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Plant Evolution and Classification
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Overview of Plants
Section 1
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• Plants dominate land and water • Have lots of diversity • Some less than 1 mm in length • Some more than 100 m tall • 12 phyla (divisions) have more than 270,000
species • Some live a few weeks • Some live for thousands of years
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Adapting to Land�Life in ocean more than 3 billion years
�Life on land only 430 million years ago when ozone formed
�Ozone protected living things from sun’s radiation
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Preventing Water Loss�Move to land from water provided advantages �More exposure to sunlight (photosynthesis) �Increased carbon dioxide levels �Larger supply of inorganic nutrients
�Also presented challenges �Drying out through evaporation
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�Early adaptation to land: cuticle (KYOOT-ih-kuhl) à waxy protective covering on plant surfaces that prevents water loss
�Keeps water in the plant �Also keeps out CO2 �Plants that had small openings
(stomata) survived �Stomata allowed exchange of gases
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Reproducing by Spores and Seeds
�Land plants also developed structures that helped protect reproductive cells from drying out
�Spore à haploid reproductive cell surrounded by hard outer wall
�Allow widespread dispersal of plant species �Eventually most plants developed seeds �Seed à embryo surrounded by protective
coat
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• Seeds also contain endosperm à tissue that provides nourishment to developing plant
• Seeds are more effective at dispersal than spores
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Transporting Materials Through Plant• Certain species evolved vascular (VAS-kyu-luhr) tissue à type of tissue that transports water and dissolved substances from one part of the plant to another
• Two types: • Xylem (ZIE-luhm) à carries water and inorganic
nutrients in one direction, from roots to stems/leaves • Phloem (FLOH-uhm) à carries organic compounds
in any direction, depending on plant’s needs
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�Vascular tissue also helps support plant �Aquatic plants supported by water around them
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• Some plants developed woody tissue à formed from several layers of xylem, usually concentrated around center of stem • Allowed them to grow taller • Woody stems usually brown and firm
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�Nonwoody plants are called herbaceous à have soft, usually green stems
�b/c vascular tissue not surrounded by rigid wood, stems are flexible
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Classifying Plants• 12 divisions of plants divided into 2 groups
• Nonvascular plants à no true vascular tissue, no true roots, stems, leaves
• Vascular plants à have vascular tissue and true roots, stems, leaves
• Vascular divided into seed plants or seedless plants • Seeds plants divided as gymnosperms or
angiosperms
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The Fossil Record of Plants�A lot of what we know comes from
studying fossil record �It’s incomplete, but scientists think
plants evolved from algal ancestors
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• Strongest evidence is similarities between green algae and plants • Both green algae and plants have the same
photosynthetic pigments – chlorophyll a and b • Both store energy as starch • Both have cell walls made of cellulose
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Alternating Life Cycles• All plants have life cycles that involves 2 phases • First phase consists of diploid (2n) sporophyte
(SPOR-uh-fiet) plant that makes spores • Second phase – haploid (1n) gametophyte
(guh-MEET-uh-fiet) plant that makes eggs and sperm • 2 phases named for the type of reproductive cells
they produce
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� This type of life cycle à alternation of generations
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�Gametophyte (1n) makes structures that form gametes – eggs and sperm – by mitosis
�Once egg is fertilized by sperm and makes zygote, plants starts diploid phase of life cycle
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�Zygote divides by mitosis to form sporophyte plant
�Sporophyte (2n) makes structures that go through meiosis to form haploid spores
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�Spores released by most seedless plants but kept by seed plants �Life cycle begins again when spores divide to make new gametophytes
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�In nonvascular plants the gametophyte is the dominant phase
�In vascular plants, sporophyte is dominant phase
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• In seedless vascular plants, gametophyte usually separate small organisms different from sporophyte
• In seed plants, gametophyte is small parasite of sporophyte
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Nonvascular PlantsSection 2
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�3 phyla �Collectively called bryophytes �Botanists identified 16,600 species �Don’t have vascular tissue �Do not form true roots, stems, leaves �Usually grow on land near streams and rivers
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Classifying Bryophytes
• Most primitive type of plants • Characteristics more closely related to plants than
algae • Mostly terrestrial • Have alternation-of-generations life cycle • Seedless • Produce spores • b/c no vascular tissue, usually small (1-2 cm)
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�Bryophytes need water to reproduce sexually b/c sperm must swim to egg
�In dry areas, reproduce sexually only when enough moisture is available
�Asexual reproduction of haploid spores does not require water
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Phylum Bryophyta“brie-AHF-uh-tuh”
�Thick green carpet of moss you see is actually thousands of tiny moss gametophytes
�Each gametophyte attached to soil by rootlike structures called rhizoids (RIE-zoidz)
�Rhizoids do not have vascular tissue (unlike roots)
�Do function like roots by anchoring moss and absorbing water and inorganic nutrients
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�Moss gametophytes usually less than 3 cm tall
�Moss sporophyte attached to and dependent on gametophyte
�Gametophytes may be male, female, or both
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�Mosses are pioneer plants b/c they are often the 1st species to inhabit an area
�Important environmental function
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�Mosses gradually build up inorganic and organic matter on surface of rocks
�Creates a layer of soil for other plants to grow �Also prevent soil erosion by covering soil surface and
absorbing water
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• Sphagnum (SFAG-nuhm) à ‘peat moss’ à genus of moss that is major part of peat bogs in northern parts of world • Peat moss consists mainly of decomposed
plant matter • Many parts of world mine and dry for use as
fuel
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• Also makes acid that slows down decomposition in bogs • Widely used to enhance water-retaining ability of
potting and gardening soils • Also used by florists to pack bulbs and flowers for
shipping
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Phylum Hepatophyta“hep-uh-TAHF-uh-tuh”
�Includes liverworts �Grow in moist, shady areas �Most have thin, transparent leaflike
structure arranged along stemlike axis
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Some have thalloid (THAL-oid) à flat body with distinguishable upper and lower surfaces
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�Thalloid is adaptation that allows them to absorb water readily
�In some species, gametophyte topped by umbrella-shaped structure that holds reproductive cells
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Phylum Anthocerophyta“an-thoh-suh-RAHF-uh-tuh”
�Includes hornworts �Look like liverworts �Also live in moist, shady
areas �Share characteristic with
algae: each cell has single large chloroplast instead of many small ones
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Vascular Plants
Section 3
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�Vascular plants have specialized conducting tissues (xylem and phloem) that transport water and substances
�Can grow larger �Live in more environments than
nonvascular plants �Strong stems allow them to grow tall �Rise above other plants – more sunlight
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Seedless Vascular Plants
�Dominated earth until about 200 million years ago
�4 phyla �First 3 phyla called “fern allies” �Last phylum are ferns
�Spores are mobile sexual reproductive parts of all seedless plants
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Phylum Psilotophyta“sie-lah-TAHF-uh-tuh”
�Whisk ferns �Not really ferns at all �No roots or leaves �Make spores at ends of short
branches �This suggest they were early
land plants �Whisk ferns are epiphytes à plants that grow on other plants
�NOT considered parasites
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Phylum Lycophyta“lie-KAHF-uh-tuh”
�Club mosses �Look like miniature
pine trees (also called ground pines)
�They make strobilus (STROH-bi-luhs) (cone) à cluster of sporangia-bearing modified leaves
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�One member of Lycophyta is spike moss native to American Southwest
�Turns brown and curls up into a ball at night �When moistened, it uncurls and turns green
again
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Phylum Sphenophyta“sfee-NAHF-uh-tuh”
�Horsetails �Have jointed
photosynthetic stems that contain silica
�Have scalelike leaves at each joint
�American pioneers used to scrub pots and pans
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Phylum Pterophyta“tuhr-AHF-uh-tuh”�Diverse group of ferns �Some floating plant less than 1 cm across �Some reach 25 meters �Most have underground stem called rhizome �Some used as growing medium for orchids �Tightly coiled new leaves called fiddleheads �Fiddleheads uncoil to become fronds (leaves)
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Vascular Seed Plants
�Mobile sexual reproductive part is multicellular seed
�Plants with seeds have greater chance of reproductive success than seedless plants
�Inside tough, protective outer coat is embryo and nutrient supply (endosperm)
�When conditions too hot, cold, wet, dry…the seed stays inactive
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�When conditions are good for growth, the seed sprouts, or germinates à embryo begins to grow into a young plant (called seedling)
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� 2 main groups �Gymnosperms à cone-bearing �Angiosperms à flower-bearing
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� 4 phyla of gymnosperms make naked seeds � Seeds not enclosed and protected in fruits � Most gymnosperms are evergreen and bear seeds in cones �Cone à reproductive structure composed of hard scales � Seeds lie on surface of scales
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�1 phylum of angiosperms
�Make seeds enclosed and protected in fruits
�Commonly called flowering plants
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Phylum Cycadophyta“sie-kad-AHF-uh-tuh”
�Cycads (SIE-kadz) are gymnosperms in this phylum �Flourished during age of dinosaurs �Only about 100 species left today �Most native to tropics and grow slowly
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�Many endangered b/c of habitat loss, overcollection and slow growth �Have fernlike leaves at top of short, thick trunk �Either male or female �Bear large cones
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Phylum Ginkgophyta“gink-AHF-uh-tuh”
�Ginkgoes (GINK-ohz) flourished during dinosaur times
�ONLY living species today is Ginkgo biloba
�Native to China �Called living fossil –
looks like fossil ginkgoes that are 125 million years old
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� Has fan-shaped leaves that fall from tree at end of each growing season
�Unusual for gymnosperm - Most gymnosperms are evergreens �Trees that lose their leaves at end of growing season à deciduous
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� Tolerant of air pollution – good urban plants � Seeds considered delicacy in china and Japan � Plum-shaped fleshy seeds often mistaken for berries or fruit
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Phylum Coniferophyta“kon-if-uhr-AHF-uh-tuh”
�Conifers (KOHN-uh-fuhrz) are gymnosperms of phyla Coniferophyta
�Include pine, cedar, redwood, fir, spruce, juniper, cypress
�Very important sources of wood, paper, turpentine, resin, Christmas trees
�Amber – fossilized resin from ancient conifers �Prehistoric insects preserved in amber (Jurassic Park)
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�Gin – flavored with juniper seeds
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Pine Tree
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Cedar
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Redwood
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Douglas Fir
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�Conifers are woody plants �Most have needle or scalelike leaves �Usually has both male and female cones �Small male cones grow in clusters �Release clouds of pollen �Then cone falls from branch �Pollen falls or blows into larger female
cones
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�Egg cells attached to scales of female cone
�After pollination, cone closes up
�Protects developing seeds �Seeds mature after 1,2 years �Released when cone opens
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Phylum Gnetophyta“nee-TAHF-uh-tuh”
�Gnetophytes (NEE-tuh-fiets) have vascular systems more like angiosperms
�Ephedra is genus of desert shrubs �Source of drug ephedrine (used as decongestant)
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Phylum Anthophyta“an-THAHF-uh-tuh”
�Largest phylum of plants �Over 240,000 species of flowering plants
(angiosperm) �Fruit – ripened ovary that surrounds seeds
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�Angiosperms grow differently �Some herbaceous plants with
showy flowers �Some are shrubs �Some are vines �Grasses are also angiosperms �Largest flower – Rafflesia – 1 m
in diameter
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Evolution of Angiosperms�First appeared in fossil record about 135 million
years ago
�90 million years ago, started to be more than gymnosperms
�Successful because of several reasons
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Life Cycle �In many angiosperms, seeds germinate and
make mature plants which make new seeds in 1 growing season
�Gymnosperms often take 10 or more years to be able to reproduce
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�Fruits of angiosperms protect seeds and help in dispersal
�Angiosperms also have more efficient vascular system
�Can also use animal pollination (gymnosperms use wind)
�Angiosperms more diverse – live in more areas
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Monocots and Dicots�Flowering plants classified under phylum Anthophyta divided into 2 groups 1. Monocotyledones (monocots) 2. Dicotyledones (dicots)
� Feature that distinguishes them is the cotyledones (kaht-e-LEE-duhnz) (seed leaves)
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�Monocot leaves have several main veins running parallel à parallel venation
�Dicots have veins that branch out à net venation