plant-herbivore interactions. the green earth paradox why don’t predators win? why is the earth...
Post on 22-Dec-2015
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Plants have antiherbivore defenses.
Plant-herbivore “warfare” is waged primarily through biochemical means.
Full spectrum of plant defenses includes:– low nutritional content of plant tissues– toxic compounds synthesized by the plants– structural defenses:
• spines and hairs• tough seed coats• sticky gums and resins
DigestibilityAnimals typically select plant food according to
its nutrient content:– especially important to young animals,
which have high demands for protein
Some plants deploy compounds that limit the digestibility of their tissues:– tannins produced by oaks and other plants
interfere with the digestion of proteins– some animals can overcome the effect of
tannins through production of digestive dispersal agents
Secondary Compounds
Secondary compounds are produced by plants for purposes (typically defensive) other than metabolism.
Such compounds can be divided into several major classes:– nitrogen compounds (lignin, alkaloids,
nonprotein amino acids, cyanogenic glycosides)
– terpenoids (essential oils, latex, plant resins)– phenolics (simple phenols, tannins)– hormones
Secondary chemical are big business
Popular drugs & spices: Nicotine, caffeine, capsasinsfruit rots, seeds mold, meat spoilsSpices more abundant in tropical
cultures
Addictive drugs morphine, coca, marijuana
Medicinal drugs Taxus bark; aspirin; penicillinChanges in metabolism of predators
The Plant - Herbivore Arms Race
1. Secondary chemical protects --> greater fitness
2. Selection for predator to exploit as food source
3. Specialization on finding & using this resourcegreater efficiency
4. Plant now has protective dependence on chemical which guarantees herbivory
5. Selection for new & supplemental mechanisms
6. Constant genetic change --> chemical races and diversity
Classifications of plant defense types
Apparent versus nonapparent
Apparent plants will always be found, Nonapparent plants can hide
Passive vs active protestants
Carbon/nutrient balance
Early vs late succession
Induced and Constitutive Defenses
Constitutive chemical defenses are maintained at high levels in the plant at all times.
Induced chemical defenses increase dramatically following an attack:– suggests that some chemicals are too expensive
to maintain under light grazing pressure– plant responses to herbivory can reduce
subsequent herbivory
Crypsis
Through crypsis, animals blend with their backgrounds; such animals:– are typically palatable or edible– match color, texture of bark, twigs, or
leaves– are not concealed, but mistaken for inedible
objects by would-be predators
Behaviors of cryptic organisms must correspond to their appearances.
Warning Coloration
Unpalatable animals may acquire noxious chemicals from food or manufacture these chemicals themselves:– such animals often warn potential predators
with warning coloration or aposematism:• predators learn to avoid such animals after
unpleasant experiences• certain aposematic colorations occur so
widely that predators may have evolved innate aversions
Batesian Mimicry
Certain palatable species mimic unpalatable species (models), benefiting from learning experiences of predators with the models.
This relationship has been named Batesian mimicry in honor of discoverer Henry Bates.
Experimental studies have demonstrated benefits to the mimic:– predators quickly learn to recognize color
patterns of unpalatable prey– mimics are avoided by such predators
Müllerian Mimicry
Müllerian mimicry occurs among unpalatable species that come to resemble one another:– many species may be involved– each species is both model and mimic