fields. Level fields will be important for farmers to try the SRI or permanent ‘bed and furrow’ rice cropping methods which if successful can save 50-60% irrigation water. Such savings would revolutionize rabi cropping and would even allow enough storage in tanks for farmers to soak their lands in the early kharif to sow on time if rains did not allow. Early rice planting will ensure maximum use of rainfall. The reason IGAU has not tested a laser leveler is that they lack funds. The Project can eliminate this constraint and push forward in its goal to diversify rabi cropping.

A third use for applied research funds would be to purchase both tractor-drawn and bullock-drawn seed drills for farmers in the Project sites to test mechanized sowing of a rabi crop as a form of ‘action research’. Action research is an approach to quickly develop new technologies where all of the stake-holders form a team that works together in the farm community. This can occur as early as next year with the trained farmers in the rice FFS course.

The idea would be to provide them with a choice of drills for them to test and adapt. If they found a drill that they like, then they would need to purchase it, possibly with Project

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grant funding. Introduction of new technologies including con-servation tillage concepts, has been difficult for the public sector often due to lack of resources to partner with the grower community. Two sites Haryana and SW Bangladesh have had recent experience in introducing zero tillage methods in rice wheat areas. In Bangladesh CIMMYT (the international maize and wheat center in Mexico), in its catalytic working role, in-vited partners to join a “Participatory Stakeholders Group’ or ‘Action Research Group’ for the purpose of introducing a power operated tiller/seeder to the grower community to supplement the growers’ expanded use of the hand tractor into other re-source conserving practices (Meisner et al. 2001). The part-ners/stakeholders in the group include agricultural engineers and agronomists from the various research institutes, private manufacturers interested in manufacturing the equipment, farm-ers, hand tractor operators, NGOs, and extension services. As of October 2001, there were over 50 seeders in Haryana; all but 5 were manufactured locally with the original 5 imported from China.

In the Chhattisgarhi model these would be imported from Bangladesh and Haryana or locally built in the state. The suc-cess of both the Haryana and Bangladesh programs can be mod-eled in Chhattisgarh. Zero tillage units were constructed by IGAU before and it failed because it was not an action team but only staff of the Dept of Agr. Engineering working on the development. In Bangladesh because of the actions of the par-ticipatory stakeholders’ group, the currently manufactured seeder is quite different from the original seeder imported from China in 1998. The local manufacturer made many modifica-tions based on the farmers’ and other stakeholders’ sugges-tions, coupled with the agriculture engineers who have as-sisted in the redesign. During the first year where there were only 15 seeders, the seeders sowed over 100 hectares of wheat. During the second year where there were about 25 seeders, over 150 hectares of wheat and other crops were sown. By the third year (2000/2001), there were over 35 seeders and together they had sown 200 hectares of wheat, 7 hectares of pulses, 20 and hectares of potatoes. Since 2001, many public sector institu-tions have ordered these and are implementing their prolifera-tion under their programs. Thus, over 50 seeders were operated during the 2002 season. As in the program in Bangladesh other crops than wheat can be grown using the same generic technol-ogy.

However, the ultimate test of the success of this equipment will be its purchase by and proliferation among the farmers. A program between multi-partners, including CIMMYT, agriculture engineers and agronomists, one NGO located in western

34

Bangladesh, and other local agencies has begun a program of a revolving loan for growers to purchase sets of this equipment. Each set contained a seeder, reaper, pump set for irrigation via the hand tractor engine, and hose pipe. The reaper is an-other Chinese-manufactured accessory to the 2-wheel hand trac-tor that cuts 4 rows of a cereal crop, depositing it in a sin-gle line to the side. The use of the hosepipe, curiously, is a grower-defined technology becoming widely practiced among the growers—eliminating the need for tertiary irrigation canals and increasing the effectiveness of the irrigation.

In Haryana which introduced zero tillage wheat was one of en-hanced participation of farmers, extension, scientists, and local manufacturers (Hobbs et al. 2001). The technology was introduced to the farmers in the first year and then left for them to experiment with the technology in the second year as they gained confidence in its benefits. In this way, there was very good feedback of needed improvements to the drill and what worked and did not work. These changes were incorporated into the machinery and management package for the next year’s work. This led to rapid expansion in area for this technology for the benefit of all partners. This method is termed action research which involves the direct input of farmers thus when the final technology is developed it will be accepted by farm-ers and less extension effort is needed.

The farmers were very enthusiastic about this technology and adoption has risen from a few acres in 1998 to more then 100,000 acres in Haryana in 2001. Stories abound about skepti-cal farmers ridiculing innovative farmers when the technology was first tried. Some farmers conducted the trials at night to avoid being seen experimenting with this technology. However, once the crop emerged farmers became convinced it would work and rushed to borrow or custom-hire the equipment to sow their fields. The main constraint in further accelerating this tech-nology is availability of sufficient drills to satisfy the de-mand of the farmers. This will be corrected in coming years as more local manufacturers provide drills for farmers. It is now been accepted as a recommended practice by the State extension service.

A group of farmers can purchase one unit to share. Other promising technologies such as improved composting will also require funds to purchase equipment and supplies to demonstrate several methods. This becomes expensive when the demonstrations need to be carried out in 14 villages. Other examples will be different equipment to test in irrigation systems to monitor flow and deliver precise amounts of water. The Project may want to test drip irrigation systems or

35

purchase pumps (treadle or electric) to demonstrate different ways to deliver water.

At the time of this writing the budget is being finalized before requesting NGOs to make proposals to bid for the Project funds. There may be several NGOs as one may bid for the farmer training component separate from the PIM component.

Candidates for the domestic consultant counterpart positions are in the process of being reviewed and hopefully a successful candidate can be select to join in the second mobilization.

I. Program Parameters for Grant Assistance

There was no input in this category for this assignment.

J. Accomplishments

As a result of this first mobilization in a planned series of six mobilizations of 2.5 months each (15 total months) the following major accomplishments have been realized:

1. Travel with WRD staff and domestic and international Irrigation O & M and Water Management Consultants to 7 districts and 12 irrigation schemes led to a thorough understanding of the frustration of many farmers who formerly had irrigation but now are denied that resource due to the disrepair of canals, lack of tertiary canals, and the lack of coordination of farmers and WRD to allocate water equitably. Those farmers receiving irrigation water squander it due to field to field irrigation with the result that only enough water is left in the tanks for only a few farmers sow a rabi crop. As a consequence rice yields are low and only one crop per year of any kind is grown. Many farmers are forced to migrate to seek work in urban areas during the rabi season.

2. Learned that the research-extension linkage is very strong and that basic and applied research is carried out by the Indira Gandhi Agricultural University (IGAU) staff in Raipur and in its branch stations throughout the state. Technology verification trials are carried out by the branch stations and their staff instruct extension Subject Matter Specialists (MSc degree holders) who in turn instruct the Rural Agricultural Extension Officers (RAEOs) and their Agriculture Development Officer (ADO) supervisors. Extension services to farmers are carried out by the state level DA as well as centrally funded

36

KVKs. The latter are only now being installed, one unit per district. Recommendations for all of the commodities are codified in a handbook updated annually and given to all extension workers.

3. An overview of the current extension system was gained from meetings with DA staff in the districts and in Raipur as well as key informants. The main extension method is the demonstration plot and one-day trainings involving lectures to farmers. Staff of the IGAU Department of Agricultural Extension provided further insight. Reading a number of theses in the IGAU library on adoption rates from extension services and discussions with professors revealed that the current extension method of demonstration plots is serving only large-scale farmers. Smaller-scale and marginalized farmers including tribals have low adoption rates of modern agricultural technologies mainly due to their low education attainment and lack of resources. A conclusion was made that a new extension method should be introduced to serve them called the Farmer Field School method. This method is currently being introduced in the northern districts on a small scale by an NGO and is a world-wide movement (www.communityipm.com).

4. Offices of IGAU staff in major departments were visited to debrief scientists who consequently identified key agricultural technologies for rice and to a lesser extent (due to a lack of time) rabi crops. The TA Consultant is satisfied that there are a significant number of key technologies that should be introduced in extension programs to aid farmers to increase production. Some are new while others have only been adopted by a minority of farmers. These would include promise of hybrid rices; new varieties resistant to gall midge, brown planthopper, blast, and bacterial blight; the need for farmers to level their fields; a water saving method of rice culture called SRI (the method came from a Jesuit Priest living in Madagascar this is called this name locally); improved methods for making compost and the need to integrate organic with inorganic fertilizers; mechanical rotary weeders; methods for judicious use of pesticides; better seed selection methods; and mechanical seed drills to establish rabi crops with zero tillage. SRI, field leveling, and zero tillage will lessen the irrigation water requirements.

5. A comprehensive training plan was developed with a budget to first train trainers and then farmers. Due to a paucity of RAEOs the Project will hire NGO staff to supplement the ranks of trainers. Farmer field school (FFS) method will develop separate courses for irrigated

37

rice and rabi crops to be introduced in 2007 and 2008, respectively, beginning with curriculum development workshops held in the hot season. These will be followed by district level workshops to solidify the local training teams and then by three week training of trainers (TOT). The FFS for rice will be composed of 16 half-day weekly lessons and will run over the course of the kharif crop. Each class will be composed of 25 farmers selected based on similar socio-economic status (eg. gender, caste, tribe, farm size). The Project will support two years of follow-up classes in decreasing numbers of sessions each year: 8 the second year and 4 the third year. Trainers will convene in monthly district level meetings to reflect how to improve the training courses and make timely corrective changes. Pre- and post-training exams will be carried out in all FFSs to monitor knowledge gains by farmers and to correct training program if levels are low for particular topics. Training needs assessment questionnaires were developed for both the extension workers and farmers that can be administered by the NGO mobilizers and trainers and analyzed by the TA consultants before the curriculum development workshop.

6. Agricultural component of CIDP was reviewed by WRD staff in the districts during a one-day workshop 11 September 2006 to inform of the progress of the TA Consultants.

7. The ADB team came 15 September 2006 to review the progress of the Project and approved the Agricultural Component including introduction of the Farmer Field School extension method as well as plans for water conservation methods that will be introduced in the training programs.

8. As a result of the ADB review it was decided to hire a domestic Irrigated Agriculture Development consultant who will complement the efforts of the international consultant. The domestic consultant will identify the appropriate agricultural specialists as required and continue Project supervision in the absence of the international consultant.

9. The TOR for the NGO component of CIDP was amended to include NGO counterparts to the Agriculture program including 2 Training Coordinators cum master trainers and 7 NGO extension workers to supplement the depleted RAEOs to ensure adequate numbers of trainers to carry out the extension program. A NGO working in Chhattisgarh using the FFS method (PRDIS which now has an office in Raipur) was identified and will have an opportunity to bid for a role in the NGO package.

38

10.It was decided that it would be best to introduce the FFS method on a smaller set of districts and irrigation schemes to evaluate its effectiveness. As FFS is significantly more expensive than the traditional method of demonstration plots and one day lectures, fewer districts can be covered (now only 7) than the 21 irrigation schemes as originally planned for the Pilot program encompassing 14 districts. At the time of this writing the NGO budget to be submitted for Project approval was dramatically reduced to cover only 7 districts and 14 villages due to Project budget restrictions. Greater expense is due to the greater number of contact hours and meetings in the three year curricula. Something new must be tried as the current extension method is only benefiting the larger-scale and more educated farmers.

K. Reports Prepared

The following reports were produced in the first mobilization:1. Plan of Work (Annex IV)2. Handout for the 11 Sep 06 Workshop on Project Components

(Annex V)3. Training Plan (Annex VIII)4. NGO Package TOR (Annex X)5. Agricultural Component of the Inception Report (Annex XI)6. Duty Report

L. Plans for the Second Mobilization

The second mobilization, again for 2.5 months, should occur after the NGO Package of 2 Training Coordinators and 7 NGO trainers in each of the 7 districts is fielded. A domestic Irrigated Agricultural consultant should also be on board as a counterpart to coordinate the NGO community organizers to conduct the Training Needs Assessment questionnaires. This consultancy should prepare the Project for the agricultural training program that will begin in irrigated rice following the schedule provided in Table 4 of Annex VIII. This would include first analyzing the TNA questionnaires. The bulk of the time would be launching the Irrigated Rice Training Course which would include one Regional Curriculum Development Workshop in Raipur, 7 District Level Curriculum Development Workshops, and the TOT in a training center of choice. This is a large undertaking and would require much lead time, thus the Consultant would need to be mobilized by early January 2006 as shown in line A1b of Table 4 to supervise the NGO-led program.

39

The consultancy period would be mostly involved in organizing the sequential stream of training events. The workshops are of 1-2 day durations and the longest is the TOT which will run for three weeks. The venue of the TOT workshop should have irrigation and rice should be planted in research plots in a staggered fashion so that all growth stages are present for the trainees to practice. The actual FFS program should start before the monsoon season begins, usually 15 June thus the FFS groups need to be organized and financed just at this time. If this does not occur we will postpone all trainings until a year later. We also should plan to test rabi crop seed drills and zero tillage planting methods with groups of farmers, IGAU engineers and agronomists, extension staff, and private industry as an action research group. Rapid and mechanized planting will be the success of rabi crop establishment and irrigation water conservation so that more farmers will be served. The third mobilization would follow after a few months break during this most crucial year.

M. References

Babu, S.C. 2006. Two-pronged policy needed. Survey of Indian Agriculture, The Hindu Newspaper, New Delhi, 224 p.

Chandrashekhar, G. 2006. Role of technology in agriculture. Survey of Indian Agriculture, The Hindu Newspaper, New Delhi, 224 p.

CIDP. 2006. WUA empowerment for improved irrigation management in Chhattisgarh. Information for consultants KBR – JPS.

CIDP. 2005. Report and recommendation of the president to the board of directors on a proposed loan and technical assistance grant to India for the Chhattisgarh Irrigation Development Project. March 2005.

Department of Agriculture, Chhattisgarh. 2004. Revised Macro-Management Work – Plan 2004-05, Govt. of ChhattisgarhDepartment Of Agriculture, Raipur, 125 pp. pdf file

Department of Agriculture, Chhattisgarh. 2006. Chhattisgarh State Seed Rolling Plan (2006-07 to 2010-11). IGAU, Chhattisgarh Rajya Beej Evam Krishi Vikas Nigam Ltd, Raipur and Chhattisgarh Rajya Beej Pramanikaran Sansthan, Raipur, 69 pp.

Hobbs, P.R., Raj Gupta, Malik R.K., and Dhillon S.S. 2001. 1st World Congress on Conservation Agriculture Madrid, 1-5 October, 2001.

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Hydrosult. 2004. PPTA. Chhattisgarh Irrigation Development Sector Project IND(Tar 37056) Ref. No.: LOI / TA IND (MCY / Imc)

(a) Main Report, August 2004, 42 p.

(b) Annex A, Scheme General Report On Selected Sub-Projects. August 2004, 41 pp. (vol.2)

(c) Annex A1, Feasibility Study For Darki Minor Sub-Project, Final Report. August 2004, 139 pp. (vol. 3)

(d) Annex A2, Feasibility Study For Pakhanjore Minor Sub-Project, Final Report. August 2004, 160 pp. (vol. 4)

(e) Annex A3, Pre-feasibility Study For Banki Medium Sub-Project, Final Report, August 2004, 121 p. (vol. 5)

(f) Annex A4, Feasibility Study for Balar Medium Sub-Project, Final Report, August 2004, 134 pp. (vol. 6)

(g) Annex F, Social Assessment (CIDSP), August 2004, 89 pp. (vol.9)

(h) Annex I, Recommendations for Developing the Irrigated Agriculture Sector in Chhattisgarh, August 2004, 86 pp. (vol. 10)

(i) Annex J, Crop Diversification And Paddy Yield Improvement In Chhattisgarh, August 2004, 49 pp. (vol 10)

(j) Annex K, Information, Education and Awareness Strategy, August 2004,

Jaiswal PK. 1990. Factors responsible for disparate adoption of improved farm practices in paddy by tribal farmers of Surguja Dist of M.P. J. Agr. Issues 2:67-73.

Kellogg Brown & Root. 2006. Water users association empowerment for improved irrigation management in Chhattisgarh. Phase I Inception Report. 31 January 2006.

Laxmikat, V.D. 2001. A study on the utilization pattern of information sources among marginal and small farmers in

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adoption of rice production technology. Thesis. Dept. of Agr. Extension, IGAU

Meisner, C.A., Bodruzzaman, M. Amin, M.R. Baksh, E., Abs Hossain, M Ahmed, Ma Sadat. 2001. Conservation tillage options for the poor, small landholders in South Asia. Paper presented at the 1st World Congress on Conservation Agriculture Madrid, 1-5 October, 2001.

Pandey, P.K. 2000. Constraints analysis in adoption of rice production technology in the Kota Tribal Block of Bilaspur District MP. Thesis. Agr. Extension Dept. IGAU

Patel, V.K. 2000. Assessment of training needs of the farmers for increasing the adoption of rice production technology in Arang block, Raipur District. MS Thesis. Dept of Agr. Extension. IGAU.

Raghuwashi, H.S. 2005. Adoption behavior of rice growers regarding control measures of various insect pests of the rice crop in Dhamtari District, Chhattisgarh. Thesis. IGAU. Dept of Entomology.

Rathore N.S. 1996. Economics of production and marketing of vegetables in Raipur District of Mahadya Pradesh. M.S. Thesis Agr. Economics Dept, IGAU.

Saxena, B., P.K. Pandey, U.S. Singh, and A. Shristava. 1997. Constraints faced by farmers in adoption of tomato production technology. J. Agr. Issues 8:29-33.

Sharma P.N. 1992. Modernizing Chhattisgarh’s traditional agriculture through identification of variables using behavioural change model. J. Agr. Issues 3:45-48.

Sharma, R. and A. Sharma. 1996. Prevalence of indigenous techniques for plant protection and storage of rice among the Chhattisgarh tribes. J. Agr. Issues 7:31-36.

Sharma, R., M.L. Sharma, and A. Sharma. 1995. Attitude of tribal farmers towards adoption of recommended modern and indigenous technology of agriculture in Chhattisgarh State. J. Agr. Issues 6:117-119.

Swaminathan, M.S. 2006. Agricultural renewal and prosperity. Yojana 50:7-15, August 2006.

Yadav, A., Malik, R.K., Bansal, N.K. Gupta, R.K., Singh, S. and Hobbs, P.R. 2002. Manual for using zero-till seed-cum-fer-

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tilizer drill, and zero-till drill-cum-bed planter, Rice-Wheat Consortium Technical Bulletin Series 4, New Delhi-110 012, In-dia: Rice-Wheat Consortium for the Indo Gangetic Plains. pp 24.

1

Socioeconomic conditions

Description of Darki scheme 1Description of the Pakhanjore Scheme 1Socioeconomic surveys 4Participatory Irrigation Management 10Walkthrough survey........................................10Social Classification....................................14Gender...................................................18Literacy and education...................................20Literacy Status in Darki.................................20Occupational Patterns....................................21

Village Name..............................................21Health and Education.....................................21Income...................................................21Farm size................................................22Land Use.................................................23

Poverty Status in StateFor most households there is little possibility of having adequate food throughout the year. The income of as many as 60% of the households is below Rs.500/- (i.e. US$10) per month. It is obvious that with this measly income in a month 5 or 6 mouths cannot be fed. Another 37% of households earn between Rs.501 to Rs. 1500/- (i.e. US$ 10 to 30 approx.). Even in Rs.1500/- in a month, i.e. about Rs.50 in a day. In this amount 5 or 6 people cannot have enough food for the whole day. Thus, 60% of the sample populations hardly have any food security. When employment is not available in the village the marginal farmers, agricultural labourers and tribal have no option but to migrate elsewhere in search of employment. The plight of those who migrate because of the push factor is extremely pitiable. The majority of the farmers are practicing subsistence agriculture and not commercial farming. Application of improved agricultural practices is limited. The poor depend mainly on wage labour for survival; however labour opportunities are limited. Rice cultivation in the wet season is the main economic activity for which a host of labour contracting systems with varying wage rates has evolved.

Stakeholders AnalysisIdentification of Stakeholders was done with the help of participatory approach. The following stakeholders were identified during the field survey and PPTA study:

Marginal/Small Farmers.

Big Farmers

Women

2

Indigenous people

Agriculture labour

WUAs

WRD

Other government line agencies

NGOs/CBOs

The need identified of each stakeholder is:

Training Need

Capacity Building

Agriculture Credit

Marketing Facility

Agriculture Extension

Assured Irrigation

Participatory Irrigation Management

Employment opportunities

Diversified Agriculture

Institutional AnalysisThe Local institutions identified during field survey are:

Panchayat,

Cooperative Society,

Rural Development Department

Mahila Mandals,

Youth Organizations

NGOs

WRD

WUAs

Village Elders/Local political representative.

For the successful implementation of the project it would be necessary to mobilize, organize and improve the institutions that are concerned with the development of the irrigation management and rural development. Assessment of each institutions capacity has been undertaken during the social assessment study. At present, there is hardly any coordination among them either in formulation or implementation of schemes. Hence, a committee consisting of these organizations would have to be set up at the block level under the leadership of

3

Block Samiti for coordinating the implementation of all the schemes and they can be mandated to meet once in a month if not more. The local MLA could also be associated with these activities as he or she would be able to elicit popular support to the programs.

ParticipationCommunity participation is the key for the successful implementation of any developmental schemes, particularly, when changes in knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and practices are involved, participation will ensure good governance and implementation on schedule to delivery benefits to the stakeholders at the earliest. It would also prevent financial leakages and lapses and delays in project implementation. It will ensure accountability at all levels. However, community participation could be ensured only when the participants clearly perceive the benefits of schemes and its impact on the quality of their lives and the objectives and financial allocations and the mode of release are made transparent.

Transparency at all levels will ensure quality and standards of works that are being implemented and thereby durability of the assets created. Participation is needed at two levels. Besides, the organizational support, stakeholders can actively participate in the deliberations and make contributions in the form of labor, material and finances for the project. Such local contributions would make the project less expensive, durable and sustainable. Both the local level agencies and the stakeholders can be involved in the implementation to ensure quality and affordability.

State of Human DevelopmentAccess to resources such as basic education, health care, water and sanitation is a basic indicator of human development. A short overview is presented on the state of human development in the project area below.

Education

Education is closely related to development and is regarded as most effective instruments of social transformation. Recent census data shows relatively high literacy rates: a little more than two third (65.12%) of the total population is literate of which 52.28% female are literate as against 77.86% male (see Table1). Overall literacy rate is increased by 22.5% in the last decade, whereas population growth has decreased from 25.7% for the period 1981-1990 to 18.1% during 1991-2000. Despite these encouraging signs, Chhattisgarh remains poor

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with an estimated 6.5% of population living below poverty line.1

Economy

The economy of the state is mainly based on agriculture and forest. Of the total workforce of 8.3 million, 5.9 million (71%) are engaged in agriculture (see Table 1). Though different crops are grown, rice is the major crop which is grown in 76.7% of the total cultivable area of the state under rain fed conditions2. Farmers are dependent on Kharif paddy, which they grow in wet season. The industrial base is underdeveloped. There are 898 small, medium and large industries providing employment to only 1.2% of the total population.3

Health and Sanitation

The overall health situation of the state is poor. Only 2% of the population possess pucca latrine, which could be considered sanitary under acceptable standards. Safe drinking water facility and number of hospitals are limited. There are 25 hospitals/ health centers per Lac population in the project area which is highly inadequate. Integrated Child Development Scheme is provided by the Central Government for pre-natal, post-natal care, women and child health care and immunization in almost all the districts of the project area. The sanitation facilities in general are below the acceptable standard. There is high incidence of water-borne diseases such as diarrhea, worms and malaria in the project area, which indicates scarcity of clean drinking water. Deaths due to malaria are very high in the project area.

Poverty in the Project Area

The project area is characterized by large scale landlessness, unemployment, drought, illiteracy frequent crop failure, high percentage of tribal population coupled with feudal social power structure. All these factors have led to a state of poverty among the project area population. Poor communication linkages, Naxal insurgent problem and difficult living conditions have resulted in the limited presence of NGOs in the area with the result targeted poverty alleviation programs have not been developed to any significant extent.1According to GOI definition of Poverty. A total number of families below poverty line were 1,364,350 in 1997(Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Chhattisgarh, 2001). The aver-age family size is 5.6.2 Statistical abstract, Department of Agriculture, Chhattisgarh, 2003.3 Chhattisgarh at a glance, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2002

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Average per capita annual income at current price in the project area is Rs. 12,052/ year (US$ 273.90/year) and at constant price Rs. 7,465/ year (US$ 169.65). Household income is not sufficient to maintain a decent life for most of the household. Income distribution is highly skewed and is correlated to land ownership pattern and access to resources. The top 5% have an income share of 70% and the bottom 95% only have an income share of 30%.4 This degree of income inequity is much higher the national figures. As much as 6.54% of the total population is below “absolute poverty line” in terms of caloric intake and access to resources. Especially in rural areas, poverty incidence is very high. Around 60% of the total rural poor are landless, marginal farmers. STs and SCs are 41.2% and 15.8% of the total rural poor families, indicating higher poverty incidences among these two groups.5

Large scale landlessness, fragmentation of landholdings, Illiteracy, limited labour opportunities; perpetual debts, frequent crop failure and feudal social structure are factors responsible for high incidence of rural poverty.

Average operational holding in the state is 1.79 ha per family. The land distribution shows a skewed pattern with a large number of smaller holdings. Average landholdings of marginal and small holders are 0.40 ha and 1.30 ha (see Table 1).

The majority of the farmers are practicing subsistence agriculture and not commercial farming. The small and marginal land holding accounts for 72.35% of the total operational landholdings in the state. The majority of small and marginal farmers opts for mono cropping, taking paddy for consumption and have neither wage labour opportunities nor income from a second crop, migrate for economic reasons. The concept of second and third crop does not exist in majority of areas, nor do farmers in general try to reclaim fallow and barren land to increase production. Application of improved agricultural practices is limited.

The poor depend mainly on wage labour for survival; however labour opportunities are limited. Rice cultivation in the wet season is the main economic activity for which a host of labour contracting systems with varying wage rates has evolved. Big farmers usually engage one labourer per 2 ha of cultivable land. Small farmers generally engage labour for harvest only. The average wage for male agriculture labour

4 Economic Survey of Chhattisgarh, 2002-2003.5 State Government of Chhattisgarh, 2001, on the basis of a 1997 survey.

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during peak season is Rs.50 a day. Wages paid to women in agriculture is much lower than those paid to men.

The main source of income for women is agriculture labour which is limited by the constraints of single crop. Around 87.6% of the STs are engaged in agriculture as cultivators and laborers. However, due to alienation of tribals from their land, deprivation of tribals of forestry rights and low literacy rate has badly affected the economy of the indigenous population. As a result, the incidence of migration has increased amongst the tribals who are leaving their traditional habitat, occupation and migrating to urban areas for livelihood. Seasonal out- migration to nearby towns and big cities in search of jobs is part of the survival strategy for poor.

Problems and IssuesIrrigated agriculture is suffering from low crop yield and low cropping intensity due to unreliable water supply caused by a failing public irrigation and drainage system, inefficient O&M management due to limited community participation in addition to inadequate agriculture inputs and lack of proper extension services. As a consequence, overall socio-economic conditions of the state have been deteriorating gradually, accelerating the process of landlessness, unemployment, abject poverty, thus, adversely affecting the all sections of the population especially the poor and vulnerable.

Social Assessments

Social Assessments are intended to promote an understanding of “how people and groups understand, order and value their social relationships and systems of social organization” and the “complex, contextual nature of local social issues”. Social Assessments should draw out “the implications of change from the perspectives of the people involved in the process” and convert the “understanding of complex reality into appropriate conclusions and recommendations suitable for action”.

Social Assessment (SA) provides an integrated framework for incorporating participation and social analysis into the operational and analytical work of developing a project. Because there are many social variables that could potentially affect project impacts and success, SAs must be selective and strategic and focus on issues of operational relevance. Deciding what issues are critical and how they can be addressed requires consultation with stakeholders and other forms of data collection and analysis. Gender, ethnicity,

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social impacts, and institutional capacity are among the social factors that need to be taken into account in development operations. In the past, these factors have never been taken into considerations leave aside a complete analysis of the same. Social assessment provides a comprehensive, participatory framework for deciding what issues have priority for attention and how operationally useful information can be gathered and used.

Social assessments are generally carried out in a project context to do the following:

Identify key stakeholders and establish an appropriate framework for their participation in the project selec-tion, design, and implementation.

Ensure that project objectives and incentives for change are acceptable to the range of people intended to benefit and that gender and other social differences are re-flected in project design.

To assess the social impact of investment projects and, where adverse impacts are identified, determine how they can be overcome or at least substantially mitigated.

Develop ability at the appropriate level to enable par-ticipation, resolve conflict, permit service delivery, and carry out mitigation measures as required.

Steps in Social Assessment Process

Social assessment is the process of analyzing (predicting, evaluating and reflecting) and managing the intended and unintended consequences on the human environment of interventions (policies, plans, programs, projects and other social activities) and social change processes so as to create a more sustainable biophysical and human environment.The important features of this definition are that:

(1) SA is understood to include adaptive management of impacts, projects and policies (as well as prediction, mitigation and monitoring) and therefore needs to be involved (at least considered) in the planning of the project or policy from inception;

(2) The SA process can be applied to a wide range of interventions, and undertaken at the behest of a wide range of actors, and not just within a regulatory framework;

(3) It is implicit that social and biophysical impacts (and the human and biophysical environments) are interconnected; and finally;

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(4) The overall purpose of all impact assessment is to bring about a more sustainable world, and that issue of social sustainability and ecological sustainability need to be considered in partnership. SA is also understood to be an umbrella or overarching framework that embodies all human impacts including aesthetic impacts (landscape analysis), archaeological (heritage) impacts, community impacts, cultural impacts, demographic impacts, development impacts, economic and fiscal impacts, gender assessment, health impacts, indigenous rights, infrastructural impacts, institutional impacts, political impacts (human rights, governance, democratization etc), poverty assessment, psychological impacts, resource issues (access and ownership of resources), tourism impacts, and other impacts on societies. A convenient way of thinking about social impacts is as changes to one or more of the following:

people’s way of life – how they live, works, play and interact with one another on a day-to-day basis;

their culture – shared beliefs, customs, values and lan-guage or dialect;

their community – its cohesion, stability, character, services and facilities;

their environment – the quality of the air and water peo-ple use; the availability and quality of the food they eat; the level of hazard or risk, dust and noise they are exposed to; the adequacy of sanitation, their physical safety, and their access to and control over resources;

their health and wellbeing – where health is defined as “a complete state of mental, physical and social wellbe-ing, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”, and is applied to individuals and to the society in which they live; and finally,

their fears and aspirations – their perceptions about their safety, their fears about the future of their com-munity, and their aspirations for their future and the future of their children.

There are some principles which act as benchmarks for conducting an SIA. They include:

Joint role of SIA and public involvement in identifying beneficiary groups;

Concept of impact equity (who "wins" and who "loses") as it concerns sensitive groups;

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Focus of an SIA—the possible impacts identified by the public and impacts identified through social science ex-pertise;

Explicit identification methods, assumptions, and deter-mination of significance;

Feedback to project planners;

Use of SIA practitioners to do SIA;

Establishment of mitigation and monitoring or as joint agency-community responsibility;

Identifying appropriate data source for SIA; and

Planning for gaps in data.

Description of Darki schemeThe area is a relatively under developed, economically depressed rural region consisting mostly of Scheduled Tribes. Agriculture is the dominant activity. There is no industrial development or tourism activity. Roads are made of compressed dirt or gravel (e.g., “kutcha type”).

The scheme is likely to benefit between 1600-1700 people spread over the four villages. Virtually the entire population (97%) belongs to three main Scheduled Tribes - the Pahari, Korba and Oraon.

The literacy rate is about 30% and only primary schools are available. Virtually all the people (96%) are engaged in agriculture practices. Women in particular do focus on growing vegetables. Health care is available at the Primary Health Center. Land use revolves around agricultural activities but due to inadequate irrigation facilities residents also rely on extracting non-timber forest products (e.g., fuelwood, bamboo, leaves and myrabolams). There are no cultural, historical, or archaeological sites of importance in the area.

Description of the Pakhanjore Scheme

The total population served by this minor scheme is 4604 with 813 households. The average family size is 5.6 with the male-female ratio being 931 females per 1000 males. Interestingly, in Sowgaon village females outnumber males. The average female household is only 10.7% of the total in the sub-project area.

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In the area of Pakhanjur, 90% of the population belongs to other backward castes such as Yadavs and Chamars. Four out of five villages are inhabited by Bangladeshi refugees; rehabilitated by the Government of India after partition and the 1971 Bangladesh War of Independence. Initially, government gave 6 acres of land per refugee family and other facilities. Presently, these inhabitants are asking for Scheduled Caste status from Chhattisgarh Government as in other states where it has been recognised. Only Sowgaon Village has around 70% tribal population whereas the sub-project area has 9.5% of Scheduled Tribe population. The prominent tribes in the sub-project area are Oraons, Gonds and Halbas. The general castes are Bramhins and Thakurs which is around 1.2% of the total population. The area has around 1.2% of population over 60 years and physically handicapped. Table 2.2 explains the village social classification.

Table 2.2: Village Social ClassificationName of the villages

Scheduled Caste

Scheduled Tribe

Backward Caste

General Over 60/Physically handicapped

Sowgaon 6 380 125 29 7Subhas Nager

0 0 750 15 11

Vidya Nager

0 8 800 7 9

Sham Nager

0 43 1339 2 14

Jaishri Nager

0 0 1096 4 16

Total 6 431 4110 57 57Source: Census 2001and Primary survey, 2004. Literacy is an important factor for any development. The sub-project area has average 70% literacy. Of the literate population 60% are males. There is apparent gender disparity as far as wages are concerned. Women get around Rs.30 as against Rs. 50 for men. On average, workforce participation in the sub-project area is 53% whereas 47% are non-workers including children, women and aged. Out of total workforce, 75% are engaged as cultivators, 17% as agriculture labourers and the remaining as workers in allied enterprises. Apart from agriculture, the households are engaged in collection of minor forest produce especially in Sowgaon village while other villages are running tea stall, tailoring unit and cycle repair shop. During Rabi season, most of the workforce migrates for seasonal occupation outside their village. The Bangladeshi inhabitants migrate to nearby Maharashtrian towns where they receive higher wages or contract amount. These farmers are highly skilled and known for their improved

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agricultural practices. Health and other infrastructural facilities are available in the 3 project villages. For better medical care, people go to either Durg or Kanker which is 100 Km. The villagers generally depend on the local quacks and traditional medical practitioners such as Ojha etc. There is prevalence of malaria, worms and other water borne diseases amongst the population. Panchayat Bhawan, primary school and Government fair-price shops exist in most of the villages. There is high school and medical facilities in Pakhanjur block itself. Market for agricultural produce is non-existent and most of the local farmers suffer from lack of market facilities.

Table 2.5: Average Income DetailsVillages Total

Households

Below Rs.500/-

per month

Between Rs.500-Rs.1000

Between Rs.1000-Rs.1500

Above Rs.1500

Sowgaon 92 28 13 32 19Subhas Nager

137 27 20 47 43

Vidya Nager

145 29 21 50 45

Sham Nager

241 48 36 84 73

Jaishri Nager

198 39 29 69 61

Total 813 171 119 282 241Source: Block handbook,1991 and primary survey,2004

Table 2.6: Land DistributionName of the Villages

Below 1 Acre

Between 1-2 Acre

Between 2-5 Acre

Above 5

Acres

Landless

Sowgaon 13 27 20 17 15Subhas Nager

20 38 27 30 22

Vidya Nager

22 43 29 28 23

Sham Nager

36 52 58 60 35

Jaishri Nager

29 63 40 42 24

Total 120 223 174 177 119Source: Block handbook,1991 and primary survey,2004

Table 2.4: Village Occupational Patterns

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Village Cultivators Agriculture Labours

Non-Workers

Total Workers

Sowgaon 150 120 255 285Subhas Nager

185 110 447 318

Vidya Nager

200 100 475 340

Sham Nager

700 66 572 812

Jaishri Nager

618 24 394 706

Total 1853 420 2143 2461Source: Block handbook,1991 and primary survey,2004

Poverty incidence is high in the project villages. Around 22% of the total households are below the poverty line as per the government norms. Sowgaon village itself has around 38% of household living below poverty line. The following table shows poverty levels.

Table 2.7: Poverty levels in VillagesName of the Villages

Total Households

No. below poverty Line

Sowgaon 92 35Subhas Nager

137 38

Vidya Nager

145 30

Sham Nager 241 40Jaishri Nager

198 35

Total 813 178Source: Block handbook,1991 and primary survey,2004Data on irrigated area through the canal is not available from Irrigation Department. Around 65% of the land is under cultivation.

Socioeconomic surveys

Detailed social studies were carried out for the sub-project which involved a 20% household survey, 100% baseline survey and 4 FGDs (Focus Group Discussions) conducted at the feasibility level. These studies were conducted for two minor irrigation schemes in Darki and Pakhanjore. For two medium schemes 100% baseline survey and 6 FGDs (Focus Group Discussions) were conducted at the pre-feasibility stage. Participatory Research Approach and Rapid Rural Appraisal techniques were used during the field survey. A multi-stage stratified sampling has been adopted. The purpose of a multi-

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stage stratification of the population before sampling is to reduce the variances of the data to be generated by the survey. The number of villages covered through household interviews, focus group interviews, and 100% baseline is as follows:The scheme area contains four villages. Two of these were selected for 100 household surveys and the other two for 67 focus group discussions. The selection of the villages was made so as to include one village each at the canal head and the other at the tail end.

The settlements of each sample village were subdivided into zones on the basis of socio-economic strata. The zones inhabited by poorer people consisted primarily of tribals and people of the Scheduled Castes. The zones of the poorer people were identified through consultations with a number of knowledgeable persons and functionaries of the village. From each cluster 50 households were selected for the household survey with a random start. Female head of households were also included as sample household.

In addition to the four villages mentioned above, six villages out of 42 under the command of Medium Irrigation Schemes were selected for focus group interviews. Thus, in all, interviews were conducted in 10 villages to collect qualitative data and probe deeper aspects of any problems.

During the reconnaissance level study (PPTA), the existing socio-economic profile, social acceptance of the scheme and resettlement needs was considered for selecting the pilot sub-projects. A rapid rural screening appraisal process was undertaken to identify the various social groups, their economic profile, poverty status, literacy level, awareness about government programs, perceptions about Rabi cropping, wage profile for men and women in agriculture and non-agriculture activities. Questions related to the existing institutional set up and its relation with farmers, demand and need, willingness to participate in operation and maintenance, acceptance of the scheme and any resettlement needs were asked during this reconnaissance stage.Broadly, the socio-economic issues identified after reconnaissance visits to all regions are as follows:

Social concerns were previously not taken into considera-tion during project preparation and design by WRD.

There is a high incidence of poverty in all regions around 50% and projects are prepared with simple Cost Benefit ratio without much analyses and planning.

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Lack of stakeholder’s analysis, their role, demand and need.

Lack of coordination between all line agencies and WRD.

Small land holdings and revenue records are not updated.

High migration occurs due to poverty, unemployment and low returns from agricultural produce.

Though none of the sub-projects have significant reset-tlement issues, a policy consistent with ADB guidelines is required for future projects that may involve reset-tlement.

There is little consideration for gender and vulnerable persons’ issues such as their access to resources.

A proactive role for WRD is envisaged regarding involve-ment in and awareness of participatory irrigation manage-ment.

Focus group/key informants

Public consultation and disclosure was completed from April 15 to June 14, 2004 during the TA phase. Among the four villages in the Darki Scheme two were selected for focus group (FG) sessions and the remaining two during household surveys.

Participation in the FGs included: (i) heads and members of households; (ii) groups/clusters of beneficiaries; (iii) village Panchayats; (iv) WUAs; (v) local volunteer organizations and some NGOs (few ac-

tive in the area); (vi) government agencies and departments; and (vii) other project stakeholders (e.g., women, tribes,

other vulnerable groups).

Over 25% represented women and over 50% involved Scheduled Tribes. Core activities involved:

(i) disseminating information and requesting villagers to attend the FGs;

(ii) sharing in discussion of the opinions, perceptions and preferences of the beneficiaries;

(iii) involving the beneficiaries in identifying the prob-lems and possible solutions;

(iv) understand the views and acceptance of CIDSP among the beneficiaries particularly among the WUA and farmers and the potential for loss of a small por-

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tion of their land for construction of field chan-nels;

(v) assess the influence of socio-economic characteris-tics among village populations to better create sup-portive mechanisms in planning and implementation (e.g., agriculture, water charges, WUA activities, etc.);

(vi) identify contentious issues related to project im-pacts on the community, if any;

(vii) factor beneficiaries opinion on design alternatives for R&U of the irrigation Schemes;

(viii) identify levels and scope of community participation in project implementation, particularly O&M; and

(ix) reach an understanding for identification of the overall development goals and benefits of the Sub-project for presentation in the final TA report.

Comments received from Damodar Pur:i. Soil has hardened due to dry conditions (less

water) & excessive use of fertilizers.ii. Willing to grow rabi crops providing water is

provided. iii. Can contribute Rs.10/acre to cover O&M cost

plus one day’s labor.iv. Relief (compensation for land) not received un-

der previous irrigation plan. v. Extra 150 acres of land can be farmed combining

tube wells with canal water.vi. Need to involve women but will need proper

training. vii. Training delivered in local dialect & locally

organized so women & poor farmers can partici-pate.

viii. Field channels required with minimal use of existing land.

ix. Community found willing to participate & showed enthusiasm about the project and benefits.

x. WUAs to be part of Panchayat to become more ef-fective institutions.

xi. Agricultural training to include: improved techniques, crop diversity options, water needs, market links etc.

xii. Representation by tribes & women a must in the WUAs.

xiii. Need information about the benefits of CIDSP.

xiv. People are aware of the larger benefits of R&U of the schemes.

xv. Programs such as work for food are effective.

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xvi. Self-help groups & seed banks are required pre-vent indebtedness.

Comments from Murka:i. Villagers showed displeasure with village CEO & wished

his removal for not finishing a village road.ii. Crop production can increase with improved water

supply.iii. Government needs to provide information about how

the WUAs should operate.iv. WUA president Mr. Pradip Jaiswal indicated he is

more a figurehead lacking authority.v. Will contribute Rs.5/acre for O&M cost.vi. Require employment & training programs.vii. Field channels are acceptable but with no further

land loss.viii. If land is lost it is to be compensated ade-

quately as land for land.ix. Women to be part of WUAs.x. WUAs to be part of Panchayat.xi. Village youth to be part of WUAs & the R&U activi-

ties.xii. Extension services required for agriculture, agri-

cultural credit, market links, etc.

Comments from Village Vidya Nagar, District Kanker

i. Need market link for Agricultural Surplus.

ii. Need for commercial farming.

iii. Need primary health center and good educational in-stitutions.

iv. Will not pay water dues unless uninterrupted water is assured.

v. They are originally refugees of Bangladesh and gen-erally we are Schedule Caste but the Govt. of Chhat-tisgarh is not recognizing us as SCs. This is a ma-jor problem for our development. They want SC status from state to get more benefits.

vi. WUAs not effective due to lack of interest, no in-formation about the role and responsibilities of WUA.

vii. Panchayat members to be part of WUAs.

viii. Awareness, information and training required for O&M of the system, about WUAs.

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ix. Women Members role to be more defined as they are not effective. Women Members to get more authority and power.

x. Field channels are already existent, only little re-pair is needed.

Comments from Village Sao Gaon, District Kanker

a) Need market link for Agricultural Surplus.

b) Need tube wells apart from canal water.

c) Need primary health center and good educational institutions.

d) Will not pay water dues unless uninterrupted water is assured.

e) Willing to participate in the program provided information about benefits etc. is explained.

f) Regular interaction with government officials and other agencies needed.

g) WUAs not effective and no information about general body or any meetings given.

h) Representation of this village is needed in WUAs and at least one member from tribal community is needed in WUAs.

i) No extension of agriculture services.

j) Need for agricultural credit and cooperatives.

k) Women members to be included in WUAs

l) Panchayat to be part of WUAs.

m) Regular meeting and information is needed.

n) Field channel is required, ready to part 1 meter of land for this without any compensation.

o) If more land is required, then adequate compensation should be paid.

Comments from Khairbar, District Surgujai. Lot of wasted land; area is hilly; is dry & spoiled by

excessive use of fertilizer.ii. Need knowledge of hybrid seeds & soil management &

agriculture extension.iii. Not much awareness about WUA; needs to improve.iv. Need training for self-employment & income generat-

ing schemes.v. Women want to take active role in WUA’s.

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vi. Need to have better representation in WUAs through Panchayat.

vii. Representatives of Mahila Mandals, youth group to be included in WUAs.

viii. Coordination between all agencies needed.ix. Willing to participate in the Project.x. Willing to pay O&M cost provided water is assured.xi. Field channels and good drainage facility required.

Comments from Village Khukhri, District Surguja

a) Need to increase production.

b) There is not much conflict between people of two villages on share of water.

c) Aware about WUA president but this man has no authority, power and is ineffective.

d) No knowledge about the aims & objectives of WUA.

e) Need basic health facilities & training to create self-help groups for women.

f) Mahila Samitis & NGOs should be made members of WUAs.

g) Panchayat should be associated with WUAs to have better and larger Target Group and audience.

h) Agriculture extension services such as training on di-verse crop, improved techniques of farming required.

i) Quality seed on time and agriculture credit facility with market linkup required.

j) Willing to participate in the rehabilitation project and O&M of the system.

k) Field channel needed and for that ready to part some portion of land.

l) Encroachers would leave the canal side encroachment voluntarily.

m) Land consolidation and updating of land records.

Comments from Katigi, Balari. Water received during kharif but not during rabi

seasons.ii. The selection of members to WUA needs to be trans-

parent.iii. WRD officials should be impartial in supplying wa-

ter.iv. Require special programs to assist economic develop-

ment. v. Can only donate free labor for the welfare of vil-

lage.

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vi. Women should be part of WUAs.vii. Not adequate extension services from the DoA.

viii. WUAs to be part of Panchayat and not a parallel in-stitution.

ix. Benefits usurped by resourceful people, inequality.x. Farming not considered profitable.xi. Seasonal & permanent migration of labour occurs.xii. Willing to participate in O&M if water supply is as-

sured.xiii. Will accept field channels but require compensation

if land is lost.xiv. Consolidation of land and updating of land records

required.Comments from Village Karji, District Surguja

a) Drinking water problems.

b) No awareness or Knowledge about WUA, its process & proce-dures.

c) No water disputes, as there is no water.

d) Leadership Training for WUAs.

e) WUA president ineffective.

f) Will contribute Rs.10 per acre per year as O&M cost.

g) Need to incorporate more women members and give training to them about their role in WUAs.

h) Need to associate other informal groups such as youth members etc. with WUAs.

i) WUAs to be part of Panchayats to have greater reach and accountability.

j) Regular general meetings of WUAs.

k) Field Channels needed and people are willing to part the land for channels.

l) Need to aware about the benefits of the project.

m) Need agricultural training and other agriculture related extension services.

Comments from Village Katgi, District Raipur

a) Water received for Kharif but not for Rabi

b) The selection of Members to WUA should be made trans-parent

c) WRD officials should be impartial in supplying water

d) We need special program for our economic development

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e) We can only donate free labor for the welfare of vil-lage.

f) Women to be part of WUAs.

g) Not adequate extension services from Agriculture De-partment.

h) WUAs to be part of Panchayat and not as a parallel in-stitution.

i) Benefits usurped by resourceful people, inequality.

j) Unemployment and Farming no longer profitable.

k) Seasonal and permanent migration.

l) Willing to participate in O& M, if provided assured wa-ter.

m) Ready to accept field channels but if more land is re-quired adequate compensation is needed.

n) Consolidation of land and updating of land records.

Comments from Kasdol, Balari. Balar Dam should be connected to Mahanadi or Jonk River.ii. Capacity to release the irrigation water needs to be in-

creased.iii. Gates of the dam in need of repair.iv. Canals should be made of concrete or at least lined.v. Out migration of people can be reduced if irrigation wa-

ter is supplied throughout the year.vi. Present WUA is not effective because of limited knowl-

edge.vii. Women participation is essential.

viii. Willing to grow rabi crops provided water is assured along with timely seed and other inputs from agriculture department.

ix. Panchayat to take active role in WUAs.x. Consolidation of land, updating of land records.xi. Will accept field channels but if more land is required

adequate compensation is needed.

Comments from Sel, Balari. No water received in 2003 so no payments made.ii. The President of the WUA needs to be trained properly to

run the organization.iii. Balan Dechi River should be connected with Balar Tank to

provide water year round.iv. Rainwater storage program needed.v. Managing committee of WUA needs to examine how it dis-

tributes irrigation water.vi. Panchayat to be part of WUAs for better representation.

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vii. WUA president Raj Kumar Jaiswal said, 'without powers I look like a stupid person in front of villagers’.

viii. WUA members must have training & clarify their role, re-sponsibilities & authority.

ix. Land consolidation & land record updates needed.

In general residents indicated that the main constraints to agriculture production were caused by a lack of:

i. adequate water, ii. access to credit mechanisms to buy seed and fertil-

izer, iii. extension services to improve farming practices, and iv. a properly organized WUA to represent the water

needs in the area.

Improving irrigation is viewed as a need and mechanism to improve quality of life.Farmers appeared to indicate they would be prepared to pay water charges for O&M providing they are reasonable and directly support mechanisms for timely supply of water. Improving irrigation is viewed as a need and mechanism to improve quality of life. The consultative process will need to continue particularly during final design to strengthen “buy-in” and cooperation to finalize site conditions, issues and concerns, particularly on structuring the WUA. It is expected that a larger number of local stakeholders and villages will be involved. The WUA structure will also be embodied in the PIM component and applied to the Darki Scheme development and functional local organizations to better represent their interests in finalizing design, construction and O&M packages.

Participatory Irrigation Management

Walkthrough surveyThe following stakeholders participated in the walk-through survey of each scheme:

o Concerned WUA

o Leading farmers in the scheme

o Panchayat representatives

o WRD staff from the concerned sub-division

o WRD counterpart staff which participated in the design of the rehabilitation and upgrading works.

o Participatory Irrigation Management expert (Consultant)

o Socio-economist and irrigation walk-through experts (NGO).

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Walk-through survey process followed the following three steps:

Step 1: Introductory meetingDuring the introductory meeting, the following was explained to the WUA farmers and Panchyat representatives:

the main objectives of the project

the purposes of the walk-through activity; and

the process that will be used in the survey.

Step 1 also aimed to obtain the initial view of the farmers on the scheme, on the factors that have led to the existing system deficiencies, on the solutions, as well as their priorities and preferences.

Step 2: Participatory field survey of the irrigation infrastructuresThe walk-through survey started from the head of the irrigation system through the end tail. All the structures were inspected and their R&U needs were noted. The team also discussed the structures and changes the farmers have developed in the system and the need for canal breaching in some locations.

The walk-through team used the line-diagram plan of the scheme prepared by the Consultant before the survey. The plan indicates the general layout of the schemes and canal network and the location of different structures.

During the survey, farmers and WUA members were encouraged to recommend on R&U needs and system improvement.

Step 3: Wrap-up meeting At the end of the survey, a wrap-up meeting was organized to summarize and confirm the output of the survey and to obtain farmers priorities and preferences.

The wrap-up meeting aimed also at obtaining farmers and WUA view on issues such as farmers willingness to participate in the cost of R&U works, of field channel construction costs and of O&M costs, as well as to spare land for the field channels construction.

Table Farmers view on O&M and field channels constructionScheme WUA and farmers views

Darki - O&M: farmers are willing to take-up the

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O&M of the rehabilitated system.- Field channels: farmers are willing to

provide the land required and share the cost through contribution by labour.

Pakhanjore - O&M: farmers are willing to take-up the O&M of the rehabilitated system.

- Field channels: farmers indicated the need of field channels. They are will-ing to contribute in their development and maintenance.

Balar - O&M charges: Farmers are prepared to pay O&M cost. However the share to be borne by them must be indicated.

- Field Channels: Farmers are willing to spare the land and share the costs. However they indicate their desire to be involved in the definition of layout of the field channels.

Banki - Field channels: farmers are skeptical about the need.

The above table indicates that farmers are willing to operate and maintain the rehabilitated schemes and to contribute in the O&M costs. They are also willing to spare land for field channels. However they want to be involved in defining channels alignment.

Lessons LearnedThe following are the lessons learned from the participatory walk-through survey conducted in the four pilot schemes:

The three step process used in the walk-through survey was efficient in collecting the information and farmers views and visions on the R&U project. It was also effi-cient in preparing a comprehensive R&U works program.

The WRD and the WUA realized that the participatory walk-through survey is an important tool to identify the scheme problems and the R&U needs.

WRD officials realized that the joint walk-through with the farmers and the WUA was very useful to cover all the needed R&U works and to prepare a comprehensive R&U plan.

A social mobilizer is needed in the walk-through team to facilitate the effective involvement of the WRD, the WUA and the farmers in the survey.

The participation of Panchayat officials in the walk-through exercise facilitated the communication between the farmers, the WUA and the WRD.

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Care should be given during the walk-through survey to segregate the suggestions of the stakeholders addressing the needs of individuals or group of individuals.

Organize the walk-through survey when the farmers are not involved in agricultural activity.

The WUA and the farmers have better knowledge than the WRD sub-division staff on the system issues and its defi-ciencies. So, participation of farmers in planning and design of the R&U works is very important to the success of the rehabilitation projects.

Main Issues Identified During the Walk-through SurveyMain issues identified during the walk-through survey and which must be considered during participatory inspection of the selected schemes during CIDSP implementation are the following:

condition of the dam structure (bank erosion, stone pitching, spillway, …)

status of the main sluice gates (leakage)

canal siltation and weeding

sections and points of leakage (canals and structures)

unauthorized cuts and openings along the canals

operational condition and rehabilitation and upgrading needs of the different structures: village road bridge (VRB), siphons, aqueducts, culverts, drop structures, turnouts, outlets, …

condition of the drainage network

condition of the field channels and the water course (if any)

damage to the canal lining

in hillside area, collecting and diverting runoff water out of the schemes area

measuring devices

new regulating structures that the scheme may require

water logging and soil salinity problems

general problems of the scheme: water resources avail-ability, irrigation network coverage, need for construc-tion of new minors, ..

farmers view on the following issues: rabi cropping, con-struction of field channels, farmers willingness to par-ticipate in R&U costs and O&M cost recovery system,and

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conflict on water use with adjacent scheme(s).

The people in Darki are poor and under-employed and the area is subject to Naxalite disturbance.

Social ClassificationSocial ClassificationFrom CG govt statistics as per the 2001 census, population of the state is 20.81 million out of which 31.7% belong to Scheduled Tribes (ST) and 11.9% to Scheduled Castes.

Table 2.2 explains the village wise social classification with Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribe, Other Backward Class (OBC), physically handicapped and other vulnerable population details.

Table 2.2: Village Social Classification:

Name of village

Scheduled Caste

Scheduled Tribe OBC General

Over 60/ Physically handicapped

Damodarpur 0 504 37 29 81Murka 3 243 375 36 87Kamari 9 452 200 218 92Bhadar 8 577 190 313 107

Source: Census 2001and Primary survey, 2004.

Damodarpur village has the highest percentage of tribal population which is 88.4% of total population as against 36.9% in Murka village. The dominant tribal groups in Damodarpur are Pahari Korba and Oraons. Pahari Korbas are declared as primitive tribal groups having distinct characteristics by the Chhattisgarh Government. There are many welfare schemes run by the government to improve the conditions of these distinct groups. Bhadar and Kamari village has 53% and 51.4% of tribal groups respectively. Murka village has 57% of backward castes followed by 22.7% in Kamari, 17.46% in Bhadar and only 6.49% in Damodarpur. General castes are highest in Bhadar with 28.76%, followed by Kamari with 24.8% whereas Damodarpur and Murka have 5% and 5.4% respectively.

People over 60 years and physically handicapped are also considered vulnerable apart from indigenous population and women. Damodarpur has the highest percentage of physically handicapped and people over 60 years i.e. 14.21% as against 9.83% in Bhadar.

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Indigenous PeopleThere are present different Scheduled Tribe communities in the command area villages. The scheduled tribe communities are Oraon, Kawar and Pahadi Korwas. The Pahadi Korwas are identified as primitive trial groups based on the following criteria

(i) Pre-agricultural level of technology and

(ii) Extremely low level of literacy

There are 1508 scheduled tribes and 22 scheduled castes people residing in the command area villages. Some of the features of the indigenous people in the villages of the command area are given below:

Paddy, oil seeds are the main crops in the villages. High paid M.F.Ps namely Chironje, Hara, Kosa etc are bartered with low priced commodities namely sugar, salt, utensils etc.

According to tribal view point, they face various prob-lems due to extensive deforestation, dispossession of land, drinking water, health, the insensitive adminis-tration and exploitation by outsiders.

The tribals live in compact areas which are generally of hilly terrain. Their economy is based on agriculture and forest. However due to unauthorized alienation of tribal land and depravation of tribals of forestry rights their economy is badly affected.

Inhospitable environment and upland dry cultivation due to non-availability of adequate irrigation facilities in time are mainly responsible for their poor produc-tion of agriculture.

The Tribal Sub Plan approach adopted from the beginning of the Fifth Five Year Plan has also two pronged strat-egy namely (i) promotion of development activities to raise the level of living standard of scheduled tribes and (ii) Protection of their interest through legal and administrative support. However, this has not been com-mensurate with the amount of funds spent. It is mainly because there has not been any focused attention on the concept of TSP as it has not been implemented properly. International Funds for Agriculture Development (IFAD) has started their activities in these Command Area Vil-lages especially for providing irrigation facilities to the lands of different groups. Different non-governmen-tal organizations are working in the villages with the financial assistance of IFAD. It is observed that coor-dination between WRD and IFAD is lacking though both

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the agencies are engaged for providing irrigation fa-cilities in these villages.

According to the policy of indigenous peoples by ADB, indigenous people often are not able to participate in development processes and share in the benefit of de-velopment. These aspects are lacking in understanding between WRD and other line departments.

Schemes for Development of Indigenous PeopleLand belonging to Indigenous people in the command area will benefit from the project by increasing its productivity. The following initiatives are proposed in addition as Government assistance is not adequate to meet their requirement.

(a) Financial assistance for supply of inputs for agricul-tural development (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, agricultural implements etc.)

(b) Training of capacity building for active participation in WUA as the indigenous people are not fully aware of the role of WUA.

(c) Development of fisheries by providing financial assis-tance for individual landless indigenous people.

(d) Organization of self help groups for providing working capital with the objective to check the exploitation by middlemen for marketing of MFPs to provide remunerative prices. In addition, various training for value addi-tion in leaf plate making, honey extraction etc. for better marketability to ensure a fair price to the in-digenous people.

(e) Special training programs may be organized for aware-ness generation of the people on sanitation and other matters.

(f) Nucleus funds could be provided to implement field level functionary of WRD who may provide the funds as necessity arises for purposes during drought season or the community needs for his bare necessity. These funds may be treated as discretionary funds to be sanctioned by the local implementing field level functionary of W.R.D.

Participation in construction of worksVarious activities like desilting canals, desilting drainage culverts, siphons, benching canal banks etc. under irrigation system and removal of stone pitching, excavation, watering

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earth works for maintenance of dam are being undertaken by engaging contractors. 30% of the contract could be directed to women in the sub-Project as their population is about half of the total population in the area. In case of Indigenous people (S.Ts), priority should also be given to award them similar contracts for such activities.

A Social Audit may be made on the following items to determine the extent of benefits accrued to women and indigenous people.

Equity in water distribution

Increase in production

Increase in productivity

Crop diversification

Multiple cropping

Water use efficiency

Quality of work undertaken

Participation in WUA management

Women, tribals, landless and low caste groups often remain marginalized in local decision-making. These target groups through WUAs assume O&M responsibility for irrigation system and self monitor these impacts and out-puts which can increase their management effectiveness. The involvement of vulnerable groups in irrigation activities and decisions will be promoted and monitored by themselves and W.R.D. Hence, they must be trained to strengthen their participation in planning, implementation and monitoring of the Sub-Project.

Capacity Building and Skill Upgrading

In order that the women and indigenous groups are able to derive maximum benefits out of the project activities and supplement their income to bring about improvement in their quality of life, it would be necessary to upgrade their skills and train them in activities associated with the project. With this end in view, certain skills would have to be identified which can be learnt by the women and indigenous groups keeping in view their traditional background and educational levels.

It should be kept in mind that training for skill upgrading should not be of very long duration and be organized locally or at a near by place. These may be based on learning by doing

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through the guidance of those who have acquired experience in this vocation. Also with completion of engineering components of the project, improved agricultural practices will be implemented. Therefore, there would be scope of employment opportunities in the construction activities of the project and also in the improved agricultural practices. Some of these vocations are;

Masonry knowledge,

Skills in improved agricultural implements,

Piscicullture.

The WRD/WUAs can organize such training in their area through the help of senior masons of the village and agriculture experts of the district. In addition, women and indigenous people can benefit from other training activities which will be implemented by the project as part of farmers’ training.

GenderGenderWomen undertake almost exclusively sowing, maintenance, harvesting, processing, and marketing. Besides, they specifically carry out market garden crop farming and livestock breeding. The development of additional food crops will benefit women most. The project will provide women with irrigation water and water for livestock breeding. This will increase household income and improve living standards. With the rehabilitation of the systems, some women can work as wage earners on large irrigated farms. The project would also create significant employment opportunities in the area, especially for women and indigenous people. Increased production activities will therefore demand more labour and provide more employment to the women as well as indigenous population. There will be an overall increase in annual employment which includes an increase in agricultural labour of which women will share two-third.

Status and Problems of Women(i) The status of women in a complex society like gen-

eral population is not uniform. There are many vari-ations of their status, differing according to the cultural milieu, family structure, caste, class, oc-cupation and property rights. All these factors are significant determinants of variation in their posi-tion in different groups.

(ii) Half of the population of the Sub-project area be-longs to women and they are subjected not merely to gender bias, but also to indignities arising out of

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the age-old tradition of untouchability from which the entire social group of scheduled caste suffer. The deep-rooted social discriminations have com-pelled this section of people to lead a life of bare subsistence level, both in terms of economic terms and human values.

(iii) Vulnerable groups are largely rural based. They have tied themselves to land owners to ensure sur-vival. The variety of complex relationship is re-flected such as a much larger number of women agri-cultural laborers are employed as permanent farm servants and attached laborers.

(iv) More than 80% of women are involved directly in agricultural and allied activities like animal hus-bandry, poultry, fishing, sericulture and other re-lated pursuits. This sector is the main stay of their economy and nearly 50% of the wealth in this sphere is generated through women.

(v) In average agricultural households, women share with men the burden of agricultural operations. Normally, men do arduous jobs like breaking the soil, plough-ing and irrigation. Women undertake activities like broadcasting, transplanting, weeding, harvesting, threshing and winnowing. The categories of relations between land and women are commonly observed in the village:(1) Owner cultivators (2) Land Owners but not tillers (3) Share Croppers (4) Cultivating laborers who are of various categories viz ? (a) Landless (b) Having small land which is cultivated and also work-ing as hired laborers in other’s land and sometimes take other’s land in share cultivation.

(vi) The concentration of women in agricultural and al-lied activities is due to the decline of rural based industries leading to large-scale reduction of labour force within non-agricultural sectors and also to their eventual reversion to wage laborers in agricultural sector.

There is not much gender disparity apparently but women get around Rs.45 as daily wages as against Rs.50 for men.

Development Schemes for Women.Land belonging to women in the command area will be benefited due to the project in order to increase their productivity. However the following important schemes are suggested to

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provide additional financial assistance as government programs are not adequate to meet their requirement.

(i) Organization of self-groups by providing working capital to undertake various activities like leaf-plate making, rope and mat making etc. For this pur-pose a fund should be created for the self-help group. In addition, the group may organize training in poultry, food procession, packaging and garment making.

(ii) Training for capacity building for proper participa-tion in Water Users Associations.

(iii) Special training programs may be organized and their recruitment as extension and other workers in agriculture, forestry, waste-land development, hor-ticulture, sericulture, herbiculture and small scale industries should be ensured.

(iv) Funds may be provided for social security schemes of crèches, health care, maternity benefit for unorga-nized female workers as adequate attention has not been given in these areas.

Literacy and educationLiteracy and education

Literacy is one of the most important components for any development. Literacy Status in DarkiLiteracy Status in DarkiVillage Name

Illiterate%

M/F % of those

literateDamodarpur 69 65/35Murka 77 70/30Kamari 36 55/45Bhadar 44 60/40

Source: Block handbook, 1991 and Primary survey,2004.

The literacy rate in Pakhanjore is about 70% and only primary schools are available locally. Most residents (90%) are engaged in agricultural practices. The current use of lands and resources are mostly agriculture based. But due to inadequate irrigation facilities the people mostly depend upon non-timber forest produce such as collection of firewood, bamboo, leaves, myrabolams, etc. Women are engaged in raising vegetables. Health care is available at the Primary Health Center. There is no cultural, historical, or archaeological structures or sites of any importance. Approximately 2% of the population are considered marginal farmers.

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Occupational PatternsOccupational Patterns

Village Name %Cultivators %Agriculture Labours

%Main Workers

Damodarpur 27 49 25Murka 31 40 29Kamari 33 36 29Bhadar 30 43 27

Source: Block handbook,1991 and primary survey,2004

Health and EducationHealth and EducationHealth and other infrastructural facilities are almost negligible in the project villages. People travel 60 Km to Ambikapur for medical care. The villagers generally depend on the local quacks and traditional medical practitioners such as Ojha etc. There is prevalence of Malaria, worms and other water borne diseases amongst the village population. Panchayat Bhawan is existing in Kamari Village. A metalled road is within 8-9 Km of all villages. There are primary schools in 2 villages and for further schooling, they have to travel another 35 km to Shankargarh or Kusmi.

IncomeIncome Out of 113 households, 67 households in Damodarpur are earning an average monthly income between Rs.500 and Rs.1000/-whereas in Murka 64 households have an average monthly income above Rs.1500/-. Around 22% of the households in Bhadar earn below Rs.500/-per month. See Table 2.5. The source of income is primarily agriculture, followed by collection of minor forest produce and seasonal work as unskilled labors outside the state.

Average Income Details

Village Name

%Below Rs.500 per month

%Between Rs.500-Rs.1000

%BetweenRs.1000-Rs.1500

%Above Rs. 1500 per month

Damodarpur 17 59 11 13Murka 11 18 23 49Kamari 16 18 34 32Bhadar 22 47 22 9

Source: Block handbook, 1991 and primary survey, 2004

Farm sizeFarm size

Approximately 4% of the inhabitants are landless. Table 2.6 shows the average land holding in the project area is 1.5 ha. The number of marginal and small farmers is much more than medium and large farmers. In Damodarpur, there are 60% farmers

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whose land holdings are between 1-2 Acres. 40% of the farmers in Bhadar have land holdings less than 1 Acre. There are 1 or 2 households in each village without any land holdings. Hardly 0.5% in Bhadar village have land over 2 ha. The majority of the farmers are marginal and small in the project area.

Distribution of Land Holding

Village Name

Below 0.5 ha

Between 0.5 & 1.0

haBetween 1 & 2 ha Above 2 ha

Damodarpur 30% 60% 9% 1%Murka 35% 55% 9% 1%Kamari 30% 60% 9% 1%Bhadar 40% 55% 4.5% .5%

Source: Block handbook, 1991 and primary survey, 2004

From CG govt statistics as per the 2001 census, population of the state is 20.81 million out of which 31.7% belong to Scheduled Tribes (ST) and 11.9% to Scheduled Castes. There are 29.66 lakh farmer families out of which 15.22 lakh are marginal, 6.24 lakh medium and 8.20 lakh large scale farmer families. About 80% population of the state is engaged in agriculture and allied activities. Agriculture has been and will remain the major sector for sustainable development and prosperity of the state.

PovertyPoverty incidences are high in the project villages. 35.37% of the total population in the project area is poor and below the poverty line. The state government has a number of welfare schemes to improve the social and poverty status of the people in the area.

Poverty Level

Village Name Total Households

No. of Below Poverty Line

Damodarpur 113 59%Murka 131 17%Kamari 146 16%Bhadar 181 32%

Source: Block handbook, 1991 and primary survey, 2004

Land UseLand Use The following table illustrates the land use pattern in the 4 project villages. Around 80% of the total land is under cultivation but significantly less is irrigated from the scheme.

Land Use in Project Villages

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Village name

Total Area (in hectares)

Land under Cultivation(in hectares)

Net Irrigated Area through Canal(in hectares)

Damodarpur 803.18 283.97 50Murka 352.72 310.83 11.32Kamari 252.71 252.71 N.A.Bhadar 441.74 357.55 N.A.Source:Revenue Documents, Block Records and Primary Survey,2004

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Physical Environment

Map..........................................................1Darki Scheme Description...................................3

Pahkanjore Site Description..................................3Rainfall.....................................................3Water table................................................5

Soil moisture................................................5Rice water requirement....................................7

Tanks.......................................................18Groundwater.................................................21Geology.....................................................21Soils.......................................................21Soil Textural Class.......................................22Total.....................................................22Water holding capacity...................................22Infiltration rate........................................22

Soil Chemistry............................................22Salinity..................................................24

Soil Erosion................................................24

Map

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Darki Scheme DescriptionThe Darki Scheme irrigation network covers a command area of 450 ha within a catchment of approximately 5 km2. The system is operating but is in bad condition at several places due to lack of maintenance. Topography around the delivery channels is mainly flat plains with a sporadic occurrence of rock outcrops. In the catchment area of the dam it varies from undulating terrain to small hillocks covered with forest.

Rainfall is primarily from May to November and can cause flash floods. Temperature varies between 10ºC and 40ºC. The geology consists mostly of granite, gneiss and associate basic and ultra basic intrusives. Soils are sandy loam and clay. The availability of ground water varies from 10 to 100 m. Groundwater is used only for livestock and domestic use. Use of ground water for irrigation is rare.

Pahkanjore Site Description

The topography of the area varies from flat plains to undulating terrain with small hillocks covered with forests in the vicinity of the delivery canals and dam catchment areas, respectively. Rainfall is from May to November. Temperature varies from a minimum of 100C to a maximum of 400C. The geology consists mostly of granite, gneiss, basic and ultra basic intrusives. Soil is sandy loam and clay. Ground water is mainly for livestock and domestic use.

The area is an under developed, economically depressed rural region consisting of Scheduled Castes and some Bangladeshi refugees. Agriculture is the dominant activity. There is no industrial or tourism activity to date. Roads inside the scheme are poorly developed. The scheme is likely to benefit about 4800 people spread over the Tehsil. The literacy rate is about 70% and only primary schools are available locally. Most residents (90%) are engaged in agricultural practices. Land use revolves around agriculture but due to inadequate irrigation facilities the people also relay on extracting non-timber forest produce such as collection of firewood, bamboo, leaves, myrabolams, etc. There are no cultural, historical, or archaeological structures or sites of any importance in the area.

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Rainfall and the onset of sowing rice

Chhattisgarh is endowed with high rainfall. The total annual rainfall varied from 1076 mm in Marand, in Surguja, to 1897 mm in Bhatagaon, in Durg, with a mean value of 1397 mm for the entire state. Areas of chronic shortfall are few and localized and tend to be in rain shadows in the highlands and midlands. The rainfall is typically late in coming, very heavy when it comes, concentrated in a few days and bouts, and early in termination. This rainfall pattern combines with high gradients, hard rock sub-surface characteristic and low percolation to result in massive and rapid run-off of rainwater. The weekly distribution of rainfall is very important, and once seepage, percolation and evapo-transpiration are accounted for, the stable rainfall period is less than the length of growing period. This causes potential water shortage for rain-fed rice at various stages and discourages adoption of modern rice technology. Hence, the imperative of protective irrigation for drought proofing favours the sandy/sandy-loamy rice tracts, and so do traditional practices.

The rainfall data basically points towards the importance of sound water management practices. By and large, the precipitation that does take place creates instability for agriculture because it is late in coming and unevenly distributed across the growing period. Soil moisture stress is often on account of unevenly distributed rainfall, rather than inadequate rainfall. Interventions that prevent this from having a detrimental impact on output include water management practices and cropping patterns suitable to the soil and slopes in the region. There is another reason why rainfall analysis is vital. As we shall see below, surface irrigation (canals and tanks together) accounts for 50 to 80 per cent of the net irrigated area. Hence, the quantum, distribution and timing of rainfall are all important determinants of the ability of agriculture to withstand meteorological droughts and prevent their translation into agricultural drought.

Rainfall in June is extremely important for commencement of sowing. The type of paddy grown in areas without supportive irrigation facilities has a lot to do with expectations and experiences around rainfall. For long duration paddy, weeding and biasi operations as well as plant growth need at least 50mm rain per week, without a gap of more than 7-9 days between the rainy days, through the months of June-September. The September rain is of particular importance for traverse

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inter-cropping or utera, when the second crop under dry conditions is sown in between the still standing kharif crop of rice.

First, we must identify the rain-spell, which represents the transition from the pre-monsoon conditions. Secondly the spell chosen should be such that the total rainfall, which has occurred, is adequate and penetrates into the soil to the required depth and level and also build a moisture profile after evapo-transpiration and percolation. The criteria used for Chhattisgarh state were ‘a spell of at least 50mm of rain in a period of 7 days with 2 mm or more on any five of these seven days’. The criterion of how much rain is required in the CSR depends on bio-climatic factors like soil and temperature.

By far, the most critical factor, in determining stable growing period and productive agriculture and land use planning, is the commencement of sowing rains and the inter-spell gap. Analysis of the rainfall data indicated late onset of sowing rains in most parts of Chhattisgarh. In no block did we find commencement of sowing rains prior to mid-June. In most cases, it was between 15 and 20 June. Much of the southern part and the northwestern parts were areas with a high frequency of commencement (>50 per cent) between the 15 and 20th June. The inter-spell gap, which is a good indicator of distress in the early stages after sowing, plagues most of Kawardha, parts of Rajnandgaon, southern Durg and some of the more rugged and slopping parts of Dantewada in the south, and Surguja and Raigarh in the north.

Water tableThe water table is very high in Darki due to the existence of the tank. In 3 out of 6 profiles seepage water was found at a depth of 1 meter and this condition was observed during the dry month of April.

Soil moistureThe soil moisture regime is the main climatic constraint for rice production in the state. The concept is based on water balance procedure, which is the balance between water need or Potential EvapoTranspiration (PET) and water supply or rainfall. PET is the amount of water lost by evaporation and transpiration, from a soil covered with vegetation, under permanent adequate moisture supply, and is a function of temperature and daylength. According to the Thornthwaite system, when rainfall equals the water need, the total amount of water available from rainfall is used up for evapo-

40

transpiration and the soil moisture remains at its base level, say field capacity. When the water supply (by rainfall) exceeds the water need, all the water is not used for evapotranspiration; partly it infiltrates into the soil. When the soil water retention reaches the field capacity, the additional water from precipitation percolates to deeper layers (leaching of the salt), and the amount is considered (in the water balance system) as the real water surplus. Part of this water surplus percolates into the ground water table and the rest runs off to the rivers.

When the water supply is less than the water need, water from the soil moisture is drawn up by the roots for evapo-transpiration until the wilting point is reached. If the roots cannot draw the total amount of water needed from the stored soil moisture, a real water deficit will occur. At the end of the dry season, the reservoir of soil moisture should be recharged and must be filled up to the field capacity before there can again be a surplus. As far as the monthly distribution of deficits and surpluses in soil moisture was concerned, the surpluses were located in the months of July, August and September. There was a small deficit in the winter rabi season, followed by very high deficits from February to June. However, there were sharp variations in the extent or quantum of humidity and aridity, and hence in moisture, varying from low negative values for some locations.

Rice is a semi-aquatic, water-guzzling plant, and in rainfed conditions its growth and development are entirely a function of the stability and quantum of rainfall during the growing period. With a daily loss of 3-4 mm of water, each on account of evapotranspiration and percolation, the rice crop requires approximately 50mm of water per week. Rice is the major crop grown during the wet season in the Chhattisgarh region; most of it is grown under rainfed conditions. The region has an average annual rainfall of about 1400mm, 90 percent of which is received during the monsoon months of June-September. Of the three agro-climatic zones in the region, rice is grown in about 80 per cent of the net sown area in the Chhattisgarh Plains. In the Bastar Plateau and in the Northern Hills, it occupies 69 and 60 percent of the net sown area, respectively.

The southwest monsoon starts in mid-June and withdraws by mid-September, whereas the rice crop flowers in mid-October and matures by mid-November. As a water management practice, farmers construct 1.0-1.5 m high bunds in rice fields and accumulate water up to 30-40 cm high in these fields. To cope with such water accumulation they grow tall varieties and use the method of rice cultivation called the broadcast biasi. The main purpose of biasi is (a) to reduce the rice plant population which becomes high due to use of the broadcasting method; (b) to reduce the weed population that grows and competes with rice until the biasi operation; and (c) to create semi- puddle conditions to reduce the percolation losses.

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Rice water requirementRice water requirementWater Requirement, 130 day Kharif Paddy Darki

Item Unit  June July August September October Total

Fortnight   11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20  

Eto (mm) 94 78 76 67 65 64 69 70 80 74  

Kc         1.1 1.1 1.12 1.15 1.15 1.04 0.98  

Etc (mm)       74 72 72 79 79 83 73  

Nursery   28 16                  Land Preparation (mm)   150                  

Transplanting (mm)     125                

Percolation (mm)       30 30 30 30 30 30 30  Gross requirement (mm) 28 166 125 104 102 102 109 109 113 103  

GR per month (mm) 194 229 204 218 216  

ETc per month (mm)   74 144 158 156  

65% Rainfall (mm) 184 345 335 185 27  Effective rainfall (mm) 130 240 240 130 24  

Net Irrigation Requirement (mm) 64 -11 -36 88 190 (1/3) 215.33

NIR (m3/ha) 640     880 1900 (1/3) 2153.33NIR (50% water distribution efficiency)

(m3/ha) 1280     1760 1267 4307

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Table 5.1: Water Requirement, 120 day Kharif Paddy Pakhanjore

Details   June July August September October Total

Fortnight   11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20  

Eto (mm) 103 84 83 76 76 71 71 70 81  

Kc         1.1 1.1 1.12 1.15 1.15 1.04  

Etc (mm)       84 84 85 82 82 84  

Nursery   28 16                  

Land Preparation (mm)   150                  

Transplanting (mm)     125                

Percolation (mm)       30 30 30 30 30 30  

Gross requirement (mm) 28 166 125 114 114 115 112 112 114  

GR per month (mm) 194 239 229 224 114  

ETc per month (mm)   84 169 164 84  65% Non-exceedence Rainfall (mm) 157 369 400 96 15  

Effective rainfall (mm) 140 246 260 96 15  Net Irrigation Requirement (mm) 54 128 99 281

NIR (m3/ha) 540     1280 990 2810

NIR (50% efficiency) (m3/ha) 1080   2560 1980 5620

GR : Gross Requirement, NIR : Net Irrigation Requirement

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Table 5.2: Water Requirement, 120 day Rabi Wheat

Details   November December January February March Total

Fortnight   21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6  

Eto (mm)     50 50 51 56 56 69 77 94  

Kc       0.31 0.44 0.92 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.92 0.53  

Etc (mm)     16 22 47 62 62 76 71 50  

Pre watering     30 - - - - - - - -  

GR (mm)   30 16 22 47 62 62 76 71 50 436

ETc per month (mm)   38 109 138 121  

65% Rainfall (mm) 0 0 1 14 4  

Effective rainfall (mm) 0 0 0 10 0  

NIR (mm) 30 38 109 128 121 426

NIR (m3/ha) 300 380 1090 1280 1210 4260NIR (50% water distribution efficiency) (m3/ha) 600 760 2180 2560 2420 8520

GR : Gross Requirement, NIR : Net Irrigation Requirement

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Table 5.3: Water Requirement, Oil Seeds

Details   November December January February Total

Fortnight   21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4  

Eto (mm)   54 50 50 51 56 56 69  

Kc     0.5 1.09 1.1 1.1 1.09 0.93 0.52  

Etc (mm)   27 54.5 56 56 61 52 36  

Pre watering   30 27 54.5 56 56 61 52 36  

GR (mm)                  

ETc per month (mm) 57 110.5 117 88 372.5

65% Rainfall (mm) 0 0 1 14 25

Effective rainfall (mm) 6 0 0 10 10

NIR (mm) 57 110.5 117 78 362.5

NIR (m3/ha) 5700 1105 1170 780 3625NIR (50% water distribution efficiency) (m3/ha) 11400 2210 2340 1560 7250

GR: Gross Requirement, NIR: Net Irrigation Requirement

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Table 5.4: Water Requirement, Gram

Details   November December January February Total

Fortnight   21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4  

Eto (mm)   54 50 50 51 56 56 69  

Kc     0.19 0.83 1.05 1.05 0.96 0.68 0.42  

Etc (mm)   16 41.5 52.5 53.5 54 38 30 285.5

Pre watering   30                

GR (mm) 30 16 41.5 52.5 53.5 54 38 30 315.5

ETc per month (mm) 46 94 107.5 68  

65% Rainfall (mm) 0 0 1 14 15

Effective rainfall (mm) 0 0 0 10 10

NIR (mm) 46 94 106.5 58 304.5

NIR (m3/ha) 460 940 1065 580 3045

NIR (50% water distribution efficiency)

(m3/ha) 920 1880 2130 1160 6090

GR : Gross Requirement, NIR : Net Irrigation Requirement

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Table 5.5: Water Requirement, Vegetables

Details   November December January February Total

Fortnight   21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4  

Eto (mm) 63 54 50 50 51 56 56 69  

Kc     0.29 0.37 0.67 1 1 1 0.94  

Etc (mm)   16 18.5 33.5 51 56 56 65 296

Pre watering   30                

GR (mm) 30 16 18.5 33.5 51 56 56 65 326

ETc per month (mm) 46 52 107 111 326

65% Rainfall (mm) 0 0 1 14 15

Effective rainfall (mm) 0 0 0 10 10

NIR (mm) 46 52 106 101 305

NIR (m3/ha) 460 520 1060 1010 3050

NIR (50% water distribution efficiency)

(m3/ha) 920 1040 2120 2020 6100

GR : Gross Requirement, NIR : Net Irrigation Requirement

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Figure 5.1: Net Irrigation Requirement for crops on the proposed rotation

HYDROSULT / CES Annex A1 47

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Figure 5.1: Net Irrigation Requirement for Proposed Crops in Pakhanjore

HYDROSULT / CES Annex A1 48

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Figure 5.2: Scheme Water Requirement and Volume in Storage for Pakhanjore

HYDROSULT / CES Annex A1 49

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Figure 5.1: Net Irrigation Requirement for the Crops on the Proposed Rotation Banki

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Figure 5.2: Irrigation Water Requirement & Volume Stored in Reservoir

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Figure 5.1: Irrigation Water Requirement and Volume Stored in Reservoir Banki

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5.3.3 Irrigation Potential

Irrigation potential for the available water resources in Darki reservoir has been estimated taking into consideration reservoir water balance starting from first of September (as no need for irrigation during July and August, Table 5.1). At this date the reservoir will be full of water (1.6 million m3) as indicated in the hydrological study, Chapter3.

Water balance during kharif paddy indicates that the amount of water available in the reservoir is enough to irrigate 530 ha which is larger than the total command area of the scheme (450 ha).

Irrigation water requirement for the total command area grown with kharif paddy is estimated at 1.360 million m3. This will leave a surplus of water of around 0.5 million m3 for rabi crops which can be used to irrigate of around 40 ha grown with the proposed rabi crop rotation, Table 5.7.

A similar analysis has been done for a 50% of probability of occurrence which shows a small increase in the rabi irrigated area. Water availability for rabi crop will increase only by 0.09 million m3 (additional runoff during September) allowing an additional 10 ha of rabi irrigated area.

Table 5.7: Irrigated Area Potential

Water Stored (103 m3)

Irrigation Requirement

(m3/ha)

Evaporation Loses

(103 m3)

Infiltration Losses (103 m3)

Runoff (103 m3)

Available water

(103 m3)

Estimated irrigated area (ha)

A. ESTIMATED IRRIGATED AREA POTENTIAL - KHARIF PADDY

1600 3020 70 35 306 1801 530

B. ESTIMATED IRRIGATED AREA POTENTIAL - RABI CROPS (IN ADDITION TO 450 HA KHARIF PADDY)

520 8500 87 42 - 311 40

5.3.4 Irrigation scheduling

Irrigation water release from Darki reservoir to satisfy irrigation requirements of the proposed kharif and paddy crop

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rotation is presented in Table 3.3 and illustrated in Figure 5.2. The Figure also illustrates the development of the volume of water in the reservoir during the irrigation season.

Figure 5.2: Irrigation Requirement & Volume in Storage

Tanks

It is interesting to note that in this area there are numerous tanks, which are used for irrigation as well as domestic purposes. For example, in just Raipur district there are about 12,500 tanks, while in Bilaspur district there are more than 14,500 tanks. Most of the tanks are situated just below the lateritic soil, which are usually barren and are used as a catchment area for these tanks. The rainwater so collected is used to irrigate the rice fields, especially areas with sandy-loam soils situated adjacent to these tanks.

Rice is grown in about 3.8 million hectares, mostly under rainfed conditions and by broadcast method of sowing, and

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bushening about 30-40 days after sowing (locally called biasi). The productivity of rice is very low (1-1.5 t/ha) in the Chhattisgarh region. Studies reveal that there is a significant decreasing trend of rainfall in some pockets of each of the eight districts. Yet the productivity of rice has increased marginally, due to technological developments

A favorable water regime in the field is desirable for almost all farming activities: for land preparation, to plant a crop, to manage weeds, to enable efficient use of fertilizer, to promote nutrient uptake, to reduce nutrient losses, to maintain soil softness for deeper root growth, to avoid soil cracking in rice, and so on. Irreversible cracks in the soil, caused by a dry spell, may disrupt the water economy for the rest of the growing period. In case of rice efficiency of fertilizer use is reduced if the soil-water status cannot be maintained above saturation for about a week from its application. In addition, loss of applied nitrogen increases due to processes of nitrification and de-nitrification under alternate drying and submergence of the soil.The most important constraint to rice production is water stress and the second most is weeds.

The Chhattisgarh Basin, formed by the Mahanadi and its main tributary Seonath rivers, drains the central districts of Rajnandgaon, Durg, Raipur and southern Bilaspur, and is the most extensive and agriculturally rich region in the state. It is referred to as the `rice bowl' of the country and supports a large chunk of the population of the state. Paradoxically, this is also the area of greatest drought related distress.

Darki scheme

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GroundwaterThe availability of ground water varies from 10 to 100 m. Groundwater is used only for livestock and domestic use. Use of ground water for irrigation is rare.

GeologyThe geology in Darki consists mostly of granite, gneiss and associate basic and ultra basic intrusives.

Soils

Soil characteristics are determined largely by parent material, but weathering and age also contribute to those characteristics. Key characteristics from an agronomic perspective include soil depth, inherent fertility, water-holding capacity, drainability, porosity, and organic matter content. The primary process of soil formation in Chhattisgarh is laterisation. With long dry spells, the vegetative cover in the state is thin, and it contributes much less humus than found in many other tropical climates. As a result, Chhattisgarh soils are light colored and have low inherent fertility. Calcium content varies from 6 to 60 meq/100g.

Alluvial soils are found in the Mahanadi Basin while granite and gneiss soils are found along the mountainous rims and at distances from rivers. These soils include dark brown, gravelly, sandy loams and black brown sandy clay loams with very high water holding capacities (40% to 50%) and available water content ranging from 25% to 30%. The bulk density is about 1.3 grams per cubic meter.

Chhattisgarh soils are primarily considered to be tropical red and yellow soils, although stretches of alluvial soils are found along the riverbeds. Skeletal soils (coarse and gravelly) are found in upland areas.

The soils of the region are deficient in important mineral nutrients like calcium and magnesium, nitrogen, phosphorous, lime and potash, which are concentrated in the lower parts of the soil layer. However, the tropical red and yellow soils or the red sandy soils of the region possess texture suitable for growing rice and millet crops.

The following types of soils are found in Chhattisgarh:

Kanhar (clayey): A low-lying deep bluish black soil with high moisture retention capacity. It is well suited for rabi crops, particularly wheat.

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Matasi (sandy loamy): This is a yellow sandy soil, with an admixture of clay. It has limited moisture retention capacity. Though used for paddy, it is ideal for short duration maize and deeprooted pulses. It is found in better-drained areas and at relatively higher altitudes.

Dorsa (clay-loam): This type of soil is intermediate in terms of soil moisture retention between kanhar and matasi. This is best described as loamy, and is a colour between brown and yellow. This is more or less an all-purpose soil, and is suitable for paddy.

Bhata (laterite): This soil is a coarse-textured, red sandy-gravelly soil, found on upland tops. It is deficient in minerals and other productivity enhancing nutrients, and is often suitable only for coarse millets. It is low in humus content and is often wasteland. It is a good locale for silvipastoral efforts.

Given such typical rice growing systems and water management practices, the water balance of the bunded rice fields was analysed. In this area, there is great soil variability in soil types, ranging from lateritic to clayey soil, through sandy-loam and clay-loam. All these soils are found in almost every village. Rice is grown in almost all soils, except lateritic soils.

Rice can be grown on a variety of soils but does well on heavy, low permeability clayey soils like Dorsa and Matasi soils with 50-70% silt and clay content. Dorsa, a mixture of Kanhar and Matasi probably is the best for rice in Chhattisgarh as it is less prone to waterlogging than Kanhar and less subject to water stress.

Soil Textural ClassSandy loam (Matasi), clay loam (Dorsa), clayey soils (Kanhar) occur throughout the state. Chhattisgarh soils can be placed in three categories according to characteristics that include water holding capacity, drainability, location, and slope.

1. Heavy textured clay soils that are deep and contain limestone

2. Medium textured yellow sandy loams, and

3. Light textures mixtures of clays and loams

The state revenue department has assigned five categories of soils in Chhattisgarh: (a) Kanhar (b) Matasi (c) Dorsa (d) Bhata (e) Kachhar.

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In the Darki scheme 84% of area is sandy clay loam with the balance as sandy loam.

Textural Classes in PakhanjoreDescription Textural

classArea in ha.

% of area

Sandy Clay Loam Scl 133 31Sandy Loam Sl 262 60Loamy Sand Ls 40 9

Total 435 100Depth classes PakhanjoreS. No.

Depth Class

Depth in cm Description Area in ha

Percentage

1. d5 90 to 150 cm and above

Very deep soils

367 84

2. d2 7 to 22 cm depth

Shallow depth

68 16

Total 435 100

It can be seen that the majority of the area is covered by class d5 (very deep soil i.e. 90 to 150 cm depth & above) while the rest of the area is covered by shallow depth class d2 soil from 7 to 22 cm deep. All of the project area contains very deep soils.

Water holding capacityWater holding capacityIt is observed that in surface as well as sub surface samples water holding capacity varies from 41% to 51%. The higher water holding capacity is due to the presence of clay minerals and lower water holding capacity is due to more sand minerals.

Infiltration rateInfiltration rateInfiltration & permeability testing has been carried out in the command area to determine the rate of uptake of water in sub surface layers.

Soil Chemistry

pHSoil samples from Darki were analyzed for pH. It was found that the pH varies from 5.1 to 7.6 ranges slightly acidic to neutral. The entire command area is within this range.Soil samples in Pakhanjore were from 5.2 to 7.9 ranges slightly acidic to neutral. The entire command area is within this range.

Electrical Conductivity

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The electrical conductivity of the Darki soil was found to be in the range 0.02 m.mhos/cm to 0.10 m.mhos/cm. This limit is safe for plant growth over the entire command area.

Calcium Carbonate The Darki soil contains 0.0% to 1.5% calcium carbonate in nodular form as well as diffuse form in the lower horizons. Soils are non calcarious in nature and not harmful to plant growth.

Organic Carbon It is observed that the Darki soil contains 0.076% to 0.714% organic carbon which controls the active ions in the soil. The surface soil contains a high amount of organic carbon as compared to sub surface soils.It is observed in Pakhanjore that the soil contains 0.03% to 0.585% organic carbon which controls the active ions in the soil.

NPKIt was determined that the majority of the samples tested in the medium range for Nitrogen, low for Phosphorous and high for Potash. There is a high variability in NPK concentrations within a given site in Darki:

Nutrient Category No. of Samples

% of total

Nitrogen LowMediumHigh

19529

246511

Total 80 100Phosphorous Low

MediumHigh

312623

383228

Total 80 100Potash Low

MediumHigh

-2456

-3070

Total 80 100

On the basis of the above studies in Darki it is recommended that the majority of the area is appropriate for most Kharif and Rabi and horticultural crops suitable for this agro climatic condition. The command area is also in good condition for drainage & irrigation but soil conservation techniques must be adopted to protect the surface soils from erosion in the areas of sandy loam textural soils. The addition of organic manure will improve

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the soil texture and its water holding capacity to achieve a high yield potential.

The findings of investigations into soil fertility status are shown below for Pakhanjore.

Nutrient Category No. of Samples

% of total

Nitrogen LowMediumHigh

40382

50472

Total 80 100.00Phosphorous Low

MediumHigh

01268

01585

Total 80 100.00Potash Low

MediumHigh

04238

05247

Total 80 100.00

Salinity

Salinity can become a problem in poorly managed irrigation schemes. Soil sampling in the area did not indicate salinity problems. Through regular monitoring of soil conditions and proper O&M this is not foreseen as a potentially negative impact of significance.

Soil Erosion

Land is heavily disturbed by human activities and overgrazing of livestock creating points of soil erosion. Without appropriate management more intensive agriculture and livestock grazing with encroachment on forests is expected. Vegetation cover would be further disturbed, soils will increasingly become more exposed causing points of erosion leading to reservoir and/or canal siltation reducing the efficiency and the useful life of the R&U scheme. Managing the prevention of erosion, particularly within the project’s catchment area will need to be incorporated in O&M routines as a safeguard with mechanisms to respond where problems occur. With careful design and monitoring no environmental impact of negative significance is expected.

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Flora and fauna

The area around Darki has many trees and bushes. Mahua, Mango, Sal and Bamboo are found in the command area which is surrounded by forest.

The area’s aquatic and wildlife resources are considered of minor significance. Local people do net fish from small water tanks and the reservoir. The forests are classified dry deciduous “Sal” type. Protected forest reserves do occur near the fringe of the villages and in portions of the catchment area. Despite restrictions on resource use in the protected areas it was observed that encroaching activities from the villages in these areas. Forest cover in the upper catchment and adjacent to the settlements have been degraded by human activities.

Most of the land in the area has been disturbed by human activities and there is evidence of soil erosion as indicated by siltation occurring in the reservoir tank and the irrigation channels. Soils are eroded from the surrounding catchment area from overgrazing by livestock, deforestation and general mismanagement of land resources. Overgrazing by livestock is considered responsible for most of the soil exposure and land degradation in the area.

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Key Informant Interviews

Date/Place/People present/Persons Interviewed:

25 Jul Balar Project area Kasdol subdistrict office, Raipur Dist., WRD/DA staff in the office of the Executive Engineer Mr. Uike (with Wijay, Satya, Philip, Joshi, and Mr Jha from WRD Raipur in two jeeps)

On the road to Kasdol, rice fields were common on both sides of the road, some with seedbeds and others already in the early vegetative stage. The monsoon rains were about a month delayed this year. Discussions with the DA and WRD staff revealed that 29% of the area is reached by irrigation and the rice fields were a combination of rainfed direct seeded rice and irrigated transplanted rice. Over the years more farmers have become rainfed farmers as the canals became damaged and the irrigation system imploded. The rainfed rice is located out of the current command area but some of it can be reached with irrigation as a result of the rehabilitation that is planned. In the past 25 years in only 3 years did the rain fail leading to crop failures. In the irrigated areas the rice fields received three irrigations per season. The general slope is gradual 1:3000. There are shallow wells in the dry season as well as in the wet season. We saw a number of them pumping along the road. The question is how many will recharge in the dry season so they could be used for rabi cropping. There is a distinction between shallow wells which tap perched aquifers as opposed to tube wells which tap lower lying aquifers.

PIM will be a challenge as farmers will excessively use water as they do not trust the rains or WRD that water will continue to be available over the whole system. Management of the upper system of irrigation infrastructure from dams or inlet weirs and main canals are the responsibility of WRD ,whereas downstream farmers are in control. There usually is a gray area inbetween which needs to be clarified once WUAs are formed. “There are two ways to do PIM, a right way and wrong way and the latter usually involves taking many shortcuts”. “If farmers perceive WRD services to be reliable then WUAs will cooperate” based on experiences elsewhere. WRD and farmers need to be flexible and we need: 1) social capital to ensure that WUAs work smoothly and 2) political capital where anti-social behavior is punished.

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There was an uncertainty about the average rice yield in the irrigated area but 3.7 t/ha was settled upon. The three main constraints were: 1) low use of fertilizer as credit sources are not readily available or interest rates are too high, 2) farmers are not using improved (healthy) seed, and 3) most fields are not level.

Dry seeded rainfed rice fields typically have very tall bunds some reaching 2 m with leguminous trees growing from them that do not produce much shade to block solar radiation from rice. Parcels then to be large and field levelling is highly uneven. Many clods of soil were commonly observed to be sticking out of a puddled field in uneven patches. Farmers do not make smaller bunds to mark off smaller parcels that they could level. Land preparation tends to be rough and quick. Most use animals either water buffalo or cows, usually it takes two to pull a plow. The plow is a straight chisel type not a mouldboard. For dry seeded rice farmers plow in the dry season (one pass) and when the rains come they level and then sow. This year was unusual as farmers first sowed their seeds in May after an early rain but no rain came afterwards so the seedlings died. They re-seeded and the same thing happened again. For the third time they dipped into their saved food supplies to obtain seed (food grain) for the successful third time. Some 10% of farmers use cattle manure as fertilizer and spread it in the fields before plowing. Farmers hand weed and pay gangs of laborers to do the weeding. Weeding starts at 35 DS and it takes 10 laborers to manage 1 acre who receive Rs35 per day with no food.

For transplanted rice, farmers prepare the soil more intensively: plow twice and level more times. Interestingly they sow the same variety for both irrigated and rainfed culture. Swarna is a HYV semidwarf that has been around for 15 years. Soils in the area are not problematic and soil testing occurs in Raipur.

Most farmers do not grow rabi crops but migrate to other parts of the country in search of work. The main rabi crops that are irrigated by tubewells or in small areas

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along the irrigation canals are 1) chili, 2) mustard, 3) groundnut, 4) sunflower and some farmers grow a second rice crop. Some 10-60% of people migrate for work in the dry season, mostly these are the landless and smaller scale farmers. A question came up as to whether migrating is good or bad. “Development is the introduction of more employment choices”.

There is lack of coordination between WRD and DA. Statistics on rice yields (crop cutting) can be obtained from the Revenue Department for tax purposes.

WRD is not responsible for building field channels. In Chhattisgarh that work is the responsibility of the Command Area Development Authority (CADA). CADA does tertiary canal construction and has upgraded some 328 ha in the Balar project.

DA apparently is mostly provides extension service although some people seem to think there are state research stations. Extension workers are called Rural Agricultural Extension Officers (RAEO) and their qualification is a HS diploma and the service enters them in a training program for 6 mo. before assignment. Each RAEO has responsibility to serve some 22-25 villages and is supposed to make a visit to each every two weeks. However there is no adequate travel budget nor does the DA provide transportation services. The extension method is for the RAEO to visit the fields of farmers and make recommendations. Samples and specimens of unknown agents are taken to the office for diagnosis. There is no program other than this apparently and they do not follow the T&V extension system.

40 farmers in Baingandabri, Village group interview

Most on their minds was to see if WRD would release more water to them for irrigation. WRD staff said that this will not happen until they learn to use the water they have received more efficiently, as there is not enough water to be used as farmers want.

After the lengthy discussion on irrigation questions we inquired about local agricultural practices. Some farmers

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spread cow dung on the rice fields before land preparation in the dry season. Dry seeded irrigated rice is grown because there is not enough laborer around in the early part of the rainy season as they had not returned from seasonal migration. Farmers said they were not able to level their fields “because their holdings were very small” [we did not understand this reasoning]. The labor saved by not transplanting is made up for the weeding requirement which of course is much larger. Large groups of laborers are required to hand weed which is done three times and each is paid Rs30-40 per day. Farm size is 1-1.5 acres. Most are leaseholders where the landlords are local. The leasehold arrangement is to share the input costs 50:50 including the harvest.

Farmers were asked about pesticide usage and they mentioned monocrotophos for a green larva and dimecron for stemborers. Some 25% own sprayers and the rest borrow paying one day’s labor. Farmers took examples of the pests to the extension office (no extention worker has come to their village in 4 years) for identification and the extension worker told them what pesticide to use.

Rabi crops are grown in three areas: 1) in the rice field with irrigation (tubewell etc), along irrigation canals (100 ha), and in home gardens. Both men and women cultivate vegetables etc. These include eggplant, chili. There is a small area planted to wheat. Farmers wanted to know how to make a compost pit. Marketing according to the farmers is not a problem.

27 July Darki Minor Scheme, Ambikapur, Surguja Dist (with Wijay, Satya, Philip, Joshi and K.S. Shinde WRD PMU) met WRD staff and farmers WUAs. System inspection and interview in Kamari village.

We inspected the system which is a long dam of soil which was built in 1981 and leaking noted from 1985 as there is no clay core in the dam. There have been 3 years when the rains failed and irrigation was not delivered to most farmers. Much of the surrounding area is above the command area where farmers grow rainfed rice or upland rice intercropped with pulses, groundnut, maize, and til (oil seed) as well as a local crop lakra which is used as

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a salad. Lakra and pigeon pea were planted around the edge of upland fields in double rows densely seeded. There is a need to protect the watershed to prevent erosion and siltation of reservoir. Much of the edges of the watershed are planted to rice (encroachment). A distinction was made for a revenue village that has the land taxed compared to a forest village. There is 1 WUA for 450 ha, 80% of the area is rainfed and only 20% irrigated. The main rice varieties are IR36, IR64, 6644 and 6244 are both hybrids as well as aromatic varieties Girafol and Basabog. Most farmers have < 1 acre but some have up to 3 acres of land. They keep 100% of rice and do not sell any. They store their rice in a straw container inside a shed. Rice lasts however for a maximum of 6 months and then the farmers migrate to find work as laborers in such jobs as working in brick kilns. Some go in groups but must seek jobs. If they work nearby they earn Rs50 if within the state Rs60 or outside state earn Rs100/day. Farmers who have cattle put manure on land before plowing. The largest farmers apply 50 kg (Iffco brand = 12-32-16) (6-16-8 kg NPK/ac) to crop before transplanting. Another brand is by BEC Co. (20-20-0). Afterwards they level the field and incorporate the fertilizer and then transplant. Afterwards some apply urea up to 3 times at 15 day intervals at 5-10 kg/ac per application. To purchase fertilizer farmers borrow money from the coop at 6%/month interest or mostly from private money lenders who take their interest in rice after 3 months. Most farmers do not know their extension agent, some see him 3 times a month and others every month some never. There is no extension program that they know of. When asked what training they would like to have they said everything. There is no rabi crop and some grow potatoes in a kitchen garden. The farmers have never heard of the PIM Act but have been aware that an election will come.

Fri July 28 Banki medium irrigation system Ambikapur, Surguja Dist (with Wijay, Satya, Philip, Joshi and K.S. Shinde WRD PMU) met WRD staff and farmers WUAs.

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Saw canal superpassage eroded in the system on the way to the dam. Canals seep water but it is clear and not muddy which was a good sign. Many farmers are concerned about seepage and hence want lined canals. This concern is commonly voiced. However lining is very expensive and once it cracks the seepage is greater and harder to repair than if left as is. Canals should have lining to protect from erosion eg. along curves or when the canal passes through cracked rock outcroppings but not to prevent water seepage. In many instances the seepage is not lost to the system as it recharges aquifers or drains into lower fields. The dam was built in 1985 and has dentile ansils in the spillway to slow down water forces and a horseshoe or duckbill weir at the outlet of the dam in the reservoir. It has filled up only 4 times in the past and not in the last 10 years. The system is running at 15% of capacity and the reservoir is 2.25 km2 and can irrigate 3400 ha. Some farmers before receiving the next irrigation drain their field to get ‘fresh’ water causing greater inefficiency. The water level in the dam is measured in elevation above sea level at 623 m. WRD employs a timekeeper who records the number of water releases and if the water reaches all farmers, and inspects for leaks and breaches. There are now 3-4 leaks downstream before reaching the first village. He reports such leakages to the sub-engineer. The dam also serves as the source of water for Ambikapur some 10 km away from Apr-June. There are 5 timekeepers in all and each works a section along the system. If there is a breach the farmers act as laborers to fill sand bags under the supervision of WRD laborers. There are no regulatory gates in the system so the irrigation is continuous depending on the reservoir level from rain in the catchment. There are many encroachments along the canal where farmers cut the embankments of canals. Farmers must make their own check dams from logs to rotate water delivery. Water however does not reach the tail end as it is used up well before. There are 4 WRD laborers (should be 1 per 100 ha of irrigated land) who work full time but was hard to see what they actually do day to day. Laborers have an education to 10-11th grade. There is a difference in opinion between farmers and WRD laborers as who they serve. Laborers think they are public employees and are not answerable to the WUA. No one is fixing the breaches for example as they are too hard to repair and need engineers to assist in designing and funding the repair. There has been no budget for repairs. WUA proposed making a garden in the govt land below the dam

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to earn money for tourists and weddings etc and charge for road access and farmers will repair the road to the dam. WUAs to be successful need access to power and establish a system of accountability. The question was raised that in WRD who is it that shows if water management is economical. No one has this current role. Govt can tax water but the fees for delivery of water is not a tax. Best is for WUA to keep fees and pay for services themselves. Govts think that the fees should go to govt budget but are wrong. Fee levels should be based on service cost, added value cost, etc. Each WUA should nominate a member to be the collector and give that person a 5% share as an incentive. Most WUA leaders are not farmers but are local politically connected people with vested interests. Need a unitary water law. Govt owns surface water, WRD owns the structures, and landowners own ground water. There was earthquake damage to the canals some years ago from a 4.5 quake. Much of the surrounding farmland becomes waterlogged from leakages.

1PM Meeting in Kanthi village in panchayat office.

Farmers see a lot of wastage of water as only 15% used in the system. If farmers can find the time and energy to tap into the canal illegally why can’t they find time to repair it. How far up the system do they want to be responsible? They answered only within their village area. Dam and main canal are the responsibility of WRD and tertiary of the WUAs and the secondary system they can do jointly. How do farmers know how much water to supply? They answered 2-3” in veg stage. There is no irrigation in rabi season where some grow gram, mustard, til but by own means on rainfed lands and not by the irrigation. Farmers said the best rabi crop is oil seeds which fetch Rs17-18/kg compared to rice at Rs 5-6/kg. There is not enough water to grow rabi crops. Farmers experience water logging in irrigated areas during rabi season due to high water table. Why then do not they put in wells? They say water does not recharge. Electric pumps are unreliable due to unreliable electricity so petrol or kerosene power are better. They tried buckets and peddle pumps to no avail. Farmers use manure if available and purchased NPK (12-32-16) and potash and

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urea. Some put up to 50 kg of NPK and then apply urea at 15-day intervals from 15, 30, 45 DT at 10-15 kg/ha. They say applying more fertilizer will not improve yields. Some use ‘hybrids’ and get 7.5 t/ha (30 q/acre) but most get 2 t/acre (20-22 q/ac) on improved HYVs. Rainfed rice without hybrids get 1 t/acre. Most farmers (75%) prefer IR36 using 30 kg seed/ac? and 18 kg for hybrids. There is an extension agent but there is no training. Many say agents lack knowledge. They want training from a qualified person. No NGOs are currently working in village.

3:30PM meeting in Ambikapur at WRD office with WRD staff and 4 DA staff.

Both Philip and myself gave a short summary of our programs that we were thinking of developing in the project. There was a question and answer period before the meeting broke up into two groups 1) irrigation with WRD and 2) agriculture and extension with DA. In other projects farmers were asked to develop WUAs and participate in a broken down system with little effect. CIDP is asking them to participate in a newly refurbished system and will be asked to participate from the beginning in deciding on refurbishment.

Each state has its own organizational structure for extension. The head is the Agricultural Production Commissioner, followed by the Secretary (both of whom we met), then Director of Agriculture and Additional Director at the state level. In the regional level (4-6 disticts each) this is headed by a Joint Director Regional Level and Joint Director Division Level. At the district level it is headed by a Depty Director Agriculture (DDA) and then each district is divided into subdivisions (5-6 blocks) headed by a Sub-Division Agricultural Officer (SDAO). The most technically specialized are the Subject Matter Specialists (SMS) at subdistrict level. Each agricultural circle (3-4 blocks) is headed by the Senior ADO (SADO) and each block is headed by an Agricultural Development Officer (ADO). Line field extension workers are present for field crops, horticulture, veterinary, and fisheries:

Rural Agricultural Extension Officer (RAEO)Rural Horticultural Extension Officer (RHEO)Rural Veterinary Extension Officer (RVEO)

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Rural Fisheries Extension Officer (RFEO)The RAEO is the most numerous and theoretically will handle 1000 families or 10-12 villages (number depends on distances). Extension workers (RAEOs) have a high school degree (10 + 2) not a BS degree. They normally receive training with DA for 6 months but since CG separated from MP there has been no training. There have been no new RAEOs trained since 10 years except in 1999 to respond to need in tribal areas. The training center that existed for RAEO training has been closed down. 1/3 of RAEOs are female, about 40 in district are female. The extension methods are mostly top down where SMS and SDAO attend fornightly meetings with researchers in University and elsewhere to learn of new technologies. SMS’s make a plan **every 15 days for the RAEO to follow based on the new technologies. Most RAEOs visit farmers, theoretically contact farmers who would in turn train 10 farmers (T&V) method. They diagnose the problems in the field and give recommendations. They should visit each village every 15 days. There should be 8-10 contact farmers per village. During the crop year RAEOs may be asked to conduct demonstration trials with plot sizes on the order of 1 acre. Last year there were some 150-200 demonstration trials for rice which were mainly new varieties. Also have demonstrations for sugarcane and pulses. Costs to conduct demonstration trials are 60% borne by farmer. They take yield cuts. Also is the minikit method which is conducted on 0.25 acre which are given to farmers to conduct with all the inputs. RAEOs attend a block meeting very fortnight and weekly meeting at the ADO level. RAEOs have to also perform other tasks which have nothing to do with agr such as help in elections which occupies 3-4 days per month. RAEOs get Rs 200 per month ($4) to pay for travel. They use their own modes of transportation which include either a motorcycle or bicycle. None of the DA staff interviewed had any relation with WRD.

July 29 Sat 1PM Kharung tank Bilaspur District. The project director Mr. Sharkar joined us. The EE is RV Singh.

The medium tank was constructed in 1927 designed to irrigate 40,000 ha actually reaches 45,000 ha (53,000 farms). There are 2 sluices for the 38km2 reservoir opening to 2 main canals. There are 2-3 cross regulators. Rice yields are 5t/ha (2 t/ac) some 5000 ha are irrigated in the rabi, mostly wheat. These same areas get irrigated

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each year. The water table is 25-30 m so most farmers migrate to find work in the dry season. Most farms (60%) are < 1 ha. The year 1998-99 was the last irrigated rabi crop. They give 3 irrigations. Canals are in disrepair and breached thus they have to provide 30% more water to reach all farmers. WRD employs 120 salaried laborers (gangmen). To what extent is rainfall being used in decision of how much to irrigate? The answer that about 25% mainly in land preparation to transplanting. All irrigation systems in the state are ‘protection systems’ ie. to mitigate drought rather than for production. Some 12,000m3 of water is needed per ha per season. There are no control structures to regulate and at each irrigation the system has to be refilled thus is inefficient. For demand driven irrigation there is a need to keep the canals filled at all times as farmers can see the water and will not be greedy in its use. They will then take only what they need. The problem is that farmers do not get enough water. Best measure of water efficiency is kg rice/gal water or calories/gal water. Irrigation water is best used if its use is multiple. Eg for fish farming as in Indonesia. Comparing the most effective use of river diversion irrigation water it is often by allowing most of it to flow in rivers to support the more productive and larger population of coastal fisheries than rice farmers. It is best to decide what the rabi water requirements will be and then design the system to deliver that amount of water. In the wet season it is essential to be sure tail-enders get water. KARDA already had constructed tertiary canals in the system so it should not be used again. Farmers want dependable water but there is a lack of funds for maintanence. Water fee is paid by only 25-30% at present. WUAs since forming 4 years ago have mitigated many conflicts. Perhaps there is a need to pipe water for rabi cropping and it is best to use a closed pipe as it exerts enough pressure to allow drip irrigation. The farmers have not been trained in how to make tertiary canals. In discusions with some farmers they grow ‘hybrid’ rices, improved semi-dwarfs and traditional aromatic rices. Swarna is the most popular

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hybrid getting 25 q/ac (6t/ha). Semidwarfs are IR36, IR64, IR68. Surprisingly small farmers prefer hybrids for the higher production. They sell to the society coop where they also purchase inputs. There are also gov marketing societies. First year seeds of new varieties are given away free. Farmers have problems with hybrids as they keep the seed for the next crop rather than purchase seed.

July 29 Sat 3PM Pondiguma tank, Bilaspur.

The tank is 25 years old and covers 5 villages. The reservoir is a long, low soil dam that leaks but clear water so no piping imminent. Rabi crop (wheat) was grown only 3 years back but not now. There are two minor canals. There is a plan to raise the weir 1.5 m to increase reservoir. To do this they should widen the weir and make a berm along the front of the present dam to above the phreatic water line. The larger reservoir would also mean farmers affected would be paid compensation. The water spread on the reservoir is 134 ha and 643 ha of farmland are currently irrigated. They gave fishing rights to landless who pay an annual royalty to WRD. Some have tube wells. The current fee repayment rate is 80% even though there are breaches in the system. The farmers seemed very cooperative and the leader of the WUA operated in a transparent manner.

Aug 1 Indira Gandhi Agr Univ (IGAU), Office of Research, Research Director and Assoc. Dir (Wijay, Satya)

Met with Dr. A.S.R.A.S. Sastri and Dr. S.S. Rao. There are four agricultural colleges (former DA research stations) under the wing of IGAU as well as 16 private colleges. The colleges cover the three agroecological zones in the state. Each of the colleges has teaching staff that also do applied research. There are also 10 KVK centers in 10 districts and there are plans to increase the number to one per district. On-farm demonstrations are undertaken by KVKs and they normally work in 4-5 villages. There are good relations with DA as

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the DA has an office above the Dir Research on campus. There are monthly meetings between IGAU scientists and DA SMS staff to transfer technologies. Each meeting is for 2 days and the subject of discussion is mutually agreed upon. The last one was on ways to survive droughts. These meetings also provide for feedback to research. IGAU is active in mass media including radio agricultural advisory service and providing weather forecasts every Tues. There are also Farmer Training Academies run by DA RAEOs. There are two projects with IRRI currently with IGAU. One is an IFAD project to introduce chickpea in the rice cropping pattern. They are in the fourth year of trials now. Farmers have constructed water harvesting ponds to irrigate using 1/10 of the farmers’ land. The research site is in Kapsada some 40 km from Raipur. The second project is called CURE or Consortium of Unfavorable Rice Environments including rainfed wetland and dryland rice. They are working on dryland rice with use of herbicides. Farmers undertake bushening (biasi) whereby they plow rows in an already sown field of dry seeded rainfed rice at 35 DT. Thelma Paris is working with staff for technologies to increase the quality of rice seed whereby women are trained to select the best grains from the standing crop to save for next year’s sowing. Seeds are also inspected to remove diseased and off types which usually has an effect to increase yield by 10%. There are yield cut data at the Land Records Office that include farm size, yield, and cropping system which is computerized and the Dept of Statistics makes an annual report on this data. In the final semester of IGAU students spend a season in the rural areas and each year some 1200 of them are posted in rural areas under the Rural Agr Work Experience program where the Dean of the College assigns them. IGAU has the Raipur rice germplasm collection of 23,070 accessions. IGAU will soon release a hybrid rice IRH5 with a 8t/ha yield potential which will cost some Rs150/kg for the seed. The university also has a program to support home vegetable gardens in the Home Economics Dept and also has an agribusiness center. According to the Director the following are the most

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lucrative rabi crops: wheat, chickpea, sunflower, Lathyrus. IGAU also helps DA in their planning for technology transfer programs. IGAU is also planning to train RAEOs in both 6 mo. and 1 yr diploma programs. From now on RAEOs must be agr graduates as before many came from other disciplines.

Aug 2 Aamakoni Tank, Mahasumud, Mahasumund Dist (Wijay, Phil)

Met A.H.Khan EE of WRD and Harish Kumar SDO and other staff. Khan was on the PPTA of the project. After discussions in the office we visited the Aamakoni Tank. The irrigation system wastes a lot of water even though is rated as 86% efficient. Land use factor = area that can be irrigated/command area. The data in the chart are probably more the land use factor than the % efficiency. There are more than 100 tanks in the district. There is no rabi crop irrigation from the tank. Potential of rabi is good due to the nearness to Raipur. The project can either increase the capacity of the tank or introduce more efficient use of water. There was discussion on the potential to tap groundwater in the area and need to discuss with the groundwater group in our project office. The EE and staff estimated that rice yields average 3 t/ha (100 q/ac). WUAs want funds to repair the canals. In the Aamakoni tank there are some 550 families in 4 villages each tilling < 1 ha on average. In the villages there are some 5-6 4-wheel tractors which can be hired. Farmers prefer to make tall bunds to capture as much water as possible up to 10” deep as they are not sure of a reliable water supply. Rural labor is cheap and despite a Govt regulation to pay Rs57/day many get only Rs35, and females even less. Farmers apply urea, superphosphate and potash. The catchment of the tank built in 1982 is 3.5 mi2

and the live storage is 52x106 ft3 and water spread is 47 ha. The canal system (2 leaving dam) is 4.5 km long. The watershed abuts several large hills in a forested area. There is quite a bit of siltation however in the gravel red marum (laterite) soils. This should be measured. Due to the favorable watershed the tank fills by the end of Aug and now is 35% full. The Fisheries Dept leases fishing rights to various local groups. We met some of the farmers from the 1 WUA which has 8 TCs of 60 or so families each. Farmers listed a number of problems to be solved: canals are cut illegally, siltation, lack of road and cattle bridges, sluices are loose, and no lining of canal. Rabi crops are wheat and groundnut the latter

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fetches Rs18-19/kg. Farmers have expanded their rice lands to increase the irrigation area. The duty (water discharge) delta is 80 ac/cusec and the system is on for 120 days each rice season. The reservoir overflows each year. Water flow in the system from the dam is very high and wasteful currently. The farmers let water into their fields 2-3 times and want it 3-4” deep. There are 5 crop growth stages recognized by farmers:

Early vegetative = jerai Maximum tillering = biasi Booting = potra (pregnant) Ripening = pak or chhatka?

Last watering is when the panicles bend at 15 days before harvest. Farmers stated that rats are a problem and cut plants or grains which they take to their nests. The purchase rat baits (sulphas mixed with flour to make balls which they put into rat holes) and some farmers close the rat holes with wood. Birds are a pest on direct seeded rice after sowing and at ripening. They make scare crows as well as mechanical noise makers. Pests and diseases mentioned were stemborers (tiller dies) and they ask the RAEO for advice for ‘medicine’. Many use monocrotophos or Endocel sprays. There is also a caterpillar banki that eats the leaves. Another pest is maho which is brown or black and attacks the grains. When they spray they use the wind direction to direct the spray from their bodies and wear a cloth around their face but do not protect their legs. They said pesticide landing on the skin does no harm. No one reported to be dizzy after spraying. A survey of farmers’ holdings gave (27 ac for the largest farmer who has land in 5-6 places, 10, 10, 9, 8ac) but most have less than 1 ha. Farmers said they do not drain their fields of old water before irrigating from the canal but would if there were more water as the old water is ‘dirty’. All of the farmers use fertilizers. Some use manure which they store over the previous season in an uncovered hole in the ground. They said fertilizers purchased from the Public Distribution System (PDS govt outlet) were often adulterated (duplicated) and only some 10% purchase from private dealers but their quality was better. The rice is then sent to the government warehouses under control of the Food Corporation of India (FCI). Farmers said they wanted to establish a garden at the foot of the dam to stop encroachment and also for aesthetic purposes. There are 30 WRD laborers for 8 tanks. None does any work and are political appointments and if anyone complains they will

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form a union. Farmers visit their fields frequently, once or twice a day to check crop growth, crop condition, presence of pests and stray animals. The extension worker visits once a month but they can go to him if they have a particular problem, the office is 1.5 km away. Farmers mostly learn from their fathers, own experience, or extension worker, but not from the input dealer. However regarding their own health they seek advice from the pharmacist. RAEO is a more reliable source of information than the input dealer. Fertilizer farmers believe dissolves in water and enters the plant through the roots. Insecticides kill as stomach poisons or by contact. They learned this from their own experience. Many farmers here speak Chhattisgari language. Rice husks are used in brick kilns for fuel and are not put in compost.

3PM Khamari village group interview with 20 farmers.

Farmers do not use the phases of the moon to decide to plant. They wait for the rains, sufficient for plowing, to decide when the season begins. The varieties they grow are mahamaya (HYV) 1001, 1010, 1008 (called hybrids by farmers but are HYVs). Most are 110 d varieties and irrigation provided by WRD runs 120 d only. At the end of the season there is some water left in the reservoir (dead storage). The seed costs Rs1000/q. These seeds are certified and treated. When farmers take the seed for the next crops note that each crop has a lower yield. The main constraint to yield is irrigation (low rate of discharge). Rice yields are 50q/ac (maybe too high). The disparity in planting dates is 1 month and the reason is that there is field to field irrigation as those at the lower end have to wait for those in the higher end of the system to discharge their water as there is no tertiary system. They said early plantings have higher yield but did not give a good reason “late plantings do not have sufficient time to grow”. The most common fertilizers are manure, urea, diammonium phosphate. They broadcast the phosphate and do not incorporate it as in other areas. The DA RAEO has office in the village and farmers go to him if they have a question. There is no training as such and no contact farmers. They go to him for questions on

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pest control and believe he gives good advice. There is a regional training once a year when the village sends two farmers and when they return they do not share information with other farmers. When asked what training they want they said everything. There are some 25 tube wells in the area that irrigate some 50 acres and they grow okra, berbera beans, tomato, onion, spinach, mutter, eggplant which they consume and sell in the weekly market. Farmers with tube wells sell water at Rs1200/acre, thus there is a water market in the village. Land preparation for rabi is in Dec/Jan and they make furrows and nurseries.

Aug 8 IGAU Directorate of Extension, Director and staff with Wijay

Met Prof. RB Sharma and some of his staff (Dr. MA Khan Agr Extension and Dr. SK Taunk Agronomy). The director said that he comes from a farming background and wonders how a rice farmer can make a living even if he grows hybrid rice as the price is so low. He also said that farmers may not be too motivated to grow rabi crops. Each generation farm sizes get smaller as fathers divide land among their sons. His office oversees all extension work in the country. Of course the DA is the line agency with field workers all over the country but his office provides training to their staff. His office oversees the KVKs (farm technology centers) which conduct on-farm trials. They have been in the state since 1994 and are funded by the federal government through ICAR. There are now 10 but the plan is to keep adding them until there is one per district. Many are still in construction and have 2-6 staff who are SMS with MS and PhDs, each with a different discipline. There also is a program coordinator. The state provides the land, from 30-50 acres per center. Housing is provided to all staff. The centers train farmers, extension workers and youth. Trainees are nominated by the DA or NGOs. The only cost is to provide remuneration to their trainers. The director said that adoption studies find that only 30% of technology has diffused to farmers. Some 70% of the

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farmers population are marginalized. The director left for a meeting and discussion continued with his staff. Discussions centered around the most effective extension methods. They said that greater adoption occurred if only one technology is presented at a time and on-farm demonstrations are best. Dr. Khan coordinates the base-line farmer surveys that have been carried out in three villages under the CURE program with IRRI. The data have not been analyzed as of yet but he will go to IRRI next month to work on them. The government purchases rice from farmers at Rs610/quintal as a minimum support price and without this floor price farmers would get half of this from private buyers. They have a program of technology verification trials under the Institution-Village Linkage Program with ICAR. They gave us reports with many technologies that they have been testing for rainfed cropping. Some discussion followed on how to contact NGOs for the project and if IGAU could provide the same functions as an NGO. Apparently there are not many NGOs working in the state and those that are there are mostly made up of young staff. We learned that IGAU could provide community workers who would be new graduates of the unversity and if we paid them well they would live in the villages for several years. A good salary would be Rs8000 ($180) per month plus fuel expenses for travel (many have their own motorcycles). Many of the RAEOs that were most recently hired are from minority tribes and thus few had agricultural training. IGAU is developing a certificate program for them now that will last a year. We inquired about women’s home gardens and they have a specialist in this field Smf. Neeta Khare, Home Scientist. She also teaches women on the proper methods to select healthy seeds and preserve them until the next crop season. Some 80% of agricultural workers are women.

Aug 11 Mohmalla Tank Scheme, Nagri block, Dhamtari Dist (Wijay, Satya, Phillip TA Consultants, K.S. Shinde WRD PMU, S.R. Mardia EE Dhamtari, G.H. Yadav Depty Dir DA Dhamtari)

Met local WRD staff in WRD office in Nagri and went directly to the tank. There are 9 minor tanks in the areas. The main minority tribe is the Gond tribe. The

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Mohmalla tank feeds that village and an adjacent one Battanhara and together form 1 WUA. The earth dam was constructed in 1976 and recently was rennovated by replenishing soil on the dam thru a Govt program to create employment in local communities. The catchment is in a forested area and no farms were seen around the reservoir perimeter. There are two main canals of about 4 km each. The command area is some 120 ha and 88 farms. WRD records put the number to 385 ha but the extra land is uplands and out of the command area. The water reaches all the way to the end of the system. The tank is now full, the first time in 5 years. WRD gave some Rs85,000 for O&M which was spent on repairing the tank and canals as well as patrolling the canals. There are 4 WRD watchmen who man the rain gauge but the metal lifting rods that opens the sluice gates was stolen. India is one of the few countries that charges a water tax, that is a tax for the water used instead of a service tax for the delivery of water. The farmers grow a single rice crop with supplementary irrigation from tank. Only a few farmers broadcast a rabi crop of Lathyrus seed on small portions of their fields before harvest. They consume all of the rice and Lathyrus. They do not migrate as their farm sizes are still large (2 ac). There is a fishing user group that pays Rs7000 per year to the Fisheries Dept for the rights to fish in the tank. They stock the reservoir with grass carp and vegetation is seen in the reservoir where they nest. If the water spread is < 40 ha the fisheries fee goes to the local govt otherwise it goes to the Fisheries Dept. Fisheries Extension Officers from DA help the landless farmers to get carp to stock the tank. During the dry season there is dead storage of 10 ft. Some people still fish, take baths or wash animals. Three small rivers (nalas) feed the tank from the surrounding watershed. When we asked the farmers what were the problems they said they wanted to add a minor canal but it would pass thru a forest thus cannot be built. The long main canals may result in seepage losses. The repair work they did of adding soil will not last as it was not compacted. One needs a machine to do this. The site is interesting from the point of view of water management. They currently do not irrigate a rabi crop (only 15 ha of wheat) and only go for a single rice crop. They waste water in irrigating the rabi crop as they lack tertiary canals and thus flood irrigate. When asked why don’t they save the irrigation water for a rabi crop that would give a higher return, they did not know what income a rabi crop would bring. Apparently all farmers receive

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irrigation water for rice. The farmers did not know how long it would take the tank water to reach the end of the main canal but guessed from 3-24 hr. This means that seepage is not bad.

PM meeting in Mohmalla village hall with farmers and panchayat representatives.

The president of the WUA stated that water should reach all farmers each year. He wants to link their canals with those in another system in Sundur. The interview with farmers was flawed as they do not understand Hindi and none in our party spoke Chhattisgari. Phillip asked questions first. Only about half of the farmers said they receive all the water they need from the tank. They were asked if they knew about a method that could save them 60% of irrigation water and if they would like to try it. But they would need to develop tertiary canals to give more precise irrigations. Farmers purchase fertilizer in Nagri some 18 km away although there are smaller outlets closer. Some 15-20% of the time fertilizer is not available in the PDS shops so they have to look further afield or not use it. All put some FYM up to 2 bullock carts per acre or less, depending on the supply. Most common weed is Cyperus. The farmers recognize 3 types of soil: 1) black clay cotton bottomland soils where they grow the 145 d HYV Sanva and others of long maturity. 2) Loam soils, best for high yield with early and medium maturing rices. 3) sandy loam is not so good for rice. Most farmers plow their rice soils immediately after harvest of the previous crop in areas where Lathyrus is not sown. Many farmers sow Lathyrus legume on part of their rice land before harvest. The smaller farmers consume all of their rice and Lathyrus, only 10-15% migrate. Farmers expressed a problem in getting enough weeders to help weeding. They do not share their labor among one another as all need labor at the same time. Many landless laborers go elsewhere where they can earn more during the weeding areas so in the last 3-5 years there have been shortages. They pay Rs35/d for locals and Rs45/d for outsiders. There are several NGOs presently working in the area. Some are self help groups, others womens groups, some raise money to get credit.

Interview with the Depty Dir Agriculture

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The Dist DA has tried SRI rice culture on one of their govt farms and harvested 60 quintals/ha or 6 t/ha using Irchansert? rice variety. Another variety is Poornima (105 d) The main insect pests are gall midge, stem borer, and brown planthopper. Brown planthopper is a particular problem. The main weed pest is Cyperus rotundus which farmers hand weed or a few apply butachlor. The main diseases are blast and bacterial leaf blight and some spray Hinosan for blast. Seed treatment with Thiram is recommended as is soaking rice seed in 17% salt to remove unfilled grains and chaff. Fertilizer is recommended to be applied three times with first a basal application of NPK, the second at first weeding and the third at PI. Average rice yields are 2-3 t/ha but the best get 6t/ha. Lathyrus matures in 60-75 d and if farmers sold it would receive RS600-700/quintal. Gram is sown on black soils. There are 70 RAEOs in the district who are to serve 1000 farmers each or 4-5 villages. They receive Rs 30 per day for travel which they spend half the time. RAEOs receive training twice a year at IGAU for 2 days and stay at the university hostel. DA organizes the trainings which are given by university specialists.

Aug 12 interview with SK Sahu Rice Breeder at IGAU retired.

Dr. Sahu provided a review of the characterists of all the rice varieties including the many developed at IGAU. The Rice Research Station in Raipur was built in 1905 and over the years some 6000 accessions have been amassed in their collection. There are 5 breeders. They have a new hybrid but the problem will be getting seed as the seed farms are not very active.

Aug 21 Interview with Sudhir Taunk Agronomist at IGAU

We discussed extension methods and he mentioned that he has taken part in videos that demonstrate agricultural techniques that are then broadcast on TV. He complained however that most of the videos are shot in an office and not in the field. Radio is another medium frequently used. We talked about developing single sheet flyers that focus in on one technology that could be developed by the

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university that would reinforce the farmer field school weekly lessons. After the session a single sheet leaflet could be given to all farmers to reinforce the message of that week. He also mentioned the problem that both men and women do different tasks in rice production. Thus it would be better if the women went to the training when a task that they were involved in was being discussed. There are very few women RAEOs and those that enter service do not stay long, thus getting women trainers will be difficult, but we could make it a policy to have both men and women farmer trainers. In his experience conducting technology verification trials in the rural areas and thus working with RAEOs some of them are very motivated but many use their job to earn money. The enter into collusion with large farmers and purposely under-report crop yields (as part of the data gathering that all officers must do seasonally) in order to attract large scale demonstration trials. In these trials, usually carried out with larger farmers the farmers then receive the fertilizer free from the govt. The purpose of these trials is to demonstrate new technology but other farmers are not invited to see the trials. Thus most RAEOs work with the larger farmers thus when we talk to the small scale farmers they have never heard of their extension agent. There is further collusion regarding fertilizer distributors. Many adulterate their products and when their fertilizer is analyzed the chemist calls them up and asks for a bribe and then puts down that the sample contained the right amount of product. Taunk said it was important to have the samples analyzed by the university in the agronomy dept. He was also very worried about hiring NGOs as many of them readily enter into collusion with govt agents to get money so it is very difficult to find honest workers. We will have to build in cross-check methods once FFS sessions start for the project staff to make unannounced visits to the training sites to ensure training is going on as planned. Taunk said this year there have been low weed densities in the field which he believes came as a result of the very early but halting rains. Farmers plowed after each of

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four rounds of rains and thus carried out the stale seedbed weed control method. Farmers wait for weeds to emerge and then plow them under as a green manure. He also said that farmers’ use of FYM was highly inefficient. They put the manure in the field in the hot season and much of it is ‘burned off’ by the time they get around to incorporating it. Farmers need to haul the manure during the hot season when fields are dry as there are no paths that carts can use to take the manure to their fields. Once a farmer floods his field the cart cannot pass anymore.

23 August Southern Durg to Balod block, Siyadehi tank (with Vijay, Satya, Philip, Joshi, Victor and K.S. Shinde WRD PMU) met with the EE L.K. Jain and S.K. Meshram Sub Engineer.

We arrived at the WRD Tandala Canal major irrigation scheme guesthouse and met the EE and staff. The Tandala system built from 1906-20 irrigates over 100,000 ha. There are three main dams with the Gondi built in 1957 and Kharkham in 1966. There is 1 WUA in the scheme we saw which is a minor scheme Siyadehi tank in Balod. There are four tanks in the WUA but we will only work in Siyadehi. The command area is 364 ha and the tank is small but deep with forest as a watershed. A river flows into it and the tank fills each year and at the time of the visit the spillway was fast flowing. The fishery rights are given by the local govt. The earth dam is in good shape with some rock at the base to prevent piping. Weeds are growing on the dam but there is no labor or budget to pull. Only grasses are allowed to grow to prevent erosion. There are no WRD laborers and only 14 on the major Tandala canal. There are major problems with the canal systems and the dam only irrigates 80% of the command area. The canal system is 7.9 km but only 4.5 km are in use due to siltation and breakage. Some farmers may also be obstructing the flow to the lower portions. Thus the fee collection rate is 10-20% (Rs8000 last year from all four tanks). Some 6 ha of rabi crops were grown last year from deep well pumps, mostly pulses and veggies. There is a good potential to tap shallow

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aquifers with more pumps (not tube wells). The command area gently slopes downward from dam. A good point as water pressure is needed to drive the water control devices planned for the system. There are disputes among the farmers over water delivery. There are a number of private tanks in the system. We visited the nearby Sihadehi Temple as well as the Tandala Major scheme and inspected the dam and major canal.

25 August to Kawardha Dist and the Chhirpani medium tank (with Vijay, Satya, Philip, Joshi, and K.S. Shinde WRD PMU) met with the EE Mr. S.K. Tiwari who guided us.

We met the district WRD head at his residence in Kawardha where we met representatives of different officials from political parties, local govt, and WUAs. The district is 60% tribal. Farmers grow soybean in upland fields and are shifting from rainfed rice to sugarcane with the establishment of a GOI cooperative refinery closeby. There is a soybean processing plant 100 km from Kawardha.

We then met the Collector/District Magistrate at his residence to give a briefing on the project. He is young and engaging and wants to see the project succeed and link with other ongoing projects in the district. He noted that most projects are ad hoc in nature and not interlinked with related projects. He is particularly interested in developing more biogas facilities at the village level to produce power. He has a grant from the British High Commissioner to do so. The waste from the biogas organic matter would make good fertilizer. He also had comments on how to set water service rates and noted that rich farmers do not always pay their share. Correct billing is important as often water is sold to private companies. A water tax is the shared cost of running the delivery system. The tax rate needs to be defined by the WUAs. At present it is not demand driven. If the demand for water comes from farmers then they should provide land for canals rather than the govt compensating them. He is also interested in developing market federations to cut out middlemen and make the market come to the farmer.

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We then drove to the damsite of the medium Chhirpani tank constructed in 1982 and had lunch at the guesthouse at the foot of the dam. The dam currently has a command area of 7000ha in the kharif but due to canal breakages only irrigates 5700 ha of which 3700 ha is rice and 2000 ha is sugarcane. The reservoir has not filled in the last 17 years. The dam is in excellent condition and is well made with main canals lined with cement blocks and has concrete drops. The earth dam has a sloping face and is well made. Water flows rapidly down the main canal, necessitating lining. Some farmers bring in water to their paddies 1 m deep thus there is much wasteage in the field to field irrigation. WRD blames the DA for not instructing the farmers to take less water. Rather than embrace water savings efficiencies, the engineer wants to expand the watershed by building a tunnel to another river to increase the reservoir load. We tried to convince him that before doing that, let’s see what we can do with the existing water using water savings technologies before embarking on a very expensive expansion project. One example of conservation on sugarcane is to irrigate only 2 rows out of every five. Irrigated rice yields are 3 t/ha. As opposed to other irrigation systems there is a high use of rabi cropping, mostly gram and pulses. There is some use of tube wells for sugarcane. The engineer noted that the tank and canals will increase the water table, benefitting lift irrigation. The command area of the medium tank reaches 22 villages and there is 1 ADO and 5 RAEOs (called Village Level Workers) for the 7000 families. Literacy is generally 70% for men and 50% for women in the district (state). Discussions over lunch revealed that WRD has not hired new staff in 15 years and Kawardha is the district of the Chief Minister Raman Singh. When the project was being designed WRD did not want any PIM, but ADB insisted and provided a grant of $1.9M. When the WUAs formed they have no power, capital or bylaws. These need to be developed. The ratio of medium to minor tanks for the project guideline is 1:10. The consultancy TA also comes from Dfid. As a guideline a village level NGO should earn Rs5000/mo ($110) plus conveyance.

Discussions with WUA leaders each having 15-25 acres of land each (avg farm size is 0.5-1 acre) revealed that some farmers out of the command area use sprinkler irrigation and move the sprinklers by hand from site to site. The DA gave information on how far to move them.

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There are some 10-20 tubewells per village. It was revealed by the Team Leader that even fishermen should belong to the WUA as all of those who use tank irrigation water should belong. Phil pointed out that the longer water stays in the tank the fatter the fish become. Fishing rights are often given to landless people that live outside of the command area. Land prepared for gram after rice harvest under hight tillage with two plowings. They said if farmers only open up plow furrows between the rice stubble that the roots do not penetrate the soil. They save their own gram seed from the last harvest and place insecticide (Celphas) in the sacks. They check the seeds every two months or so to see if insect pests are building up. The varieties they use are Ujain 21 (rough seed coat), and 315 (= JG315) and Kata (both smooth coats). Large farmers irrigate twice and apply fertizer at each irrigation. They also spray insecticide twice. The price of gram at harvest is Rs1400/Q by GOI but later it rises to Rs2600. Yield averages 1.5 t/ha under high management.

We then drove 60 km to Baherakhar minor tank along the MP border built in 1980 by USAID.

The tank was originally meant to provide water for a copper mining site in MP but after bifurcation the water now stays in Chhattisgarh. It now has a 400 ha command area but not all get water due to canal damage (mainly from antisocial behavior). The engineer wants to add two more main canals to add 1100ha to the command area to give a total of 1500 ha. The tank has surplus water now and out of 14 MM3 only 4 are being used. Rice is grown in the wet season and summer rice (75 acres), wheat (150 acres), and gram (25 acres) in the rabi. Some have dug wells to grow vegetables on a minor scale. Land preparation for wheat is with an ox drawn plow or tractor. They buy seed and inputs from either GOI coop or private dealers in nearby towns. The quality is said to be better from the govt source but they have few pesticides. One pesticide mentioned was malathion. There is 1 RAEO for the area of 1300 farmers and some 22 villages. Average farm size is 0.5-1 acre. Large farmers grow wheat and harvest 2.5 t/ha. Summer rice can yield up to 8t/ha using Dubraj, IR64, and IR36 but kharif rice averages 4 t/ha. Main problems on rice in kharif are flooding and insect pests. Fertilizer applied to rice by the larger farmers is twice with 50 kg urea, DAP, and TSP just at transplanting and 30 DT. Weed control is manual

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with 15-20 ladies once. They are paid Rs50/day. Only if the kharif fails will farmers migrate. Of the 1300 farmers only 100 migrate annually.

Aug 29 trip to Raigarh and Koknitarai Tank Scheme (with Satya, Philip, Joshi, and K.S. Shinde WRD PMU) met with the Asst. Engineer Mr. Darshan and Sub-engineer Mr. Faultley who guided us

We inspected the dam which has seepage and needs repair. Canals are leaking and even farmers at the top end were complaining of lack of water and delivery. The siphon was blocked and they were requesting Govt help in cleaning it of sand. The scheme is designed to irrigate 900 ha but only 200 ha have irrigation. The tank is located next to a steel mill and urbanization has crept into the command area. It was obvious to the team that the site soon will be taken over by industrialization thus to repair and expand the tank is not a viable economic option. No rabi crop.

**Visit to the Regional Agricultural Research Station in Raigarh (with Satya, K.S. Shinde, and Asst. Engineer Darshan)

Met the Station Director and two staff (Plant Breeder and Entomologist).

The station is 10 years old and connected to IGAU. The station houses the agricultural research team (60% research and 40% extension) as well as the KVK district headquarters, and a private college. Currently the research staff have funding from the state from the National Agricultural Research Project as well as federal from All India Coordinated Research Projects in Spices and Rice. Spices are tumeric, ginger, fengugreek (70-80 d), and coriander (90d). The latter two can be rabi crops. For rice they work on both transplanted wetland and dryland rice. Rainfall is much higher than in other areas of the state thus yields tend to be higher as well. The soils (pH of 6) are good and mostly sand or loam and there is little black clay soils. The main insect pests are yellow stemborer, gall midge, caseworm, rice bug, leaffolder, and brown planthopper. There are many natural enemies according to the entomologist. The main diseases are blast and bacterial blight. The main weed is Echinochloa (sama grass) but weed problems are not

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severe. The research group works as a team and conducts verification trials from more basic research conducted at IGAU Raipur and All-India commodity stations. Last year they conducted a ‘Frontline Demonstration’ with the ICAR Rice Division station at Hyderabad on dryland rice growing Poonima a 105 d variety. Inputs were given to 20 cooperating farmers who were given a 1-day training and each grew an acre. If the farmers had further questions they would telephone the research station or the team would make a round of visits. The yield was very high, 6 t/ha with kg NPK/ha (60,40,30) and no organic matter added. Rice was planted in lines rather than broadcast as farmers do. Other occasions they have conducted on-farm trials with transplanted rice. The recommended fertilizer rates are kg NPK/ha as 80,50,30 high rate or 60,40 medium rate, or 50,30 at low rate. They did fertilizer trials and found K is needed. Some areas have Zn deficiency. They have also done Frontline Demonstrations with oilseeds and pulses with the All India stations with urd (black gram), mungbean, groundnut, and pigeon peas. There are rabi pigeon peas of 120 d (UPS) or 175 days.

The staff have transport to go to the field with a travel budget. The station however does not have email and most research staff do not have support staff therefore each must work alone, greatly limiting productivity.

The station conducts In-Service training to extension agents from RAEO to SDO level. This is a large activity for the station and instruction is by videos, overhead projector, slide projector and blackboards. There is little field work associated with DA training. They said that DA staff ask many questions and are highly engaged in the trainings. The training sessions are fortnightly during the growing season. There are no Subject Matter Specialists in the district and the three positions lie vacant. These would normally be MSc level jobs.

The station staff also conduct training of farmers, either 1 day at the station or 2 days in the village. Farmers are instructed in batches of 50 at a time. Most farmers can recognize the major insect pests and diseases.

The KVK is new and will have some 9 scientific positions there are only 3 staff now: An agronomist head and a horticulturalist and agronomist staff. They conduct some 25 on-farm demonstration trials per year. Each trial is a

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different crop or disciplinary focus with 10-15 farmers totaling 8-10 ha. Inputs are given as a kit and the farmers grown the crop. There is no effort to conduct a field day for neighboring farmers. The private college has 7-8 teachers who earn a meagre Rs3000/mo. There were some malfeasence problems and the college will be banned by IGAU.

30 Aug visit to Korba to the Chhuri tank scheme (with Satya, Philip, Joshi, and K.S. Shinde WRD PMU) met with the Asst. Engineer Mr. Dwivedi and Subengineer Mr. Ratre who guided us)

There are 1300 farmers (counting both men and women) in the WUA. The dam was completed in 1977 and irrigates 135 ha of the 150 potential. Damage to the canals is the reason for loss of water. The project wants to add 3 km of canals to triple the command area. The sluice gate is leaking and the staff report that the dam shrank 1-1.5 m. There does not appear to be enough water to irrigated the extra command area desired by WRD staff however. Discussions with three WUA farmer leaders, one who was a former RAEO, revealed that there are some 20 ha of rabi crops that are normally grown including wheat, groundnut, chickpea, black gram, and sunflower. The village however also has silkworm raising thus farmers are not so interested in rabi cropping. They also said that cattle pose problems to rabi cropping. However in two adjacent villages of Bingapur and Jhatin they do not have silk culture and want to grow rabi crops. Mulberry is now grown in the forest areas. Our three farmers have holdings of 2-9 acres. They grow several varieties HMT, Vishnu Hoog, and Dubraj that yield 16-20 Q/acre. They plow four times. The first in the dry season with the first rains, the second in the first week of June, and the third and fourth just before transplanting. They conduct two levellings in different directions. They do not have harrows. Most (75%) of farmers hire tractors for land preparation at Rs350/h = 1 acre. They put 1-2 carts of FYM/acre before land preparation. All three make compost pits beginning during the kharif by digging a pit (1 m deep) and placing manure, wet garbage, and plant residues. The ex-RAEO puts TSP fertilizer and layers the pit five times. They do not turn over the pit contents but pour water in during the summer months. They apply urea (50 kg sack rarely twice), TSP, and 12-36-16 (iffeo). Fertilizer is broadcast into paddy water rather than incorportation. They require four irrigations and flood to 4-8”. Late (taller traditional) varieties can

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tolerate deeper ponding. Weeds are not a major problem and only 20 mandays for 1 acre (once) is needed. They plow in the summer to dry weeds. The main insect pests are rice caseworm (worse in late plantings), planthopper (maho), leafcutter (leaffolder). All three farmers interviewed spray insecticides and own sprayers (plastic). The govt gives subsidies for purchasing sprayers. They spray malathion and monocrotophos for caseworm 1-2x and planthopper as well. They dust however for leaffolder control using a rented duster (Rs2/h) with 10% BHC dust. In 1972 an epidemic of green leafhopper prompted the govt to engage in aerial spraying with a helicopter in the district. Main diseases are bacterial blight and blast. They sprayed Hinosan or Dithane M45 for blast 2x last year. There are many agroinput retailers nearby to purchase from. The RAEO lives nearby and comes twice a month meeting with individual farmers or in groups. They do not pay him or give him food. They normally discuss varieties and inputs and pesticides for specific pests. Before the ex-RAEO said he covered 14 villages but now because of the govt not hiring for a decade a number of RAEOs have retired so those remaining have larger areas, say 20 villages. Most farmers take credit on their own from GOI coop. Smaller farmers consume their own rice but larger ones store them in their house and wait a year to sell (get Rs800/quintal at harvest or Rs1100/q the following June). Rice grains are stored in jute sacks in the farmers’ homes after drying very well. Several times during the rabi and summer they take dry the seeds once more. The ex-RAEO selects his seeds very carefully by panicle and threshes them selecting only the largest seed for next year’s planting. Good seed selection increases yield 6% according to farmers. They also like to grow rabi rice with Swarna, Shoghana, Nargarlmutha, and Dubi as popular. There are some tubewells. Main constraints in kharif are water and late rains or drought. Churi village have cattle and money from silkworms thus do not want rabi but two other villages do: Bingapur and Jhatan.

1 Sep Department of Agronomy IGAU (Prof. RS Tripathi Head and staff, BL Chandrakar – Weed Mgmt, JS Urkurkar – Farming Systems, N Pandey Rice Soil & Water in the Head’s office)

They have 4 years experience in SRI rice which needs to develop 40 tillers per hill to obtain high yield with 25 x 25cm spacing (normal spacing is 15 x 10cm), heavy rains wash away seedlings if rainfall occurs during the first month, need

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to rotovate at 15 and 35DT with Japanese rotovator to cut roots to stimulate tillering, need controlled water for drainage, nursery needs to have metal spatula to uproot before transplanting, at transplanting there is a problem of getting labor for these operations as bushening takes up so many people. It takes 4 man-days to accomplish per ha. SRI problematic due to heavy rainfall, sloping lands and uneven fields, and fragmented fields. Tube wells would allow farmer to plant in June before heavy rains but there are only a few of them. Fragmentation occurs due to inheritance through sons. They divide each of their fathers fragmented fields to increase fragmentation. Rice yields are normally reported as husked rice so are 40% lower. Yield cuts in research trials are 10m2, fertilizer trials are bunded, sometimes double bunds in water mgmt trials. Plot sizes can be as low as 30m2. Zn deficiency as a result of farmers scraping field soil for bunds but not other means. Sulfur deficiency is for some oil seed crops. NPK can be analyzed in Soil Science Lab to test fertilizers, but generally GOI coops are good quality but sometimes there are shortages. Best results from three splits of N on varieties less than 130 d (basal incorporated, active tillering, PI). If >130 day add fourth application at 7 d after flowering. If you want a > 6 t crop apply >120 kg N, if > 5 t crop apply 90-100 kg N, if > 4 t crop apply 80 kg N. Minimum tillage (plow furrows in rice stubble) for rabi crops better than relay broadcast. In broadcast seeding is uneven and roots do not penetrate well. However rabi crop is problematic due to labor shortage as time of harvest. Harvesting takes a month and many fields are harvested too late causing losses in quality. Wheat needs 5-6 irrigations as in Feb-Mar needs 2-3 as hot season. Maize is hybrid and GOI coop seed is better than private. Farmers normally can get credit. Cotton would grow well in Chhattisgarh except there are no gins. Medicinal plant Safod muslai can earn Rs100,000 in kharif season. Weed control is by bushening. Herbicides useless due to heavy rains. Main weeds are Echinocloa crusgali, Ishium rugosum, Cyperus diformis, ? milicacae. Many fields not leveled. Farmers do not have a leveler but there is one designed. Normally 6-8” need to be scraped from one side of a field to another and this is very labor intensive. They have to use bullocks to level at puddling. With a tractor best to level in summer with scraper/shovel attachment. Primary tillage begins in Dec-Jan with earliest rains which then come in Apr for a second plowing. This has a beneficial effect on weed control. Some 80% of irrigation water can be saved by limiting irrigations to 2 in July and 2 in Sept and the rest is from rainfall. N deficiency is due mainly to heavy rainfall. Farmers plant late varieties on the high slopes

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instead of early ones and thus call for more irrigations than can efficiently be given. Tribal groups will be hard to work with due to propensity to drink and also earn money during off times as they can harvest economic plants etc from forest. They do not seasonally migrate for example. CIDP should therefore focus on the Central Plain. Extension services are poor. Only SMS go for training at IGAU and the same ones come every two weeks. They in turn are to teach the RAEOs. Many of the RAEOs do not come from agriculture and they have no motorcycle. They do not come to IGAU for training. Only 2-5% of state budget is for agriculture even though 70% of the economy comes from agriculture. To get funding scientists at IGAU submit proposals to the Dir. of Research and there is a committee to select winners. Promotion is soley by years of service (8 yrs to be Assoc. Prof and 5 more for Professor). There is no assessment and no merit. There is the National Agronomy Society of India, Chhattisgarh chapter. They host symposia and meetings every few years (there is one scheduled in Dec 2006 on Conservation and Management of Agro Resources in Accelertion of Food Production for 21st Centruy) and can attend the national meetings but need funds. There is a student seminar each week in the department. The research journal of IGAU is called Journal of Agriculture Issues which comes out quarterly. Govt of CG has a promotion to open tube wells and subsidizes tribals at Rs45,000 and others at Rs25,000. A better idea would be to make check dams every 0.5 km in natural drainageways and put in electricty to run pumps to irrigate from the dams on either side. There are some 5,000 km of nalas in Raipur dist alone. Most economical rabi crop to grow is rice which can yield 6t/ha which fetches Rs36,000 and Rs12,000 expenses gives Rs25,000 net ($550/ha). Rabi crops soybean gives low yield due to cool temp. Sesame has to be planted before 15 Mar, groundnut is good but needs many irrigations. Maize can be grown any season. Sunflower yields low 15 q/ha in summer as too hot. But the biggest constraint to rabi cropping is labor to plant as farmers and landless are busy helping other farmers harvest and they get a percentage of harvest so are highly motivated. But delayed harvest lowers yield and grain quality. Most of the potential for our project is in the central plain as tribals are not motivated to grow rabi as at this time they enter the forest to harvest leaves etc to earn money. Some areas cattle will enter crop fields to graze. Compost or FYM needs 4t/ha to give best benefit and better if give 5-10t/ha. Compost has to be repeated every other year. Better to construct brick walled receptical to hold 34 quintals (10’x3’x3’). Layers of soil, organic crop residue/garbage, manure. In the dry season need to irrigate 100 liters every week. Best to place pit near tubewell.

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Difficult to deliver to field and quality is generally low. Tubewell potential is good on 60% of area. Plowing schedule for farmers is to plow after each rain. The first comes in Dec-Jan and next in Apr. Farmers do not have harrows for animal drawn implements, only chisle plow and plank to level. Best to level with tractor in dry season but with animals upon puddling. Dept of Engineering have leveling implements pulled by tractor.

2 Sep Home Economics Dept in Extension wing (Smf. Neeta Khare and Smf. Jyoti Bhatt)

Most women tend a kitchen garden or nutrition garden near their homes. Areas can be 0.5 acre or less where they grow vegetables (green leafy veggies, eggplant, pumpkin, tomato, okra, bottlegourd, cabbage, green pepper), tubers (yam, elephant leaf), fruits (guava, banana, papaya, custard apple, lemon). They mostly save seed or can purchase seed in 5 g packs. They do mostly training of KVK counterparts with MS level. Each KVK is funded by the federal govt. They also train womens’ groups (Mahila Mandal) funded by the panchayat. Plus Angan Badi workers. One of the most successful enterprises is mushroom growing and processing where the women can earn Rs60,000 a year growing mushrooms on wheat and rice straw. The producedtheir own spawn. They also have made receipes for pickled mushrooms and fried mushrooms (paper), and noodles. Compost is made in each household from the 5-6 head of cattle that produce 5-7 kg of FYM a day. They put the straw from the bedding of the cattle, ash from the fire, garbage, and cow urine in the pit. They must irrigate in the dry season but do not put purchased fertilizers in the pits. They would use more FYM if they did not use it for fuel. Some 2/3 of FYM in many places is burned. Some use drainage water from the village to irrigate kitchen gardens. The Home Science staff have a Rs50 solar cooker that can cook rice. Fuelwood is a problem. They have produced extension materials such as folders (single sheet), pamphlets (2 leaves), flip charts, posters. Surveys have been undertaken that showed that women adopted 40-60% of information/ technologies. They undertake training needs assessments. They have a project with ICAR New Delhi for the Institute Village Linkage Program which has been ongoing for 10 years.

Later I went to the Entomology Department but as the power was out we went to the Dean’s office Dr. B.S. Thakur (former head of Entomology Dept) which had its own power and with B.C. Shukla the current head and later by SS Sengar Head Soil Science).

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The staff of Entomology is supporting the FFS of the National Department of Plant Protection IPM Center at Shailendranagar, Raipur. They have FFS training in 5-6 villages near Raipur in about 100 acres per village. Plant protection staff from IGAU go to the site once a week during kharif to assist in the training. They have FFS curricula for rice, rabi crops, and vegetables. The DA organizes the farmers.

Dr. Shukla said neem seeds are harvested by local farmers and sold to make oil. Farmers would rather purchase neem pesticide products than make it.

Main rice insect pests are gall midge in which there are resistant varieties Danteshwari, Mahamaya, Rutsi? and Abhya. It breeds on wild rices in the off season. It is more important in double cropped areas. It has been getting less due to the change in rainfall pattern (later onset and lesser amount). Insecticides do not work against gall midge and if phorate granules are used there is resurgence of brown planthopper and leaffolders. Brown planthopper (bura maho) is a problem on suscpetible varieties such as Swarna and due to high N fertilizer and close spacing that farmers prefer. IGAU Entom has BPH in culture that they screen new lines. The common stemborers are yellow stemborer and pink stemborer. They are more serious on the summer crop and farmers spray when seeing deadhearts but not whiteheads. Insecticides are ineffective. There are two species of leaffolder C. medinalis and Marasmia. Control is by sprays. Rice bug, hispa, whorl maggot have all declined all due to rainfall pattern change. Caseworm is a pest in late plantings only.

Soils are low to medium in organic matter. Zn deficiency occurs when there is top soil erosion. In upland soils with pH of 4.5-6 there is Mo, Bo, and Cu deficiencies. Thus it is recommended to apply FYM and lime. S deficiency in oil seeds such as mustard, linseed, soybean, and groundnut. Upland soils harden due to low pH? Sometimes there are problems harvesting groundnut from hard soils. Some irrigated areas have acidic soils and Cu deficiency if two crops are grown.

Maturity class Rainfed (kg NPK/ha) Irrigated (kg NPK/ha)80-90 d 40-30-20 Not grown90-110 d 60-40-20 100-60-40> 120 d 80-50-30 120-80-15

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Urea is 46%, DAP is 18-46-0 (P2O5), mixed fertilizers (12-3216), SSuper 0-16-0 (P2O5), muriate of potash 62% K2. There is a need to incorportate P into the soil and better to have two splits with the second by bushening 30DT or other tillage (viz. SRI rotovator) even in black soils. Can get better efficiency with a split. K is now deficient and rice husks are purchased by paper mills or burn rather than return K to soil. Husks are also high in Si but it is said Si hardens the soil. 1 t/ha compost gives 0.5-0.9% N but higher amounts are better and better quality compost even more so. Both are challenges to achieve. Green manures are tried and give better N than FYM. The best are sunhemp Sesbania aculata a 40 d soft stemmed species. Also Crotolaria and Pongamiam pinnata (karanj). Cakes of various sorts are also good. Small scale farmers should group together to make communal compost pits.

Irrigation method called border strip irrigation was tried in field. Shallow bunds 5 m swaths of the field are made and a canal dug now the center to deliver water, first to the furthest plot. If lighter soil make narrower swaths. The width can be up to 20-25 m.

IGAU students in their final (4th) year must enter the Rural Agricultural Work Experience program (RAWE) for 6 months. They get a stipend from the university and usually go nearby to Raipur.

4 Sep Plant Breeding Dept. (Acting Head Dr. N.K Motiramani) and Plant Pathology Dept. (Dr. Kare pulses, Dr. Dantre fungal diseases of rice)

Hybrid rice. There are 24 hybrids in India but only 3 in the statePA6201 ProagroPA6444 Proagro relaces the abovePHB71 PioneerKRH2 Karnataka public fundingHybrids mature in 125-135 d (medium to late) Seeds sell for Rs150-200/kg but KRH2 being public sells for Rs50/kgIGAU will release soon IRH5 and will probably price it at Rs50/kg. Sales people dupe farmers into higher prices but yield is not much higher than the most popular HYVs. The transplant at 1 seedling per hill to save on seed. HYV seedling density is 2-3 seedlings/hill. Hybrids have straight line increase in yield up to 150 kg N/ha (in 3 splits, 50% basal and rest in tillering and PI); 80 kg P,

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60 kg K. Also respond to FYM added to field but not in seedbed. Hybrids should not be grown on sandy soils or suffer drought. Hybrids produce 18-20 productive tillers at 20 x 20 cm or 20 x 15 cm spacing between hills.

HYV Pure line breedingDelayed harvesting that occurs with farmers causes overmature rice grains leading to more broken rice. However as GOI procures all rice (since 2001) percentage broken grains is not part of the rice price. Thus farmers have no incentive to harvest on time. Germination even is not affected by late harvested rice. Major rainfall occurs from July to mid Sep and begins 15 June right after very hot season. Medium variteis are 125-30 d. The most popular is Mahamaya which has a yield potential of 5.5-6 t/ha. This is the level of hybrids. Mahamaya has a bold grain and is preferred by farmers as it is more filling, has less brokens, and is good for making porrige (puha). Fine rice as in hybrids are more perferred by city people. Late maturing HYV is Safri 17 which is photosensitive and flowers Oct 15. It is a selection from a traditional called Safri.Swana has high yield and good taste. It is susceptible to all pests but despite this seems to yield well. It is a 150-day variety and needs to be planted on more low lying fields. Plant Breeding is working on ways to improve Swana. The major insect pest is gall midge but since introducing resistant varieties the populations have declined. They screen germplasm in the field, and use light traps to attact adults. There are 2-3 biotypes and 9 different genes imparting resistance. Brown planthopper is screened in the greenhouse on a regular basis from colonies. Stemborers have been increasing and late plantings which have higher infestation levels have been used to screen as well. Among HYVs MTU1010 is best as a rabi rice. It is 115 d and can be harvested before the hot season which will cause flowers to abort lowering yield.Bacterial blight is also screened in the field under inoculation. Other diseases are sheath blight and sheath rot. False smut is increasing as well but many farmers think it is a sign of high yields and a good thing. MTU1010 has high infection rates. Soil problems are few; Zn deficiency is corrected with gypsum. In some areas around Ambikapur there are semi-deep varieties barahalan which are longer maturing.

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IGAU has amassed 23,000 rice accessions collected in the field. Duplicates are stored in New Delhi at the national seed center for long term storage. The original collection was made by Dr. Richaria from 1970-80 and since Dr. Motiramana arrived he added 4,000 more.

There are three wild rices: O. nirvara, O rufipogon, and O. spontanea (the latter is a natural cross of O. nirvana with O. sativa called karga by the farmers). Wild rices tend to be located near to wetlands which is their natural habitat.

There are a number of branch stations which are mainly seed production stations cum research stations. Each station is headed now by an Associate Director of Research.

Research extension linkage occurs on a commodity basis first in the regions and finally in Raipur such as in kharif rice in a May meeting and for rabi rice in a Sep meeting.

There is also a Farmers’ Fair called kharif mela held in Raipur where some 5000 farmers attend each year and get a tour of the demonstration fields and have question and answer sessions with scientists.

4 Sep With Plant Pathology there are some 100 BS level students, 6 MSc and no PhD students now.

Rice diseasesBlast is more important in the north with cool nights and warm days and some varieties such as Swarna are susceptible. There are some resistant varieties such as Bambleshwari, Aaditya Tulsi, Abhaya, IR36, IR64. It can also be controlled by fungicide seed treatment 0.1% tricylogol (Beam). This is effective for 40 d. Foliar sprays should be applied twice: 0.1% Hinosan, 0.1% Kitazin, and 0.1% Bebestin. One should also look for signs of the disease before applying top dressing with nitrogen. If the disease is present on the leaves then need to apply a foliar spray and wait one week before applying.Bacterial blight is also a problem and can be controlled with resistant varieties Abhaya, Ajaya, Mahamaya, BamleshwariAlso if it is present then draining the field is effective and apply muriate of potash: 15-20 K kg/ha

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Gram diseasesGenerally farmers wait for a while until rice is harvested and in doing so the soil dries and cracks, thus must be flooded before plowing. Farmers broadcast seed which may need another irrigation to germinate. Some farmers give another irrigation at flowering. It is recommended to make rows and line sow.

The main disease is Sclerotium or collar rot which is caused by over irrigating. It can be minimized by summer plowing, giving only one irrigation, and fungicide seed treatment.

Fusarium wilt is less common and there are resistant varieties JG74, JG315, Avrodhi, Vasti, Vijay, Webhow.

Atylosia scarabaeoides

Biocontrol agents are not as effective in most areas due to moisture stress. However they are effective in Bilaspur which has a high water table and the IGAU research station there is mass producing and selling it.

Insect pestsMain insect pest is Heliothis pod borer.

MungbeanFarmers make noodles from it called bariMain disease is powdery mildew which occurs in Jan

There is also yellow mosaic virus transmitted by whiteflies and is localized in the state particularly in the kharif season.

Field pea and Lathyrus the main disease is powdery mildew.

Pigeon peaPhytophthora blight can be controlled with copper fungicides such as Dithane M45. It is exacerbated by water logging and strong winds which cause wounds and entry points. Recommended not to weed during the seedling stage.

Sterile disease which causes excessive brances and aborted flowers is a virus.

6 Sep Nehru Library IGAU campus

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Looked up all of the issues of IGAU’s scientific journal Journal of Agricultural Issues as well as MS and PhD theses on Agricultural Extension and Agricultural Economics for studies on evaluation of extension methods, adoption rates of modern technologies

7 Sep Met with Dept of Agr Extension staff in the office of J.D. Sarkar with M.L. Sharma and D.K. Suryawanshi

Discussions then centered on what extension methods have been used. In some projects they first conduct either a benchmark survey with questionnaires for individual farmers or a participatory rural assessment focus group interview. The latter is preferred as it takes less time. Surveys have to be read question by question to most farmers as they cannot fill out the forms themselves. PRA is conducted mostly by the Directorate of Extension where farmers are asked to identify their own problems and they gather information via social maps, exterprise maps, timeline, matrix making, fuel collection and rainfall data. They had no examples in the Dept however. They then prioritize which technologies to include in the training program.

Regarding extension methods with women they said it is best to have training of the sexes separately. Training includes field visits, demonstration, and lecture. It is more difficult to train the less educated farmers and the hardest are the tribals. Tribals need to be taught in their own language and one needs an interpreter during training for this reason as there are very few tribals who are extension agents. They have been successful in training tribals but one needs to be sensitive to their cultural practices. For example if there is a religious ceremony they will go to that rather than attend a training.

Discussions then turned to what technologies farmers need to know. With a project with IRRI and ICRISAT they have gathered data on 1000 farmers each from irrigated, rainfed wetland, and dryland environments to follow trends in agr production since 1996, making a survey every 4 years. However even the data from 1996 has not been summarized yet, some 10 years later! With IRRI again they are working with farmers to develop methods of rapid sowing of pulses after rice. Agr Engineering and even the farmers themselves have invented either tractor or bullok

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drawn seeders that make a slit in the rice soil. They have seeded chickpea, lentil, blackgram, and mustard using this method. It is very important to secure good quality seed in all on-farm demonstrations and to teach farmers where to go to secure quality seed. These would be from individual farmers who produce seed themselves as the best choice.

When told that IRRI hired anthropologists to work with farmers they said there are no anthropologists in the IGAU campus but there are some in another university in Raipur. They have no mutual contact with them however and believe it is not necessary.

12 Sep Dr. S.P. Gupta, Central Integrated Pest Management Centre, Raipur

The Federal Center is an office of the Min. of Agr., Dept of Agr and Co-operation, Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Central Integrated Pest Management Centre, C-60 Shailendra NH IV, Faridabad, Haryana. They undertake training of farmers and extension workers, pest surveillance, rearing egg parasitoids. There are 18 staff at the Raipur center which works throughout the state (before there were up to 35 staff but thru Govt hiring freeze the numbers have steadily dwindled). Their farmer training utilizes the Farmer Field School method although it appears that it is somewhat following the lecture method. The FFS training began in 1994 in India. Although some trainers were trained in Cochin, Kerala as early as 1986. Currently they have 14 FFS classes. In each class are 30 farmers + 5 (contact farmers, extension workers). If the RAEO is ordered by the ADO to attend then attendance is high. The curriculum is 14 weeks, one class per village. There are 5 trainers for the weekly courses. Not all classes are in the field, some use panchayat halls. They divide the groups into 6 and do agroecosystem analysis for 45 min and then come back to draw the results and analyze and give a report. They provide Rs10 each for snack. Many of the farmers are illiterate. The last class is a Field Day where farmers were brought in who were not trained and then have them talk to the trained farmers. Before each class they bring the new farmers to see an existing FFS class. They do some follow-up after the first season but not much. If they do follow-up they get much more adoption. Unfortunately they do not carry out ballot box testing. I requested him to get a student from IGAU to do

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a thesis on measuring adoption rates. There are few women farmers in the FFS classes and there would be more if they had women trainers. They also have FFS on chickpea which farmers establish rapidly after rice. They have their own implements to sow chickpea. They apply Trichoderma for biocontrol of collar rot Sclerotium which works if purchased from reliable companies (1. Pest Control of India or 2. Biotech International Delhi www.biotech-int.com) and if they apply FYM beforehand to provide a suitable habitat.

Other activities of the center are pest surveillance where technicians make fortnightly tours of 1000 km to monitor fields along the way. They report on pests including insects, diseases, weeds, rats, birds, as well as soil problems. These reports are sent to the DA Depty Dir of the respective districts.

They rear Trichogramma for release against rice (yellow stemborer) and sugarcane (top borer) stemborers.

15 Sep meeting with Department of Entomology (Head Dr. D.J. Pophaly and Sanjay Sharma rice pests)

There is no one working on vertebrate pests although rats are a problem in both the field and storage on rice. Birds are a problem on sunflowers. Snails are pests of home gardens. Dr. Sharma has worked previously to describe and test farmers indigenous practices including pest control practices near Bilaspur. They interviewed farmers in rural areas older than 50. Many are botanicals, cakes, plant extracts. There are some practices to protect pulses from the bruchid beetle for up to 7 months using some local botanicals. Dr. Pophaly works on host plant resistance and maintains a colony of brown planthopper to screen for new rices. Through collaboration with the Nuclear Energy Laboratory they radiated some popular traditional varieties such as Safri 17 and got dwarf mutants. They also have new lines which have multiple pest resistance to blast, bacterial blight, gall midge, and brown planthopper. It is hoped that in the next few years these lines will be named as varieties. Brown planthopper is a problem especially in Dhamtari which grows hot season rice to enable the pest to build up between crops. Farmers spray insecticide for gall midge and cause brown planthopper resurgence. Farmers planting hybrids spray up to four times. Yellow stemborer is becoming more of a pest while gall midge

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densities are declining, probably from the wide adoption of gall midge resistant lines. We took a tour of their greenhouse to see the screening methods.

23 Sep Dept of Agricultural Engineering, SB YadavThere are seed drills pulled by bullock or tractor in development. In Raipur there are factories that make them and over 500 have been produced. Dr. AK Varma works on this aspect. There are also tractor powered levelers, but they have not heard of laser levelers. The ones they use have floats. They are also working on mechanical transplanters but fields have to be leveled. Only farmers with tractors have harrows, the disc harrow is most popular. If someone buys a tractor its first use is haulage so one needs a trolley. Next use is the cultivator followed by a disc harrow. There was just concluded a workshop sponsored by the Indian Society of Soil and Water Conservation where a report can be secured from RK Sahu, Dean of the Faculty of Engineering. In growing wheat early planting is necessary and harvesting should be before the last week in Feb which turns very hot. Wheat needs cool weather to mature.