plant biology of yajurveda - sanskrit documents...plant kingdom. ‘apsuja’ means water-born is...

Project Report

Plant Biology of Yajurveda*

Raghava S Boddupalli**

* The project was carried out under the sponsorship of Indian National Science Academy between the period July 2017 to May2018.

**Institute of Sanskrit and Vedic Studies (ISVS); Regd. No: 264 / 80-81, Sri Siddhivinayaka Temple, Sanjayanagar, Bangalore–560094, Email: [email protected]

The project aims to make a comprehensive andsystematic assessment on the descriptions of plantbiological material described in the Yajurvedatexts. This study would provide the easyidentification of plants, their importance in variousvedic rituals, magical, medicinal and secularsignificances and their utilization for mankind.This will also provide a rich source material forunderstanding the ancient Indian plant biology.The project report is presented under the followingchapter titles:

I. Veda Introduction

II. Significance of Trees in Vedas

III. Vedic Rituals and Plant Biological Product

IV. Plant Biology Knowledge in the VedaSahitās, Brāhmaās, Arayakās andUpaniads

V. Ritualistic Significance of Plants

VI. Agriculture Crops, Plants and Trees in theŚrī Rudram

VII. Magical Significance of Plants

VIII. Medicinal Significance of Plants

IX. Yajñāyudha– Implements for Sacrifices

X. Botanical Descriptions of Plant species inthe Yajurveda

XI. Summary of the utilization and importanceof plant species

In the Yajurveda (YV) texts different types ofplants and trees are mentioned. The flora ofYajurveda consisting of seventy one (71) plantspecies is described. Among the 71 plants, 47species belong to the class Dicotyledonous, 23species belong to the class Monocotyledonous andone (01) species belongs to the Gymnospermcategory, as per the Bentham and Hooker (1862)taxonomic system of plant classification. A totalnumber of 71 plant species, belonging to 32families, includes 28 tree species, five (05) speciesof shrubs and 38 species of herbs (see Appendix1)are described.

The final report (henceforth referred to as ‘theReport’ in this article) that is submitted to theIndian National Science Academy (INSA)contains XLI+639 pages that include 84photographs of plants and yajñāyudha, glossary,bibliography, web bibliography, eight (08) tablesand plant names index. Mantra references areprovided at the end of each chapter designated inArabic numerals. More than 1400 mantras relatedto plants/trees are provided as references from theYajurveda and other vedic texts in Devanāgari andRoman diacritic scripts. The complete list of plantsand tree species, their class and family areprovided in the Report. This article provides theessence of the above-mentioned chapters.

1. VEDA INTRODUCTION

Vedic texts were codified and classified into

Indian Journal of History of Science, 54.2 (2019) 226-237 DOI: 10.16943/ijhs/2019/v54i2/49668

PROJECT REPORT: PLANT BIOLOGY OF YAJURVEDA 227

writing by the great sage, Veda Vyasa, as thefollowing: (1) gveda—wisdom of the verses, (2)Yajurveda—wisdom of sacrificial formula, (3)Sāmaveda—wisdom of the chants and (4)Atharvaveda—wisdom of Atharvan is.

The Yajurveda (a tatpurua compound ofyajus– ‘sacrificial formula’ and veda–‘knowledge’, i.e. ‘the knowledge of sacrifice’) isthe next of the four canonical texts of the vedas. Itcontains the knowledge of principles and methodsof performing yajñas and yagas as spiritual andscientific approaches for global welfare (Sastry,1940, 1989). Yajurveda is quite different from theRV and other sahitās. It is principally in proseform. The word ‘yajus’ in the Yajurveda isexplained as, ‘gadyatmakam yajuś’. In anotherdefinition, ‘yajur yajateś’, it talks about therelation with the sacrifice (yajña), because boththe terms are derived from the root ‘yaja’ (Sastry,1940; Raghunathachari, 1982). The YV is morepronouncedly a ritual Veda, for it is essentially aguide-book for the Adhvaryu (priest), whoperforms the yajñas and yagas (Sarma, 1989). TheYV is divided into two forms, the ‘Śukla YV’ (‘pure’

or white, because the Brāhmaa portions are notmixed up with the mantra portion) and the ‘KaYV’ (‘dark’ or black, in the sense of mantra beingmixed up with the Brāhmaa sections). Aschematic representation on the classification ofYajurveda is provided in the Fig. 1.

2. SIGNIFICANCE OF TREES IN VEDAS

Vkam (tree) is the symbol of life and growth.It stands for eternity and selfless well-being. Inthe four vedas, many herbs, vines, shrubs and treespecies are described. Our is in the Vedas haveoffered hundred-fold respects and prostrations tothe trees. is say that it is not possible to imaginelife without trees. Vājasaneya Sahitā (VS), showimmense respect towards the trees and say oneshould have reverence and devotion towards alleatables, grains, medicinal herbs, trees, forests andvegetation. Trees are considered as devatās(deities) meaning one who keeps givingincessantly. Trees have always been beneficial tous and they possess the divine qualities that qualifythem to be addressed as devatās. Trees in Indianmythology and folklore are widely considered as

Fig. 1. Classification of Yajurveda.

228 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

sacred and worshipped across the country for theirbenevolence. Indians believed that certain treesare the abode of gods and goddesses. The worshipof trees in India can be traced to the Indus ValleyCivilization, as clearly indicated in the IndusValley seals. The hymns of the vedas also containreferences to such sacred trees and plants onaccount of their being associated with certaindeities and also because of their potent medicinalproperties (Dymock et al., 1893). Sthala vkās(derived from Sanskrit, i.e. sthala – place; vka– tree) or sacred trees are found all over in India.Hence, killing trees or cutting a live tree is doinga crime against devatās.

3. VEDIC RITUALS AND PLANT

BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS

Through the centuries, rituals have been asocio-cultural force in India. It is also pointed outthat it is due to these rituals the tradition has beenprotected. The fact that the vedic sacrifices havecontinued to be celebrated not only centuries afterthe vedic period but even up to the present day isan unquestionable proof of the persistence of theold religion, bearing in mind that the ‘yajña’constitutes it’s more important element (Aguilar,1976). The execution of rituals maintains thebalance of the five major elements (sky, wind, fire,water and earth) affording sun-shine and rain inreasonable measures, resulting in proper growthof crops and plenty of food. Rituals are performedto get relief from excess or scarcity of rain,diseases like small-pox and tuberculosis, dangersfrom poisonous creatures, wild animals andthieves and other sorts of disturbances (Sarma,1989).

The full-moon and new-moon (darśapūra-māsa rituals) sacrifices are of great importancefor the study of the vedic ritual because they formthe model of all sacrifices called ‘iis’. The ritualsare generally classified into three viz., obligatory(nitya) such as agnihotra; incidental (naimittika)such as jātei and optional (kāmya) such as

citrāyaga. A more detailed classification of thegroup of seven pākayajñas, haviryajñas andsomayajñas are provided in the Śrauta Sūtrās(Kashikar and Dandekar, 1958).

The main object of the ritual/sacrifice is to yieldthe required desire of the sacrificer. The plants andtheir products have got a wide range of use invarious forms. A close and critical study of theplants and their products used in rituals revealsthat they have got a four-fold significance and asfar as the YV is concerned, they marks a distinctstage in the evolution of human thought.

4. PLANT BIOLOGY KNOWLEDGE IN THE VEDA

SAM. HITA–S, BRA–HMAN. A–S, ARAN. YAKA–S AND

UPANIS. ADS

Proper identification of higher plants is basedupon the external structure of plant organs. Theclassification (Taxonomy) of various plant parts,their structures and growth is explained in detailin the Taittirīya Sahitā (TS), Vājasaneya Sahitā(VS) and related Brāhmaās. Plants are in the firstplace and are broadly classified into threegroups— (i) vka (trees), (ii) auadhi (herbs orsmall plants) and (iii) vīrūdh (creepers or herbswith spreading stems). Various types of root andleaf forms have been described in the vedic textswhich correspond to the modern botanical terms.The Taittirīya Sahitā classifies the plant kingdominto several classes based on its form and growth.Hence, the is, the ancient scientists, realized theimportance of classifying the plants according totheir vegetative and reproductive properties,similar to that of modern classifications of theplant kingdom. ‘Apsuja’ means water-born ismentioned in the TS and in the TB. Themanufacture and storage of food can be obtainedfrom the references in the Maitrāyaī Sahitā,the Kāaka Sahitā and the Bhadārayak-opaniad, where waters are regarded as theessence of the earth (pthivyāś āpa), herbs as theessence of water (apāmauadhyā), flowers as theessence of herbs (auadhīna pupāi) and fruits


as the essence of flowers (pupānām phalāni,).‘Śapa’ denotes ‘young’ or a ‘sprouting grass’(Macdonell and Keith, 1982), mentioned in theYV Sahitās and in RV Brāhmaa, YV Brāhmaa.Sāyaācārya in his commentary on TaittirīyaSahita (TS) mentioned that śapa means a justborn darbha grass (Desmostachya bipinnata) onthe banks of the Ganga River. Many botanical andagriculture associated terms mentioned in thevedas, which are currently in use in the modernbotany are comprehensively discussed in theReport. Also, agricultural tools, seasons, crops,favorable crop/s for each season, cycle/s of cropspossible for each season and so on, which arerevealed in the YV and other vedas are discussed.Several botanical and agriculture associated termsare extensively discussed in the Report.

5. RITUALISTIC SIGNIFICANCE OF PLANTS

In the chapter dealing with the ritualisticsignificance of the plants, it has been noticed thatthe important feature of the ritual is homa. Thehoma involves two things– the material to besacrificed and the implement used during thesacrifice. Most of the sacrificial materials are theproducts of the plants. Of them, the ‘samidhas’are very commonly used and its’ usage is of greatimportance in yajñas, yagas and homas. Samidhasof several trees and plants are offered to the fire,of which those of aśvattha, udubara, palāśa,śami, vaikakata, aśanihata, pukara para arevery much dear to Agni (Fig. 2).

The faggots of nyagrodha, māndhuka andplāka and the grasses like darbha, balbaja andmuñja are also offered to the fire. Among thevianda (an item of food) sacrificed, the caru,puro–āśa, anna, saktu, lāja, dhāna and karambhaare noteworthy. Caru is prepared of the grains ofāmba, garmut, gavīdhuka, nīvāra, priyagu, yava,vrīhi and śyāmāka. Puro–āśa is prepared of vrīhiand yava. The grains of au, gavīdhuka, garmut,godhūma, jartila, tila, nīvāra, priyagu, māa,yava, veu, vrīhi and śyāmāka are cooked into

anna and offered to the deities. In Vājapeya,fourteen kinds of annas are given in oblation.Several iis are deeply discussed in this chapter.The specific plant products used for some of theimportant, well-known and desire-motivated iisare listed in the Report. The saktus of karīra andkharjūra are sacrificed in the karīrei. Theparched grains of karīra are offered to the Agni inkarīri induces rains and those of vrīhi inaśvamedha. Lājas and other sorts of vianda areoffered to the fire during the anna homas inAśvamedha. The porridge is prepared with thegrains of gavīdhukā and jartila. The sacrificialbrewage, māsara and sura are prepared with themixture of germinated rice, wheat and barley, theflours of rice, wheat and barley and the fruits ofkarkadhu, kvala and badara. The best of theoblations, the soma juice is the product of a plant.The oblation of the juices prepared from the plantsof pūtika, ādāra, and phālguna are equivalent tothat of Soma plant. Thus, the manifold value oftrees and plants having immense ritualistic utilityand significance is portrayed in this chapter.

6. AGRICULTURE CROPS, PLANTS AND TREES

REVEALED IN THE ŚRI– RUDRAM

Rudra is a deity of the vedic period. He findsmention in the gveda and there is a detailedsection in praise of Lord Rudra in the Ka

Fig. 2. The seven Samidhās cherished by Agni.


Yajurveda (KYV) and Śukla Yajurveda (SYV)Sahitās. The name ‘Rudra’ is mentioned in allseven kāas of the Ka Yajurveda TaittirīyaSahita (KYV-TS). The 16th chapter in the ŚuklaYajurveda Sahita (SYV) and the 5th and 7th

prapāthakas of the 4th kāa of the KYV-TS arededicated to the ‘Rudra’ in its entirety. The earliesthymns paying homage to Lord Rudra is the ŚrīRudram found in the Yajurveda. The Rudrādhyāya(colloquially Rudram or Śrī Rudram) occurs inall four Yajurveda Sahita texts with minorvariations.

In this chapter, the mantras that are connectedto the botany and plant vegetation are provided.The botanical and agricultural terminologymentioned in the Śrī Rudram is explained in detail.The plants and trees mentioned in the camakapraśna are more in number when compared withthe namaka praśna. Cereal and legume crops, treesand their derivatives that are required to performyajñas and yagas are revealed in the camakapraśna of the Śrī Rudram. In Śrī Rudram, a totalof 12 agriculture crops consisting of seven (07)cereal crops, four (04) legume crops and one (01)oil seed crop are revealed. Even today, these cropsare being cultivated by our farmers for theutilization by mankind and cattle on day to daybasis as food and fodder, respectively. Thedifferent qualities of cereal grains are detailed inthe camaka praśna. The plant species that arementioned in the Śrī Rudram are tabulated in theReport.

7. MAGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF PLANTS

The ritual has given birth to the magic; as suchin the order magic comes next to ritual. All thetrees and plants which possess ritualisticsignificance do not have magical significance. InRājasūyā, the use of grains of apāmārga in thehoma, misleads and destroys the enemy of thesacrificer. The śakus and idhma of aśvat’tha, helpthe sacrificer to defeat his foe and win back hiskingdom. The plant arjuna wards off the meddling

of evil elements. A mai (bead) of udubara helpsthe wearer in getting wealth. The offering of gheewith the yajña implement graha which is made ofudubara, helps the sacrificer to avert untimelydeath. By offering the parched grains of karīra orkharjūra to the fire, rain can be created artificially.The plant varāhu is also used for the samepurpose. Kārmarya is famous for its capacitiesof quelling the rākasas. It is used as paridhi tohedge the hearth. Even the deities used theparidhis of kārmarya to avoid the meddling ofasuras. The sruc of kārmarya filled with ghee isas powerful as the vajra, famous for its capabilityof killing the asuras. The samidhas of khādira areused in several rituals of witchcraft. A sword, madeof the wood of khādira is held by agnīdhra in thedarśapūramāsa and other rituals, to preventrakasa. Garmut possesses subjugate properties.It subjugates the human beings and the cattle too.The Bdellium (gulgulu) is used for subjugatingnot only the human beings but also the deities andother super human beings. Darbha has a widerange of use in witchcraft. The vidhtis (twodarbha blades kept on the vedi) smash all demonicforces and the enemies among the human beings.Dūrva averts the nightmares caused by ghosts. Theherb nīlī dismantles the witchcraft launched withthe intention to cause white leprosy (svētakua).The juhū of para used in the apāmārga homa,expels the ogres and other evil elements. Para isan embodiment of Brahman. The faggot ofmadhūka can kill the soldiers of the enemy, bycreating either fire accidents, the reasons of whichcannot be discovered, or by causing fever. Bywearing the rope of muñja around the waist, theBrahmacārin protects himself from all the evilspirits. Yava is a well-known demon-expeller. Inthe ii of Traidhātavīya, a puro–āśa of yava isgiven in oblation to deteriorate the sorcery madeby others, quell the demons causing defeat andgrant the sacrificer abundant wealth. The use ofthe branch and sruc of varaa wards off the evilspirits and untimely death. In an Abhicārakarman,using the sphya (as sword made of khādira wood)


as yūpa, the faggot of vibhīdaka is offered to thefire. This enables the sacrificer to kill his enemies.A dethroned king can regain his kingdom, byperforming a kāmyayāga, in which the puroāśaof vrīhi is offered to the deities. The offer of thepuroāśa also grants the sacrificer immensewealth. The sambhāra of śamī causes peace(śānti). A list of plants classified under magicalsignificance in the Yajurveda is provided in theFinal Report.

8. MEDICINAL SIGNIFICANCE OF PLANTS

Vedic literature in general refers to a numberof things which directly or indirectly constituteancient medical tradition. Vedic rituals are not onlysacred but also practically useful for the mankind.There are some rituals which, if performed well,cause general strength to the body and organs,luster to the face, and stability to the mind. Byperforming some others, the appetite of theperformer improves and he gets rid severaldiseases like white leprosy.

The apāmārga homa in Rājasūyā improves thebodily health of the sacrificer. The use of the leafof arka in the satarudrīya homa (as an implementof homa) gives relief to the sacrificer from manydiseases. Arjuna, which is used to cover the caruin obsequies, is the essence of all auadhis and itsuse makes the food (caru) more nutritious. Theuse of aśvat’tha as samidhas and as sambhāras invarious rituals tones up the male potentiality inmen and fertility in women. It strengthens thesemen and helps the man to get a male child. Theoffering of the faggot of aśvat’tha averts madnessand other mental disturbances. The samidhas ofāragvadha are used in the ritual sarpabali, whichrepels snakes and other poisonous creatures. Itworks as anti-venom. Udubara is the essenceof food. In whatever form, its use in rituals causesstrength and vitality. It also causes commendablepower of speech. In sarpabali, the samidhas ofkimśuka are offered to the fire, to get rid of snakesand other venomous creatures. Kimśuka forms

remedy to all kinds of poisons. The fruits of kvalawhich are also mixed with surā (along withkarkadhu) strengthen the capacity of the sense-organs. The use of a vessel of khādira, ināyuckāmei, improves the health and causeslongevity to the sacrificer. It also gives relief fromchronic diseases, the diseases caused by over-heat,stomach disorders and the idea of committingsuicide (a relief from depression). The yūpas ofkhādira improve luster and longevity. Thesambhāra of gulgulu causes health, strength andluster. The groats of wheat, which are mixed withsurā and offered to deities, strengthen the virility.In Vedic rituals, the use of darbha is intended forthe purpose of purification. Water is sprinkled withthe reeds of darbha. It purifies not only thesacrificer and the priests, but also the sacrificialmaterials. The touch of darbha makes the viandnutritious. Dūrvā is placed on the head beforetaking bath. It has the capacity to avert nightmares.Nīlī is a wonderful discovery of vedic medicine.The mantras emphasize that it cures white leprosyand turns the grey hair into black hair. Many kindsof sacrificial materials, prepared of nīvāra areoffered to deities. Even the gods consider it as thebest kind of food. By eating nīvāra, the bodybecomes strong and full of virility. It also improvesthe power of memory. The faggot of nyagro–dhawhich is offered to the fire alleviates madness andother kinds of mental disturbances. Para whichhas a wide range of use in rituals is full ofmedicinal properties. Its touch purifies theoblations. By touching the cow and the calf witha green para branch, the milk collected from thecow is purified. Besides, it gives protection fromthe diseases caused by virus. It causes bodilysplendor, strength and longevity. The herb, pāhācan show wonderful impact upon the humanpsychomotor system. Pūtīka is a substitute ofSoma and an agent of coagulation. The offeringof the curd, thus prepared, in favour of Indra,improves the health of the sacrificer. With itsmedicinal properties, plāka keeps the paśu andhavis free from bacteria. The offer of the faggot


of plāka to the fire cures madness. Badara ismixed with the surā offered to deities. It improvesvirility and causes mild intoxication. The yūpasof bilva cause health and luster. Muñja is anembodiment of the essence of food. By offering itto the agni and wearing a rope entwined with it,the sacrificer gets strength and virility. The powderof yava is mixed with surā. In addition, puroāśaand anna of yava are offered to deities. Theofferings of the yava, helps the sacrificer inobtaining relief from several diseases and health.The YV says that the disease jalodara is causedby accumulation of unhealthy water in the stomachand it is cured by offering an oblation of yava tothe deity varua. The use of the ladles of varuatree is the homas causes longevity. By using anoffering spoon of vikakata, the sacrificer getsbodily splendor. In Aśvamedha, the cut parts ofthe horse are placed on a mat of vetasa, prior tothe homa; for vetasa protects the havis. Rice isoffered to deities, in various forms like caru,puro–āśa. The offerings of the same cause strengthand health to the sacrificer. The offerings ofśyāmāka, improves the virility of the sacrificer.Thus, in rituals the herbs have a significant role,which is very important from the medicinal pointof view. A list of plants classified under medicinalsignificance in the Yajurveda is tabulated in theReport.

9. YAJÑA–YUDHA– IMPLEMENTS FOR SACRIFICES

9.1 Yajña, Yajña Vidhi and Benefits

Yajña is the subject matter of the entire Veda.Yajñas and yagas are being performed as spiritualand scientific approaches for the welfare of thepeople, benefit of the society and for world peace.The Yajurveda (YV) contains the knowledge ofdoctrines and methods of performing yajñas andyagas (Boddupalli and Sastry, 2015 and 2018).The mantras/liturgies for performing yajñas andyagas is incorporated in the YV Sahitās and inthe YV Brāhmaās. Many advantages derived

from performing the yajñas are described in detailin the ka and śukla Yajurveda Sahitās. Ouris showed the path and provided the proceduresand guidelines whilst themselves performing theyajñas and yagas (Boddupalli and Sastry, 2018).

9.2 Yajñāgni

The fire (agni) that is kindled for the purposeof the yajña is called ‘yajñāgni’ (sacrificial fire).This is ignited through a mechanism called‘agnimanthana’ and the particular implement usedis named as ‘agnimanthana device’ (manthi andpramanthi). This woody instrument, consisting ofa pair of arai used to churn agni, is manufacturedfrom an aśvat’tha (Ficus religiosa) tree growingout of the womb of a Śamī (Acacia catechu) tree.

9.3 Sacrificially Important Trees

It is almost impossible to perform yajñas andyagas without using plants or trees and theirrelated products. Therefore, the plants, herbs,shrubs and the trees revealed in the YV are thevital elements in performing yajñas, yagas, homasand iis (Boddupalli and Sastry, 2018). Thesacrificer (yajamāni) should prepare for the yajñawith the collection of yajñāyudha or yajñaimplements. In order to perform any yajñaflawlessly, only the specified yajñāyudha shouldbe used. These are made from the wood ofdistinctive trees (Boddupalli and Sastry, 2015).The names of these important trees and theirqualities are clearly revealed and described in theKYV-TS. There are more than fifty (50) types ofyajñāyudha that are well-known in the YV andŚrauta sūtrās are described and detailed in theReport. These implements such as sruc, sruva,juhu, vasordhārā, upabht and others are theoffering spoons with different measurements andshapes depending on the type of ritual. These aremade of aśvat’tha, udubara, khādira, para,kārmarya, varaa and vikakata. The cups,known as grahās and camasas are used to preservethe juice of soma and surā. The wood of


nyagrodha is used for preparing camasas. Thegrahās are made up of udubara, aśvat’tha,khādira and vikakata trees. The woody trees thatare used in the manufacture of the yajñāyudha arelisted in the Report.

10. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF PLANT

SPECIES REVEALED IN THE YAJURVEDA

Each plant / tree revealed in the Yajurveda isdescribed botanically under the following heads:(i) Name of the plant species in vedic Sanskritlanguage as described in the YV, (ii) Family nameof the species in parentheses, (iii) Complete plantbotanical citation with synonyms as per theInternational Code of Botanical Nomenclature(ICBN), (iv) Common / vernacular names of theplant in multiple languages of Indian origin, (v)Documented species distribution with nativity andexotic cultivation, (vi) Botanical description of theplant, (vii) General notes, and (viii) Medicinal /Economic importance of the plant species arehighlighted. A total of 71 plants and tree species’photographs are depicted in the Report. In case ofplants, photographs of the plant/crop, flowers,fruits, roots and seeds are portrayed. While in caseof tree species, photographs of entire tree, wood,bark, flowers, fruits and seeds are represented.Among the plants (considering all forms) revealedin the Yajurveda texts, there are three Red Listedspecies by the International Union forConservation of Nature (IUCN). They are: Oryzarufipogan (Poaceae), Blyxa octandra (Hydro-charitaceae), and Pterocarpus santalinus(Fabaceae). There is no plant species either extinctor endangered in the list provided. Majority of theplants/trees are still growing wild, with some beinggrown in India and in the Indian sub-continent thatare been used by mankind.

11. SUMMARY OF THE UTILIZATION AND

IMPORTANCE OF PLANT SPECIES

The Yajurveda (YV) thus describes differenttypes of plant species and their significant usages

in various rituals, as magical and medicinalimportance and in manufacturing the yajñaimplements. Most of the sacrificial materials arethe products of the plants. Of them, the ‘samidhās’are very commonly used and its’ usage is of greatimportance in yajñas, yagas and homas. Amongfood-oblations used in various rituals, the caru,puroāśa, anna, saktu, lāja, dhāna, karambha andyavāgū are noteworthy. Cereal grains and legumeseeds are cooked into anna and offered to deities(Fig. 3)

Fig. 3. Cereal grains and Legume seeds are cooked into‘anna’ and offer to the deities through AgniAu : Panicum miliaceumGavīdhuka : Coix lacryma-jobiGodhūma : Triticum aestivumNīvāra : Oryza rufipogonVrīhi : Oryza sativaPriyagu : Setaria italicaYava : Hordeum vulgareŚyāmāka : Echinochloa frumentaceaVeu : Bambusa arundinaceaGarmut : Vigna adenanthaMāa : Vigna mungoTila : Sesamum indicum

09 Cereal crops

01 Oil seed crop

02 Legume crops

The sacrificial brewage, ‘māsara’ and ‘surā’are prepared with the mixture of germinated seedsof rice, wheat and barley, the flours of rice, wheat

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and barley and the fruits of karkadhu, kvala andbadara. This intoxicating drink, ‘surā’, is awonderful creation of Vedic medicine. The bestof the oblations, the soma juice is the product of aplant. Some of the important, well-known anddesire-motivated iis are listed in a tabular formin the report along with their end result and theplant products used for the purpose. Most of theyajña implements used in various yajñas, yagasand homas are manufactured from wood. Amongthese implements, sruc, sruva, juhu, upabht,dhruvā, camasa and graha are the important ones.Except camasa and graha, which are shallowcups, all the other implements mentioned aboveare offering spoons with various dimensions. Themagical significance of plants, whose products areused in rituals/sacrifices, is also seen to be equallyimportant. The curative effects of the plants areoften mentioned amidst their ritualistic andmagical potentialities. Most of the curative aspectsof the plants used in the rituals of the YV, thoughnot explicit, can be clearly traced in the AV.

The way in which the vedic medicine works,is magnificent. It works through the smoke, thatrises while performing the homas with varioussamidhas, the touch of the wooden implementsand the consumption of the remnant of variousoblations like anna, caru, puroāśa, yavāgū,

which are prepared of grains of au, amba,priyagu, nīvāra, veu, śyāmāka etc. The vedicmedicine is mingled with magic. Mere use of theherbs, without the recitation of mantrās is notfound in vedic texts. Thus, it is seen that the plantshave got four kinds of significances viz., ritualistic,magical, medicinal and secular. The plants, withtheir four-fold significance, not only become themost essential part of the ritual, but also boost upthe practical benefit derived from a ritual. All theplants and trees, revealed in the YV, are botanicallydescribed and provided with photographs in theReport. Also, a table showing the frequency ofoccurrence of plant names in the YajurvedaTaittirīya Sahita (TS), kāa-wise, is provided.

12. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank Brahmasri Vedam Venkata Rama Sastryfor his guidance and encouragement. My thanksare due to Anantasri Boddupalli for his help invarious ways during the preparation of thismanuscript. I would like to thank the IndianNational Commission for History of Science,Indian National Science Academy (INSA), NewDelhi, for the financial support for the period July2017 — June 2018. I wish acknowledge theInstitute of Sanskrit and Vedic Studies (ISVS),Bangalore, for accepting to be the host institutefor this project.

APPENDIX

Flora of Yajurveda

In the Yajurveda (YV) texts different types of herbs, shrubs, climbers, water plants and trees are mentioned. The flora of YVconsists of seventy one (71) plant species that are used in various rituals, magical, medicinal and in manufacturing yajñaimplements are described. Among the 71 plants, 47 species belong to the class Dicotyledonous, 23 species belong to theclass Monocotyledonous and one (01) species belongs to the Gymnosperm category, as per the Bentham and Hooker(1862) taxonomic system of plant classification. A total number of 71 plant species, belonging to 32 families, includes 28tree species, five (05) species of shrubs and 38 species of herbs. Amongst the 38 herbaceous species, there are 20 species ofgrasses, six (06) legume grain species, five (05) other herbs of different families, three (03) aquatic plants, two (02) creepersand two (02) oil seed crop species. The 1st highest number of species (20) is from the family Poaceae (grass family), the 2nd

highest number of species (13) is from the family Fabaceae (including trees), the 3rd highest number of species (4) belongsto family Moraceae (Fig family) and two species each from Combretaceae, Capparaceae, Arecaceae, Asclepiadaceae andNymphaeceae, respectively and the remaining are one species each of different families. The complete list of plants and treespecies, their class and family are provided below:


Huge trees Botanical Name Class Family

1. Śragvadha Cassia fistula Dicotyledon Fabaceae2. Arjuna Terminalia Arjuna Dicotyledon Combretaceae3. Aśanihatavka (any tree hit by a thunderbolt)4. Aśvat’tha Ficus religiosa Dicotyledon Moraceae5. Bilva Aegle marmelos Dicotyledon Rutaceae6. Guggulu Commiphora wightii Dicotyledon Burseraceae7. Kārmarya Gmelina arborea Dicotyledon Verbenaceae8. Khādira Acacia catechu Dicotyledon Fabaceae9. Māndhuka Madhuca longifolia Dicotyledon Sapotaceae10. Nyagrodha Ficus benghalensis Dicotyledon Moraceae11. Para Butea monosperma Dicotyledon Fabaceae12. Plāka Ficus virens Dicotyledon Moraceae13. Pūtu-dru Cedrus deodara Gymnosperm Pinaceae14. Rājjudāla Cordia dichotoma Dicotyledon Boraginaceae15. Raktachandan Pterocarpus santalinus Dicotyledon Fabaceae16. Rohitaka Aphanamixis polystachya Dicotyledon Meliaceae17. Śalmali Bombax ceiba Dicotyledon Bombaceae18. Śamī Prosopis cineraria Dicotyledon Fabaceae19. Sphūrjaka Diospyros malabarica Dicotyledon Ebenaceae20. Śrī Gandha Santalum album Dicotyledon Santalaceae21. Tilvaka Symplocos racemosa Dicotyledon Symplocaceae22. Udubara Ficus racemosa Dicotyledon Moraceae23. Upavāka Wrightia antidysenterica Dicotyledon Apocynaceae24. Vaikakata Flacourtia indica Dicotyledon Flacourtiaceae25. Varaa Crateva magna Dicotyledon Capparaceae26. Vibhīdaka Terminalia bellirica Dicotyledon Combretaceae

Edible Fruit trees27. Kharjūra Phoenix dactylifera Monocotyledon Arecaceae28. Kvala or Badara Ziziphus mauritiana Dicotyledon Rhamnaceae

Shrubs29. Arka Calotropis gigantea Dicotyledon Asclepiadaceae

Shrubs30. Karīra Capparis decidua Dicotyledon Capparaceae31. Nīlī Indigofera tinctoria Dicotyledon Fabaceae32. Pūtikā Caesalpinia bonduc Dicotyledon Fabaceae33. Vetasa Calamus rotang Monocotyledon Arecaceae

Herbs34. Apāmārga Achyranthes aspera Dicotyledon Amaranthaceae35. Aśvagadha Withania somnifera Dicotyledon Solanaceae36. Punarnava Boerhavia diffusa Dicotyledon Nyctaginaceae37. Soma Cannabis sativa Dicotyledon Cannabinaceae38. Soma Sarcostemma acidum Dicotyledon Asclepiadaceae39. Varāhū Trianthema portulacastrum Dicotyledon Aizoaceae


Creepers40. Pāhā Cissampelos pareira Dicotyledon Menispermaceae41. Urvāruka Cucumis sativus Dicotyledon Cucurbitaceae

Water plants42. Avakā Blyxa octandra Dicotyledon Hydrocharitaceae43. Kyāmbu Nymphaea pubescens Dicotyledon Nymphaeaceae44. Pukara para Nymphaea nouchali Dicotyledon Nymphaeaceae

Grasses45. Balbaja Eleusine indica Monocotyledon Poaceae46. Darbha Desmostachya bipinnata Monocotyledon Poaceae47. Dūrvā Cynodon dactylon Monocotyledon Poaceae48. Gavīdhukā Coix lacryma-jobi Monocotyledon Poaceae49. Iku Saccharum officinarum Monocotyledon Poaceae50. Iīkā Chionachne gigantea Monocotyledon Poaceae

Grasses51. Kāśa Saccharum spontaneum Monocotyledon Poaceae52. Muñja Saccharum benghalense Monocotyledon Poaceae53. Nala Arundo donax Monocotyledon Poaceae54. Sugandhitejana Vetiveria zizanioides Monocotyledon Poaceae55. Veu Bambusa arundinacea Monocotyledon Poaceae

Wild cereals56. Au Panicum miliaceum Monocotyledon Poaceae57. Gavīdhuka Coix lacryma-jobi Monocotyledon Poaceae58. Nīvāra Oryza rufipogan Monocotyledon Poaceae59. Priyagu Setaria italica Monocotyledon Poaceae60. Śyāmāka Echinochloa frumentacea Monocotyledon Poaceae

Cereal crops61. Godhūma Triticum aestivum Monocotyledon Poaceae62. Sasya Zea mays Monocotyledon Poaceae63. Vrīhi Oryza sativa Monocotyledon Poaceae64. Yava Hordeum vulgare Monocotyledon Poaceae

Wild Legumes65. Garmut Vigna adenantha Dicotyledon Fabaceae66. Masurā Vicia hirsuta Dicotyledon Fabaceae67. Pśniparī Uraria picta Dicotyledon Fabaceae

Pulse crops68. Khalva Cicer arietinum Dicotyledon Fabaceae69. Māa Vigna mungo Dicotyledon Fabaceae70. Mudga Vigna radiata Dicotyledon Fabaceae

Oil seed crops71. Sarcapa Brassica juncea Dicotyledon Brassicaceae72. Tila or Jartila Sesamum indicum Dicotyledon Pedaliaceae


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