plant resources used in serbian medieval medicine. ethnobotany and ethnomedicine

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Plant resources used in Serbian medieval medicine.Ethnobotany and Ethnomedicine

Snezana Jaric • Miroslava Mitrovic •

Branko Karadzic • Olga Kostic • Lola Djurjevic •

Marija Pavlovic • Pavle Pavlovic

Received: 27 December 2013 / Accepted: 7 April 2014

� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Abstract This ethnobotanical and pharmacological

study presents the results of an analysis of manuscripts

from the Chilandar Medical Codex (CMC) on the

usage and origin of medical substances in Serbian

medieval medicine compared to contemporary studies

on medical ethnobotany conducted in the Western

Balkans. Based on CMC pharmacological manu-

scripts, with chapters on simple and compound

medicines (oils, ointments, pills, poultices, syrups,

and electuaries), analysis focused on the types of

drugs, the substances used most frequently in their

preparation, their origin, and medical use. The results

obtained show that most ingredients used were of plant

origin, while the contribution of minerals and sub-

stances of animal origin was considerably smaller.

Most medicines were named according to the main

ingredient’s botanical name; thus, the chapter on

simple medicine contains 119 medicines whereas the

chapter on compound medicines has 15 medicines

named after a certain plant species, pointing to a high

level of knowledge of their botanical and pharmaco-

logical properties. Out of 125 plant resources, 90 are

native species and 52 (60.5 %) are still used today in

traditional medicine in the Western Balkans, including

Serbia. Therefore, the ethnobotanical data recorded

provides an interesting basis for further phytothera-

peutical research, for fostering sustainable uses of

plant resources and also for promoting local biocul-

tural diversity. It is also important for studies on plant

genetic resources since most of the medicinal plants

available on the European and world markets today

come from south-eastern Europe, meaning conserva-

tion of this genetic heritage is crucial for the future of

the herbal market.

Keywords Chilandar Medical Codex �Ethnobotany � Medicinal plants � Medieval

Serbian medicine � Pharmacological

manuscripts

Introduction

Studies on the uses of natural genetic resources in

different cultural environments show a strong rela-

tionship between the lifestyle and health of the local

population. Traditional usage of wild medicinal plants

in the countries of south-eastern Europe and the

Western Balkans was influenced by the cultural

heritage of ancient Greece and Byzantium, the myths

and legends of pagan Slavic culture, and the achieve-

ments of Arabic and European medicine. The greatest

influence was from the Salerno-Montpellier school,

with a highly marked impact on the fields of clinical

medicine and pharmacology, while the Byzantine

S. Jaric (&) � M. Mitrovic � B. Karadzic �O. Kostic � L. Djurjevic � M. Pavlovic � P. Pavlovic

Institute for Biological Research ‘‘Sinisa Stankovic’’,

University of Belgrade, Bulevar Despota Stefana 142,

11060 Belgrade, Serbia

e-mail: [email protected]

123

Genet Resour Crop Evol

DOI 10.1007/s10722-014-0118-1

influence was somewhat less pronounced and focussed

mainly on subsidiary medical sciences (biology,

general and pathologic physiology), as well as on the

organisation of a public health service. The lack of

education among the people together with the political

circumstances in medieval Serbia, including occupa-

tion by the Turks, meant that medicine and pharmacy

were restricted to monasteries. Namely, in the thirteen

and fourteenth centuries, the Turks built hospitals

where Christians could not receive medical care,

meaning Serbs founded their own hospitals in mon-

asteries (Boskovic 1962). As there is no data on

educated Serbian doctors during this period, it seems

that empirical physicians and monks, who translated

Byzantine manuscripts, had an important role in

healing people (Milovanovic et al. 2009). At the same

time, Italian doctors working in Serbia, particularly in

Kotor, were responsible for the transfer of contempo-

rary Western medical knowledge (Kovijanic 1954;

Kovijanic and Stijepcevic 1957). The pinnacle of

Serbian medicine was reached during the fourteenth

and fifteenth centuries, as is shown by: the possession

of the most significant manuscripts on the medicine of

the time, the existence of pharmacies and hospitals in

towns, the existence of regulations regarding public

hygiene, the introduction of quarantine for the erad-

ication of contagious diseases, the foundation of

institutions for lepers, and the existence of orphanages

(Katic 1958).

The manuscripts on the traditional phytomedicine

and pharmacotherapy of medieval Serbian medicine

which have been preserved (in the form of therapy

handbooks) show that knowledge existed of the

composition and preparation not only of simple

medicines, but compound ones, too. Such handbooks

were used in almost all regions where Serbs lived

because they provided a valuable source of data on

both the diseases and the therapies being used in

hospitals and by people in general. The basis for

contemporary pharmacotherapy was the so-called

‘holy’ plants, which pharmacists and monk-physicians

grew in the monastery gardens. Holy plants included

sage (Salvia officinalis), rose (Rosa sp.), Madonna lily

(Lilium candidum), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), mint

(Mentha sp.), fenugreek (Trigonella foenum grae-

cum), mandrake (Mandragora acaulis), summer

savory (Satureja hortensis), rue (Ruta graveolens),

tansy (Tanacetum vulgare), and basil (Ocimum basil-

icum) (Tucakov 1997).

The Chilandar Medical Codex (CMC) is the most

significant and comprehensive manuscript in which

the position, role, and importance of pharmacology

and pharmacotherapy in medieval Serbian medicine

were described for the first time. It was based on the

most significant manuscripts of European medieval

medicine which were in use until the beginning of the

eighteenth century. In the pharmacological manu-

scripts of this collection, we encounter both common

names and scientific botanical, medical and pharma-

cological terminology for the first time, which gives it

particular significance. The main ingredients of med-

icines were substances of plant origin. Whole plants,

specific plant parts or plant tissues, products of plant

metabolism and products obtained by processing

certain plant parts were used. In addition, inorganic

substances and substances of animal origin were found

to be used far less frequently in medical treatments,

with the reason for this lying not only in them being

less available, but also in their toxicity.

This ethnobotanical and pharmacological study

presents the results of an analysis of manuscripts from

the CMC on the usage and origin of medical

substances in Serbian medieval medicine compared

to contemporary studies on medical ethnobotany

conducted in the Western Balkans.

Methodology

Medieval Serbian medical literature sources

The medieval period of development of Serbian

medicine has long been neglected in Serbian science

as confirmed by the small number of published studies

(most of them are in the form of handwritten

manuscripts). Besides this, a large number of docu-

ments from that period including medical literature

sources were destroyed by bombing in the Second

World War. Today, the most significant sources for

researching this period are the collections of manu-

scripts in the library of the Patriarchate in Belgrade,

the manuscripts of the Archives of the Serbian

Academy of Sciences and Arts, and the collections

of the monasteries of Chilandar, Decani and the

Patriarchate of Pec, while the oldest and largest

collections of manuscripts are those of the National

Library in Belgrade, the Patriarchate Library in

Sremski Karlovci and the libraries of the monasteries


123

of Fruska Gora (Serbia); then there are the records for

the history of health care of the Republic of Dubrovnik

(Croatia) and the records of the Kotor Archives from

the Nemanjic period (Montenegro). Aside from the

above, the following sources are also important:

papers by classical writers and physicians (Hippo-

crates, Galen, Aristotle), as well as manuscripts from

the Salerno (Italy) and Montpellier (France) medical

schools from the twelveth century (Katic 1958, 1981;

Lalovic 2004).

The most significant medieval Serbian therapy

handbooks are: the Hodosh Codex (the Hodosh

miscellany of manuscripts at the National Museum

in Prague, no. XF10 (fourteenth or fifteenth century)),

‘Medical wisdom on all things’ (a miscellany from the

Chilandar manuscripts collection, no. 462; last decade

of the fourteenth century), the ‘Decani medical

handbook’ (a miscellany of manuscripts from Decani

Monastery, no. 83; fifteenth century), the ‘Medical

typicum’ (medical miscellanies from the old collec-

tion of the National Library of Serbia, no. 54;

sixteenth–seventeenth centuries), and the ‘Bosnian

collection’ (medical miscellanies from the manu-

scripts collection of the archive of the Croatian

Academy of Science and Art, no. Ia23 (mid-seven-

teenth century), no. IVa3 (eighteenth century), IVd109

(mid-eighteenth century), and IVd110 (late eighteenth

century). The similarity between these handbooks

suggests that they probably originate from the same

source. In terms of its contents and volume, the most

important and comprehensive is the CMC (the

Chilandar Medical Codex, no. 517; fifteenth–sixteenth

centuries), discovered in 1951 in the library at

Chilandar Monastery on Mount Athos (Greece), where

it is still kept today. The author is unknown, though it

is assumed that there was more than one, and some

parts of the collection have been damaged.

The origin of the manuscripts on simple

and compound medicines

The preserved CMC document is a transcript of the

first original manuscript supplemented with new texts

(Katic 1980; Grmek 1961). The manuscripts from the

CMC can be categorized into seven groups according

to medical disciplines: texts on internal medicine,

texts on infectious diseases, pharmacological texts,

toxicological texts, texts on paediatrics, texts on

surgery, and therapy instructions (Katic 1980, 1989).

The greatest part of the CMC comprises pharmaco-

logical manuscripts and texts on internal medicine.

Besides a chapter on simple medicines, the pharma-

cological section also contains a separate chapter on

compound medicines, which includes oils, ointments,

pills, poultices, electuaries and syrups. In general,

these chapters represent a complete medieval phar-

macopoeia of the Serbian people (Jaric et al. 2011).

It is believed that the original collection comprised

Byzantine manuscripts, which were translated in the

thirteenth or fourteenth centuries, while the other texts

are translated from the edition ‘Liber de simplici

medicina dictus Circa Instans. Practica platearij’

(pages in the CMC: 14a-59b, 148-159b, 193a and

212a) (Katic 1981). The translation of this edition is

the most complete manuscript in the CMC and was

discovered by Djordje Sp. Radojicic in the Chilandar

Monastery library in 1957. He gave it the title ‘A

presentation of plant characteristics, is it hot or cold, or

dry or wet, and for the treatment of which diseases

they can be used’.

Comparing the translation in the CMC with the

original text, it can be seen that the descriptions of

some medicines have been omitted. This is the case for

medicines such as: opium, cicuta, cinnamomum, etc.,

to which great importance was attached in medieval

medicine, and which the compiler of the Chilandar

Medical Codex frequently mentioned as part of the

recommended therapies for certain ailments. In terms

of its medical content, the majority of the CMC text is

true to the original: it is comprehensible and written in

the spirit of the Serbian language. Any part of the

original which was incomprehensible or which the

translator could not find the equivalent medical term

for was not even translated; instead it was paraphrased,

and hence the translation is more like an expert

explanation of the medical expression. This happened

most often when quoting the names of some illnesses.

Through analysing the contents of the pharmaco-

logical manuscripts of the CMC, it can be established

that the texts on compound medicines originate from

‘Antidotarium Additiones Petri Apponi, Additiones

Francisci de Pedemontium, Antidotarium Nicolai cum

expositione Platearii…, and ‘Dispensarium magistri

Nicolai Prepositi ad aromatarios super diligentissime

recognitu…, published in 1512 and 1528. These

editions differ in terms of the number and contents

of certain chapters. The edition from 1528 is a

pharmacological manuscript, which only contains


123

descriptions of simple and compound medicines. On

the basis of its contents, volume and the period in

which this manuscript was published, Katic (1981)

claims that it can be considered a complete medieval

European pharmacopoeia. The number of compound

medicines in the CMC, taken from the above manu-

scripts, is lower in comparison to the original sources.

The following medicines are taken from the 1512

edition: Oleum rutaceum, Oleum masticinum, Pillulae

aureae, etc., while Unguentum basilicum, Unguentum

citrinum, Unguentum aureum, Oleum populeon-pop-

uleonicum and Unguentum Agrippa are taken from the

1528 edition (Katic 1981).

Identification

In order to interpret the medical and pharmacological

expressions given in the CMC, the Medical Dictionary

(encyclopaedic format) (Kostic 1969), and A Dictio-

nary of Medieval Serbian Medical Terminology

(Katic 1987) were used in this study. The identification

of plant species and parts according to today’s

botanical terminology was achieved using the Botan-

ical Dictionary (Simonovic 1959), a book with

explanations of the terminology of medieval Serbian

medicine (Katic 1982), and A Dictionary of Medieval

Serbian Medical Terminology (Katic 1987). Based on

a detailed analysis of pharmacological manuscripts,

data was obtained on the most commonly used

substances for the preparation of simple and com-

pound medicines. This data has been compared with

contemporary literature sources available for the

Western Balkans, including Serbia.

Results and discussion

CMC use of medicinal plants, minerals and animal

resources

Through the analysis of the pharmacological manu-

scripts, it has been established that the majority of the

prescriptions presented in the Chilandar Medical

Codex involve medicines of plant origin (85.6 %),

while the contribution of minerals (9.4 %) and

substances of animal origin (5 %) is considerably

smaller. There is a certain pattern for describing each

medicine: first, the name of the medicine is given

(most frequently in Latin, sometimes with a synonym

in Serbian, Greek, or somewhat more rarely in Turkish

or Arabian), then the origin, the ingredients, method of

preparation, its qualitative properties, instructions on

treating specific illness, its pharmacodynamic charac-

teristics, methods of usage of the medicine, and the

dosage. Besides the above description, the place of

application of the medicine is also described in the

recipes, as well as the appearance of the bowl in which

to prepare the medicines. In addition, the ethnobotan-

ical characteristics of plants used for the preparation of

medicines were also included: their geographical

origin if they were imported (India, Persia, Egypt,

Lombardy, Armenia, etc.), their habitat, the appear-

ance of the whole plant, the season of sampling and

ways to collect the plant parts, as well as information

on their healing properties.

Analysis shows that Serbian medieval materia

medica consisted of 173 medicines containing 200

medicinal substances, of which 157 (78.5 %) are of

plant origin, 19 (9.5 %) are of animal origin, and the

remaining 24 (12 %) are mineral. The chapter on

simple medicines contains a description of 139

medicines, with 172 medicinal raw materials sub-

stances used in their making: 139 of plant origin, 20

of mineral and 13 of animal origin. A list of simple

drugs recorded in the pharmacological manuscripts

of the CMC and their medical use is presented in

Table 1. The chapter on compound medicines

describes 34 compound medicines with 105 medic-

inal raw materials used as ingredients: 88 of plant

origin, 9 of animal and 8 of mineral origin. A list of

compound medicines recorded in the pharmacolog-

ical manuscripts of the CMC and their medical uses

is presented in Table 2.

The following substances were most commonly

used as ingredients in medicines: grape (128), olive

(60), rose (60), honey (46), lentisk (37), wax (30),

chicken (29), sugar (23), and absinth (21) (Table 3). A

wide variety of plant parts (either dry or fresh) were

used in treatments: the whole plant, the underground

parts (root, root bark, rhizome, bulb) and the above-

ground parts (stem, bark, leaf, flower, bud, fruit, fruit

skin, seed), but also products of plant metabolism (e.g.

gums, resins or balms) and products obtained by

processing certain plant parts (e.g. essential oils). As a

powder, they were often sprinkled on a painful area or

used for making various ointments, balms, pills or oils.

Most often they were mixed with wine, vinegar, oil,

tallow or honey.


123

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a

Cam

mel

iaA

H;

CE

;F

M;

HA

1;

HE

;L

I;S

P;

UT

7;

Pla

nt

Cappari

ssp

inosa

L.

Cap

par

idac

eae

Kap

arC

aper

IA;

AR

;E

A2,

GI7

;M

A;

Pla

nt

Card

am

ine

pra

tensi

sL

.B

rass

icac

eae

Div

lji

ren

Cuck

oo

flow

erA

E;

IA;

DZ

;M

M;

PH

;T

C;

Pla

nt

Caru

mca

rvi

L.

Apia

ceae

Kim

Car

away

IA;

EY

8;

GI8

;G

I10;

GI1

1;H

E;

LX

;R

S2;

SK

2;

AO

;C

N;

DU

;G

I10;

GI1

2;

IA;

SK

16;

Pla

nt

Cass

iaacu

tifo

lia

Del

ile

Fab

acea

eS

ena,

alek

sandri

jska

sena

Sen

na

DZ

;F

M15;

GI1

1;

HD

;H

L;

TN

;T

T4;

UA

;

UT

1,4

;

Pla

nt

Cass

iafist

ula

L.

Cae

salp

inia

ceae

Zubovin

aA

mal

tas,

gold

en

show

ertr

ee

FB

6;

Pla

nt

Cath

asp

.C

elas

trac

eae

Kat

apusi

ja,

kat

aB

ush

man

’ste

aG

I11;

PH

;P

lant

Cin

nam

om

um

cam

phora

(L.)

T.

Nee

set

C.H

.

Eber

m.

Lau

race

aeK

amfo

rC

amphor

AD

;E

P;

EY

4;

FB

1,2

;S

X3;

Pla

nt

Cit

rull

us

colo

cynth

is(L

.)

Sch

rad.

Cucu

rbit

acea

eG

ork

ati

kvic

aB

itte

rap

ple

,

colo

cynth

AH

;F

B4;

FM

11;

FM

12;

HR

;L

I;S

P;

TT

1;

Pla

nt

Com

mip

hora

gil

eaden

sis

(L.)

M.

R.

Alm

eida

Burs

erac

eae

Bal

sam

Bal

mof

gli

ead

AN

;E

A5;

FM

10;

FM

9;

GI8

;H

E;

TT

1;

Pla

nt

Com

mip

hora

myr

rha

Engl.

Burs

erac

eae

Mir

a,m

iris

na

smola

,M

yrr

htr

eeA

A;

HL

;L

X;

RS

9;

Pla

nt

Cori

andru

msa

tivu

mL

.A

pia

ceae

Kori

jander

Cori

ander

GI8

;H

A1;

CN

;S

P;

TN

;P

lant

Cost

us

spec

iosu

sL

.C

ost

acea

eK

ost

,K

ust

Cost

us

(Ara

bia

n

cost

us)

AH

(for

chil

dre

n);

HA

1;

LI;

SP

;P

lant

Cre

ssa

cret

ica

L.

Convolv

ula

ceae

Kre

sa,

kre

tanus

Med

terr

anea

n

bin

dw

eed

UT

1,4

;P

lant

Cro

cus

sati

vus

L.

Irid

acea

eK

acunak

,S

afra

nS

affr

on

CA

;C

H;

EY

4;

GI1

0;

GI7

;A

O;

ST

;T

C;

Pla

nt

Cucu

rbit

apep

oL

.C

ucu

rbit

acea

eT

ikva

Fie

ldpum

pkin

AA

;C

A;

FB

2;

LI;

AK

;A

H;

AT

;G

I10;

GI1

5;

GI1

6;

HR

;P

T;

RS

6;

UT

8;

UT

11;

UT

13;

UT

14;

Pla

nt

Curc

um

aze

doari

a

(Chri

stm

.)R

osc

oe

Zin

gib

erac

eae

Zed

uar

,kurk

um

aZ

edoar

yA

D;

CA

;C

I;G

I11;

GI8

;R

S1;

Pla

nt

Cusc

uta

euro

paea

L.

Cusc

uta

ceae

Vil

ina

kosi

caE

uro

pea

n

dodder

PH

;P

lant

Cyd

onia

vulg

ari

sP

ers.

Rosa

ceae

Dunja

Quin

ceA

A;

AE

;F

B6;

GI1

0;

GI1

0;

GI1

4;

RS

13;

UT

1;

Pla

nt

Daem

onoro

ps

dra

co

(Wil

ld.)

Blu

me

Are

cace

aeP

alm

aD

ragon

sblo

od

pal

m

CA

;G

I11;

GI7

;P

G;

Pla

nt

Daucu

sca

rota

L.

Apia

ceae

Sar

gar

epa

Wil

dca

rrot,

dev

il’s

pla

gue

AT

;D

S;

GI1

4;

GI8

;U

T1;

UT

2;

AM

;E

Y8;

GI1

2;

GI1

6;

LI;

Pla

nt


123

Ta

ble

1co

nti

nu

ed

Sci

enti

fic

nam

e/

Chem

ical

form

ula

Fam

ily

CM

Cnam

eC

om

mon

nam

eM

ain

use

s(C

MC

)M

ain

use

s(c

onte

mpora

ryli

tera

ture

)O

rigin

Dic

tam

nus

alb

us

L.

Ruta

ceae

Vil

ino

cvec

e,ja

senak

Burn

ing

bush

HE

;P

O2;

Pla

nt

Ecb

all

ium

elate

rium

(L.)

A.

Ric

h.

Cucu

rbit

acea

eD

ivlj

ikra

stav

acS

quir

ting

cucu

mber

AR

;C

E;

DT

;S

K6;

Pla

nt

Erv

um

lens

L.

Fab

acea

eS

oci

vo

Len

til

FM

8;

GI1

0;

Pla

nt

Eugen

iaca

ryophyl

lata

Thunb.

Myrt

acea

eK

aran

filc

icC

love

AA

;A

E;

GI1

0;

GI8

;T

C;

Pla

nt

Euphorb

iaoffi

cinaru

mL

.E

uphorb

iace

aem

leci

ka

AA

;A

R;

PG

;S

P;

TA

;T

N;

WO

7;

Pla

nt

Fer

ula

ass

a-f

oet

ida

L.

Apia

ceae

Sm

rdec

eze

lje,

dja

volj

a

smola

Asa

foet

ida

AA

;A

N;

FM

8;

FM

9;

MO

;R

S8;

SP

;T

T1;

Pla

nt

Fer

ula

galb

anifl

ua

Bois

s.

exB

uhse

Apia

ceae

Gal

aban

Gal

ban

um

DZ

;F

M13;

RS

3;

SP

;P

lant

Gali

um

moll

ugo

L.

Rubia

ceae

Bro

cH

edge

bed

stra

wG

I7;

Pla

nt

Gen

tiana

lute

aL

.G

enti

anac

eae

Lin

cura

Yel

low

gen

tian

AA

;P

O2;

TN

;A

A;

AH

;A

Y;

BD

;C

I;C

O;

CN

;D

B;

FB

6;

GD

;G

I10;

GI1

1;

GI1

2;

GI1

4;

IA;

LI;

RH

;R

S1;

RS

5;

RS

12;

ST

;

Pla

nt

Gly

cyrr

hiz

aec

hin

ata

L.

Fab

acea

eS

ladic

,gosp

ino

bil

jeW

ild

liquori

ceA

A;

RS

2;

RS

3;

Pla

nt

Hel

leboru

sodoru

sW

.et

K.,

Hel

leboru

snig

erL

.

Ran

uncu

lace

aeK

ukure

kF

ragra

nt

hel

lebore

AR

;M

T;

RH

;S

K4;

SK

5;

SK

9;

SK

16;

LI;

Pla

nt

Hyo

scya

mus

nig

erL

.S

ola

nac

eae

Bunik

aH

enban

eE

Y3;

GI1

;IN

1;

AA

;S

E;

Pla

nt

Hys

sopus

offi

cinali

sL

.L

amia

ceae

Isop,

mil

oduh

Hyss

op

AT

;G

I7;

HA

1;

RS

1;

RS

4;

Pla

nt

Inula

hel

eniu

mL

.A

ster

acea

eO

man

Ele

cam

pan

eE

A7;

SK

7;

SK

14;

WO

7;

AA

;A

T;

EX

;E

Y9;

FB

6;

FM

5;

PU

;R

S1;

RS

4;

RS

5;

RS

10;

RS

11;

SK

16;

SK

19;

Pla

nt

Iris

flore

nti

na

L.

or

Iris

ger

manic

aL

.

Irid

acea

eP

erunik

aIr

isC

A;

EY

;L

I;N

P;

RS

4;

SP

;U

T5;

EA

1;

RS

1;

GI1

2;

Pla

nt

Junip

erus

com

munis

L.

Cupre

ssac

eae

Ven

ja,

Kle

ka

Com

mon

junip

er

AA

;A

R;

CA

;G

I10;

HE

;A

A;

AI;

AR

;B

D;

CN

;C

O;

CS

;D

U;

FB

6;

FM

16;

GI1

1;

GI1

2;

GI1

3;

IH;

MU

;N

B;

PP

;R

H;

RS

1;

RS

9;

RS

13;

RS

14;

RT

10;

SD

;S

K21;

UT

1;

UT

3;

UT

5;

UT

8;

UT

9;

UT

10;

UT

12;

Pla

nt

Lact

uca

sati

vaL

.A

ster

acea

eS

alat

a,lo

cika

Let

tuce

AM

;F

B2;

FM

7;

ME

;S

K1;

SP

;P

lant

Lapsa

na

com

munis

L.

Ast

erac

eae

Ognji

cina

Com

mon

nip

ple

wort

AH

;E

X;

HE

;L

I;S

K4;

SK

5;

SP

;P

lant

Lauru

snobil

isL

.L

aura

ceae

Lovor

Bay

tree

AE

;A

N4;

EA

7;

GI8

;G

I11

Pla

nt

Lava

ndula

spic

aL

.L

amia

ceae

Des

pik

,la

van

da,

lavan

dula

Lav

ender

CC

;C

O;

CR

1;

EA

3;

FB

6;

FM

12;

FM

14;

GI7

;L

I;M

S;

RS

3;

TC

;T

T1;

TT

2;

SK

22;

Pla

nt

Leu

canth

emum

vulg

are

Lam

.

Ast

erac

eae

Bel

ikC

hry

santh

emum

SK

14;

Pla

nt

Lev

isti

cum

offi

cinale

W.D

.J.K

och

Apia

ceae

sele

nG

arden

lovag

ehas

not

bee

ntr

ansl

ated

bec

ause

of

dam

age

to

the

man

usc

ript

ori

gin

als

CM

C

RS

4;

SE

;U

T9;

UT

10;

Pla

nt

Lil

ium

candid

um

L.

Lil

iace

aeL

jilj

an,

Kri

nM

adonna

Lil

yS

K6;

Pla

nt

Lupin

us

alb

us

L.

Fab

acea

eD

ivlj

akaf

aM

edit

erra

nea

n

whit

elu

pin

AH

;E

A4;

Pla

nt


123

Ta

ble

1co

nti

nu

ed

Sci

enti

fic

nam

e/

Chem

ical

form

ula

Fam

ily

CM

Cnam

eC

om

mon

nam

eM

ain

use

s(C

MC

)M

ain

use

s(c

onte

mpora

ryli

tera

ture

)O

rigin

Lyc

ium

hali

mif

oli

um

L.

Sola

nac

eae

Vuca

cW

olf

ber

ry,

goji

ber

ry

EY

1;

EY

8;

FB

1;

FM

15;

SK

8;

TT

2;

Pla

nt

Majo

rana

hort

ensi

s

Moen

ch

Lam

iace

aeM

ajora

nM

ajora

mA

N,

GI7

;P

lant

Malu

sco

mm

unis

Lam

k.

Rosa

ceae

Div

lja

jabuka

Wil

dap

ple

DS

;F

B1,2

;G

I10;

AT

;A

Y;

CI;

CO

;C

M1;

DB

;E

A1;

EX

;F

B6;

(chil

dre

n);

GI1

0;

GI1

1;

HA

;H

C;

IS;

MU

;R

B;

RH

;R

S1;

SK

17;

SK

21;

TN

;W

O9;

Pla

nt

Malv

aneg

lect

aW

allr

.M

alvac

eae

Div

lji

slez

Dw

arf

mal

low

AT

;F

B2;

IN;

LI;

SK

1;

SK

6;

SP

;P

lant

Mandra

gora

aca

uli

s

Gae

rtn.

Sola

nac

eae

Man

dra

gora

,sk

oca

c,M

andra

ke

CO

;R

S4;

SE

;P

lant

Men

tha

pip

erit

aL

.L

amia

ceae

Met

vic

a,pit

om

anan

aP

epper

min

tT

T5;

TT

8;

AA

;A

I;A

O;

AX

;B

D;

CO

;C

N;

DI;

DU

;F

B6;

FM

5;

GD

;G

I6;

GI1

0;

GI1

1;

GI1

2;

GI1

4;

GI1

7;

HA

;IN

;

MW

;N

B;

RH

;R

S1;

RS

6;

SD

;T

N;

TT

6;

UT

10;

Pla

nt

Men

tha

pule

giu

mL

.L

amia

ceae

Men

ta,

met

vic

a,

konjs

ki

bosi

ljak

Wat

erm

int

AE

;A

H;

FM

8;

GI7

;H

A3;

LI;

RS

3;

AO

;C

A;

CO

;C

N;

GI7

;G

I10;

GI1

1;

SE

;U

T8;

Pla

nt

Moru

salb

aL

.M

ora

ceae

Bel

idud,

murv

aW

hit

em

ulb

erry

BU

;P

G;

RS

6;

TT

3;

AH

;A

Y;

DB

;F

B1;

FB

2;

FB

6;

FB

7;

GI1

0;

GI1

1;

HA

;

RS

1;

RS

7;

Pla

nt

Myr

isti

cafr

agra

ns

Houtt

.

Myri

stic

acea

eIn

dij

ski

ora

h,

mors

ko

ora

sce,

musk

atni

ora

h

Mac

e,nutm

egA

D;

CO

;P

lant

Myr

tus

com

munis

L.

Myrt

acea

eM

irta

,m

rca,

bje

lom

rca

Myrt

leA

S;

FB

6;

FB

6;

GI1

0;

HA

3;

PH

;T

N;

Pla

nt

Nig

ella

dam

asc

ena

L.

Ran

uncu

lace

aeM

ackov

brk

,gra

hor

Love-

in-a

-mis

tA

H(f

or

chil

dre

n);

HE

;S

K4;

SK

5;

Pla

nt

Nym

phaea

alb

aL

.N

ym

phae

acea

eB

eli

lokvan

jW

hit

ew

ater

lily

FB

1,2

;G

I7;

Pla

nt

Papave

rso

mnif

erum

L.

Pap

aver

acea

eM

akO

piu

mpoppy

FB

6;

CS

;IN

;S

K1;

Pla

nt

Pari

etari

aoffi

cinali

sL

.U

rtic

acea

eV

ijopsi

caW

all

pel

lito

ryC

A;

GI2

;G

I17;

HG

;U

T8;

UT

12;

Pla

nt

Peu

cedanum

cerv

ari

a

(L.)

Lap

eyr.

Apia

ceae

Sil

jevin

aC

A;

FM

15;

HE

;S

K3;

Pla

nt

Pim

pin

ella

anis

um

L.

Apia

ceae

Anis

,an

ason

Anis

eC

A;

EA

1;

FM

6,

7;

GI1

1;

GI7

;G

I9;

HM

;S

P;

SX

4;

AA

;A

H;

AO

;B

D;

CN

;D

U;

FM

7;

GI6

;G

I12;

HA

;IA

;

IN;

RS

1;

RS

5;

RS

13;

SD

;

Pla

nt

Pip

ersp

.P

iper

acea

eB

iber

Pep

per

EY

1;

PH

;S

T;

Pla

nt

Pis

taci

ale

nti

scus

L.

Anac

ardia

ceae

Sm

rdlj

ika,

terp

enti

n

drv

o,

mas

tika

Mas

tic

tree

AA

;A

E;

EY

3;

GI1

0;

GI5

;G

I7;

HA

1;

LI;

RS

7;

SK

14;

SK

4;

SK

5;

TT

3;

TT

7;

Pla

nt

Pla

nta

go

psy

lliu

mL

.

1762,

non

1753.

Pla

nta

gin

acea

eB

uac

k,

bokvic

aP

syll

ium

CM

1;

FB

1,2

;E

P;

GI1

0;

RS

2;

TH

;P

lant

Poly

gonum

bis

tort

a(L

.)

Sam

p.

Poly

gonac

eae

Potp

rsnic

a,

pet

oprs

nic

a,tr

ava

od

srdobolj

e,sr

cenja

k

Adder

wort

,

dra

gonw

ort

AE

;D

S;

FM

2;

FM

15;G

I10;

CA

;E

X;

GI1

0;

HR

;N

T;

RS

13;

SK

16;

SK

18;

WO

8;

Pla

nt

Poly

podiu

mvu

lgare

L.

Poly

podia

ceae

Sla

tka

pap

rat

Poly

pody

AA

;C

A;

FM

4;

ME

;P

H;

RS

1;

Pla

nt

Port

ula

caole

race

aL

.P

ort

ula

cace

aeT

ust

Gre

enpurs

lane

FB

3;

SK

8;

Pla

nt

Pru

nus

arm

enia

caL

.R

osa

ceae

Sef

teli

ja,

per

sikar

ija,

arm

onij

ak,

cepar

ik,

kaj

sija

Apri

cot

AH

;F

M3;

GT

;S

P;

SW

;S

K15;

Pla

nt


123

Ta

ble

1co

nti

nu

ed

Sci

enti

fic

nam

e/

Chem

ical

form

ula

Fam

ily

CM

Cnam

eC

om

mon

nam

eM

ain

use

s(C

MC

)M

ain

use

s(c

onte

mpora

ryli

tera

ture

)O

rigin

Pru

nus

cera

sife

raE

hrh

.R

osa

ceae

Mir

obal

an,

dze

nar

ika

Cher

ryplu

mD

T;

EY

1;

NT

Pla

nt

Pru

nus

dom

esti

caL

.R

osa

ceae

Slj

iva,

Turg

un

Plu

mF

B3;

PG

;A

Y;

CD

;E

Y4;

FB

6;

GI6

;G

I10;

HA

3;

PP

;R

B;

RS

1;

RS

6;

RS

9;

SK

23;

TT

1;

WO

6;

Pla

nt

Punic

agra

natu

mL

.P

unic

acea

eN

arG

ranat

eap

ple

DS

;F

B1,2

;G

I10;

AH

;G

I10;

Pla

nt

Pyr

us

com

munis

L.

Rosa

ceae

Div

lja

kru

ska

Wil

dpea

rG

I10;

PG

;A

Y;

CD

;D

B;

EY

4;

FB

6;

GI6

;G

I10;

HA

3;

HC

;P

P;

RS

1;

RS

6;

RS

9;

TT

1;

UT

11;

WO

6;

Pla

nt

Rheu

mrh

abarb

aru

mL

.P

oly

gonac

eae

Rab

arbar

a,ra

ven

Rhubar

bB

D;

GI1

1;

HY

;M

E;

MU

;P

G;

SE

;A

O;

ST

;P

lant

Ric

inus

com

munis

L.

Euphorb

iace

aeK

rlje

z,krl

ja,

rici

nus

Cas

tor-

oil

pla

nt

HA

1;

HP

;H

P1;

TN

;S

X2;

Pla

nt

Rosa

canin

aL

.R

osa

ceae

Ruza

,si

pura

k,

Sip

akR

ose

AE

;F

B1,2

;G

I10;

GI4

;G

I7;

HA

2;

LI;

PH

;

TN

;T

T4;

AH

;A

S;

AT

;B

D;

CO

;D

U;

EX

;F

B6;

FM

8;

FR

;G

I10;

NV

;R

S1;

RS

5;

RS

6;

RS

12;

SE

;S

I;T

N;

UT

1;

UT

3;

Pla

nt

Sacc

haru

moffi

cinaru

m

L.

Poac

eae

Sec

erna

trsk

aN

oble

sugar

cane

EY

;F

B6;G

I2;

PG

;R

S1;

Pla

nt

Satu

reja

hort

ensi

sL

.L

amia

ceae

Cubar

,pla

nin

ski

cubar

Sum

mer

savory

AR

;S

X2;

Pla

nt

Sin

apis

arv

ensi

sL

.B

rass

icac

eae

Goru

sica

,S

laci

caF

ield

must

ard

DM

:F

B6;

CA

,A

K,

SK

16;

Pla

nt

Sti

pa

pen

nata

L.

Poac

eae

Kovil

jeF

eath

ergra

ssS

P;

Pla

nt

Tanace

tum

bals

am

ita

L.

Ast

erac

eae

Buhac

,pir

etru

mA

leco

stA

R;

GB

;P

H;

RT

;T

T2;

SK

16;

Pla

nt

Thym

us

serp

yllu

mL

.an

d

Thym

us

pule

gio

ides

L.

Lam

iace

aeM

ajci

na

dusi

caW

ild

thym

eA

T;

GI1

2;

HA

1;

RS

8;

AA

;A

O;

AR

;A

X;

BD

;C

N;

CO

;E

Y4;

FB

6;

GI1

0;

GI1

2;

HL

;H

N;

IN;

LI;

PP

;R

S1;

RS

2;

RS

5;

RS

6;

RS

12;

RS

13;

SE

;S

K22;

ST

;T

N;

UT

1;

Pla

nt

Vio

lasp

.V

iola

ceae

Lju

bic

ica

Vio

laE

X;

DU

;G

O;

LX

;R

S5;

UT

3;

AT

;B

D;

DU

;E

X;

IF;

LX

;R

H;

RS

1;

RS

5;

RT

;S

K1;

SK

5;

SK

16;

SK

19;

SK

20;

UT

10;

VU

;

Pla

nt

Vit

exagnus-

cast

us

L.

Ver

ben

acea

eK

onoplj

ika,

div

lji

bib

erA

gnus

cast

us

FC

;F

M1;

FM

3;

FM

4;

GI7

;S

X3;

UT

6;

Pla

nt

Vit

issp

.V

itac

eae

Gro

zde,

Ace

toG

rapes

AD

;A

R;

CD

;C

O;

EA

7;

FB

6;

FB

6;

GI1

1;

GI1

2;

GI7

;H

A3;

HE

;L

I;P

O2;

RS

2;

RS

4;

SK

1;

SK

4;

SP

;S

X1;

SX

3;

TN

;U

T1;

AM

;B

D;

GI7

;G

I10;

SK

24;

VV

;P

lant

Zin

gib

eroffi

cinale

Rosc

oe

Zin

gib

erac

eae

Isio

t,D

jum

bir

Gin

ger

AD

;CA

;C

I;G

I11;

GI8

;R

S1;

GI1

2;

Pla

nt

‘Bal

aust

ia’

(CM

C,

30a;

GI1

0;

HT

;P

O;

Pla

nt

‘Bau

cio’

(CM

C,

30a)

AM

;A

R;

GI1

1;

SX

4;

Pla

nt

‘Bdel

io’

(CM

C31b)

GI1

0;

PO

2;

RS

1;

SK

1;U

T1;

Pla

nt

‘Cal

aphonia

’(C

MC

,

46b)

AA

;G

I10;

Pla

nt

‘Dia

gri

dio

’(C

MC

,

34b)

FM

15;

HL

;T

T4;

UA

;P

lant

Mek

inje

,‘D

e

canta

bru

m’,

CM

C,

46b

Bra

nA

T;

CE

;G

I10;

GI7

;R

S4;

Pla

nt

‘Pix

/pis

sa’

(CM

C,

157b)

SK

4;

SK

5;

Pla

nt


123

Ta

ble

1co

nti

nu

ed

Sci

enti

fic

nam

e/

Chem

ical

form

ula

Fam

ily

CM

Cnam

eC

om

mon

nam

eM

ain

use

s(C

MC

)M

ain

use

s(c

onte

mpora

ryli

tera

ture

)O

rigin

Pec

urk

a,‘I

pokvis

tidos’

(CM

C,

36a

and

199b)

Mush

room

GI1

0;

VO

;P

lant/

Mush

room

Sti

rak,

kat

asta

tS

tarc

hA

A;

AT

;S

K10;

SK

13;

Pla

nt

Apis

mel

life

raL

innae

us,

1758

Apid

aeM

edonosn

apce

la

(med

,m

elli

)

Honey

bee

sD

T;

CM

3,4

,5;

GI1

1,1

7;

LX

;P

G;

TN

;B

U;

CD

;C

I;F

M7;

PP

;R

S1;

RS

6;

Anim

al

Cer

vus

elaphus

Lin

nae

us,

1758

Cer

vid

aeJe

len

Dee

rM

E;

Anim

al

Coel

ente

rate

syst

emK

ora

liC

ora

lH

G;

HT

;T

T6;

Anim

al

Mosc

hus

mosc

hif

erus

Lin

nae

us,

1758

Mosc

hid

aeM

osu

sno

govec

eM

usk

,S

iber

ian

musk

dee

r

AD

;F

M15;

GI7

;H

D;

HL

;T

N;

US

;A

nim

al

Pin

ctada

marg

ari

tife

ra

Lin

nae

us,

1758

Pte

riid

aeB

iser

,m

argar

ita

Pea

rl,

pea

rl

oyst

er

HG

;A

nim

al

Phys

eter

cato

dom

Lin

nae

us,

1758

Physe

teri

dae

Am

bra

Am

ber

gri

s,

whal

e

CS

;F

M15;

ME

;S

E;

TN

;A

nim

al

Mum

ia(C

MC

,58a)

Mum

ioA

E;

CE

;E

P;

GI1

0;

Hum

an

AlK

(SO

4) 2

•12H

2O

Sti

psa

,kis

eli

kam

enA

lum

NC

;S

K4;

Min

eral

Au

Zla

to,

Auru

mG

old

CA

;G

I7;

HD

;L

E;

TN

;M

iner

al

As 2

S3,

As 2

S2

Auri

pig

men

tO

rpim

ent

AA

;A

T;

CM

5;

EX

;S

K5;

SK

14;

Min

eral

Fe 3

O4

Mag

net

it,

mag

net

ni

kam

en

Mag

net

ite

HY

;W

O1;

Min

eral

HgS

Ziv

aC

innab

arC

M3;

SK

4;

SK

9;

SK

14;

Min

eral

KN

O3

Sal

itra

Sal

tpet

reC

E;

CM

3;

CM

4;

GI1

2;

SK

14;

Min

eral

PbO

Olo

vni

oksi

d,

leta

rgir

Lit

har

ge

CE

;G

I10;

SK

4;

SX

5;W

O6;

Min

eral

Pb(O

H) 2

•2P

bC

O3

Olo

vo

Lea

d,

whit

e

(Cer

use

)

BU

;IJ

;S

K1;

EY

9;

Min

eral

Sb

Anti

mon

Anti

mony

EP

;H

R;

NC

;M

iner

al

SiO

2S

taklo

,V

itri

um

Gla

ssE

Y1;

SK

4;

SK

14;

Min

eral

Arm

ensk

agli

na

Cla

y(e

arth

,

bole

/

Arm

enia

n

eart

h)

GI1

0;

HT

;P

O;

Min

eral

Asp

altu

m,

bit

um

en,

jadai

kum

(CM

C,

28a)

Asp

hal

t

bit

um

en

FM

15;

WO

6;

Min

eral


123

Ta

ble

1co

nti

nu

ed

Sci

enti

fic

nam

e/

Chem

ical

form

ula

Fam

ily

CM

Cnam

eC

om

mon

nam

eM

ain

use

s(C

MC

)M

ain

use

s(c

onte

mpora

ryli

tera

ture

)O

rigin

Naf

taP

etro

leum

AA

;A

R;

AT

;C

R;

ED

;F

M15;

GI7

;H

E;

HP

;

IS;

UT

2;

Pet

rol:

RS

6;

SK

17;

Min

eral

AA

,A

nti

asth

mat

ic;

AC

,A

nti

cance

ref

fect

;A

E,

Anti

emet

ic;

AD

,A

phro

dis

iac;

AH

,A

nti

hel

min

tic;

AI,

Anti

septi

c;A

K,

Anti

par

alyti

c;A

L,

Dis

ease

sof

arm

san

dle

gs;

AM

,A

nem

ia;

AN

,A

nal

ges

ic:

1.

Ear

ache

2.

Leg

and

arm

pai

ns

on

one

side

of

the

body

3.

Ute

rine

pai

ns

4.

Pai

ns

duri

ng

pre

gnan

cy;

AO

,A

nti

spas

modic

;A

R,

Art

hri

tis;

AS

,A

stri

ngen

t;A

T,

Anti

tuss

ive;

AX

,A

nxie

ty;

AY

,A

nti

hyper

tensi

ve

BD

,B

lood

det

oxifi

cati

on;

BF

,B

one

frac

ture

s;B

U,

Burn

s;B

V,

Str

ength

enin

gblo

od

ves

sels

CA

,C

ardia

cco

ndit

ion;

CC

,C

achex

ia;

CD

,C

ardio

tonic

;C

E,C

olo

ncl

eansi

ng

enem

a;C

H,

Chola

gogue;

CI,

Poor

circ

ula

tion;

CL

,C

hil

ls;

CM

,C

osm

etic

:1.H

air

loss

pre

ven

tion

2.P

rote

ctio

nfr

om

sun,w

ind

and

dust

3.

Lic

ein

fest

atio

ns

4.

Rem

ovin

gea

rwax

5.

Dep

ilat

ion;

CN

,C

arm

inat

ive;

CO

,C

old

(not

spec

ified

);C

R,

Car

cinom

a:1.

Sec

ondar

yca

rcin

om

a;C

S,

Ches

tpai

ns;

CU

,C

uts

DB

,D

iabet

es;

DI,

Dia

phore

tic;

DM

,D

emen

tia;

DP

,D

epre

ssio

n;

DS

,D

yse

nte

ry;

DT

,B

ody

det

oxifi

cati

on;

DU

,D

iure

tic;

DZ

,D

izzi

nes

s

EA

,E

ardis

ease

s:1.

Ear

ache

2.

Impai

red

hea

ring

3.

Suppura

tive

infl

amm

atio

nof

the

ear

4.

Incr

ease

dse

cret

ion

from

the

ears

5.

Oti

tis

6.

Puru

lent

ear

condit

ions

7.

Ear

dis

ease

s(n

ot

spec

ified

);E

D,

Oed

ema;

EH

,

Exhau

stio

n;

EM

,E

met

ic(i

nth

etr

eatm

ent

of

alco

holi

sm);

EP

,E

pis

taxis

;E

X,

Expec

tora

nt;

EY

,E

ye

dis

ease

s:1.

Cat

arac

ts2.

Pro

phyla

ctic

for

eye

dis

ease

s3

.W

ater

ing

eyes

4.

Conju

nct

ivit

is5.

Ocu

lar

hyper

tensi

on

6.

Short

-sig

hte

dnes

s7.

Blo

odsh

ot

eyes

8.

Eye

dis

ease

s(n

ot

spec

ified

)9.

Evil

eye

(pre

ven

tive)

FB

,F

ebri

leco

ndit

ions:

1.

Per

acute

stat

es2.

Acu

test

ates

3.

Acu

tean

dper

acute

stat

esca

use

dby

const

ipat

ion

4.

Phle

gm

ons

cause

sfe

ver

5.

Tem

per

ature

inth

esa

cral

regio

nin

wom

en6.

Feb

rile

condit

ions

(not

spec

ified

)7.A

gue;

FC

,F

oot

cram

ps;

FM

,F

emal

edis

ease

san

dpro

ble

ms:

1.M

enorr

hag

ia2.S

ucc

essf

ul

pre

gnan

cy3.M

etro

rrhag

ia4.S

teri

lity

5.O

ligom

enorr

hea

6.C

old

of

the

fem

ale

gen

ital

ia7.In

suffi

cien

tla

ctat

ion

8.

Mas

titi

s9.

Cle

ansi

ng

the

ute

rus

afte

rbir

th10.

Abort

ifac

ient

11.

Am

enorr

hoea

12.

Dis

ease

sof

the

ute

rus

13.

Gan

gre

nous

met

riti

s14.

Mis

carr

iages

15.

Fem

ale

dis

ease

s(n

ot

spec

ified

)16.

Men

stru

alpai

n;

FR

Flu

id

rete

nti

on

FS

Food

and

seas

onin

g

GB

,V

ario

us

gro

wth

son

the

body;

GD

,G

all

bla

dder

dis

ease

s;G

I,G

astr

o-i

nte

stin

altr

act

dis

ord

ers:

1.

Ble

edin

gin

the

dig

esti

ve

trac

t2.

Coli

c3.

Colo

rect

aldis

ease

s4.

Irri

table

bow

elsy

ndro

me

5.

Ente

riti

s6.

Const

ipat

ion

7.A

bdom

inal

pai

ns

(not

spec

ified

)8.S

tom

ach

pai

ns

cause

dby

aco

ld9.B

elch

ing

wit

hin

crea

sed

secr

etio

nof

stom

ach

acid

s10.D

iarr

hea

11.

Reg

ula

ting

dig

esti

on

12.

Gas

tro-i

nte

stin

altr

act

dis

ord

ers

(not

spec

ified

)13.

Dysp

epsi

a14.

Gas

tric

ulc

ers

15.

Sto

mac

hin

flam

mat

ions

16.

Inte

stin

ein

fect

ions

17.

Gas

trit

is;

GO

Gout

GT

Goit

er

HA

,H

eadac

he,

mig

rain

e:1.

Hea

dac

hes

cause

dby

cold

s2.

Hea

dac

hes

cause

dby

hig

hte

mper

ature

3.

Hea

dac

he,

mig

rain

e(n

ot

spec

ified

);H

C,

Hyper

chole

ster

ole

mia

;H

D,

Dis

ease

sof

the

hea

dan

dbra

in;

HE

,

Hae

mat

uri

a;H

G,

Hem

orr

hag

e(i

nte

rnal

);H

L,

Hal

itosi

s;H

M,

Hem

atom

as;

HN

,H

angover

;H

O,

Har

den

edorg

ans

due

toil

lnes

s;H

P,

Hem

iple

gia

:1.

Hem

iple

gia

of

the

tongue;

HR

,H

aem

orr

hoid

s;H

T,

Hae

mat

emes

is;

HY

,H

ydro

ps

IA,

Incr

easi

ng

appet

ite;

IF,

reduce

sin

flam

mat

ion;

IH,

Inhal

atio

n;

IN,

Inso

mnia

(not

spec

ified

):1.

Inso

mnia

cause

dby

hig

hte

mper

ature

inper

acute

stat

es;

IS,

Str

ength

enin

gof

the

imm

une

syst

em

JD,

Jaundic

e

LE

,L

epro

sy;

LI,

Liv

erdis

ease

;L

X,

Lax

ativ

e

MA

,M

etas

tasi

ng

absc

esse

s;M

B,

Reg

ula

ting

the

secr

etio

nof

bodil

yfl

uid

s(m

ucu

san

dbil

e);

MC

,M

usc

lecr

amps;

ME

,M

elan

choly

MM

,Im

pro

ve

the

mem

ory

MN

,M

enta

lunburd

enin

gth

em

ind;

MO

,D

isea

ses

of

the

mouth

cavit

y;

MS

,In

crea

sem

etab

oli

sm;

MT

,P

ain

inth

em

usc

les

and

tendons

MU

,M

uco

lyti

c;M

W,

Mouth

was

h

NB

,N

eck

and

bac

kpai

ns;

NC

,T

issu

enec

rosi

s;N

E,

Neu

ralg

ia;

NH

Nois

esin

the

hea

d;

NT

,H

um

annutr

itio

n;

NV

,N

ause

a/V

om

itin

g

PG

,P

urg

ativ

e;P

H,

Phle

gm

ons

inth

ehea

d;

PO

,A

nti

dote

inca

seof

pois

onin

g1.

Mush

room

spois

onin

g2.

Snak

eor

inse

ctpois

on

(sco

rpio

n);

PP

,P

anac

ea;

PT

,P

aroti

tis;

PU

,P

ungen

t

RB

,R

educt

ion

of

fat

inth

eblo

od;

RH

,R

heu

mat

ism

;R

S,

Res

pir

atory

trac

tdis

ease

s:1.

Cough

2.

Dry

cough

3.

Pneu

monia

4.

Lung

dis

ease

s5.

Bro

nch

itis

6.

Sore

thro

at7.

Tonsi

llit

is8.

Lar

yngit

is9.

Sin

usi

tis

10.

Tuber

culo

sis

11.

Ple

uri

sy12.

Infl

uen

za13.

Res

pir

atory

trac

tdis

ease

s(n

ot

spec

ified

)14.

Pulm

onar

yca

nce

r;R

T,

Rin

sing

the

thro

at

SE

,S

edat

ive;

SI,

Sti

mula

nt;

SK

,S

kin

dis

ease

san

dsw

elli

ng:

1.

Sw

elli

ng

(not

spec

ified

)2.

Sw

elli

ng

of

the

chee

kca

use

dby

tooth

ache

3.

Sw

elli

ng

around

the

crotc

h4.

Itch

ines

s5.

Ecz

ema

6.

Ulc

ers

7.

Suppre

ssin

g

dan

dru

ff8.‘

Chap

ped

’li

ps

9.S

kin

rednes

s(f

ace)

10.S

cabs

11.S

cabie

s12.C

hap

ped

skin

13.F

acia

lsk

indis

ease

s14.F

reck

les

15.S

kin

infe

ctio

ns

16.S

kin

dis

ease

s(n

ot

spec

ified

)17.W

arts

18.I

nfl

amm

atio

nof

the

skin

19.P

sori

asis

20.S

eborr

hea

21.S

kin

rash

22.G

reas

ysk

in23.H

angnai

l24.D

rysk

in25.S

unburn

s;S

P,D

isea

ses

of

sple

en(s

ple

nom

egal

y);

ST

,S

tom

achic

;S

W,S

oft

enin

gsw

elli

ng;

SX

,S

exual

pro

ble

ms:

1.F

lacc

idit

yof

the

sexual

org

ans

2.

Impote

nce

3.

Noct

urn

alej

acula

tion

4.

Incr

ease

sper

mat

ogen

esis

5.

Sex

ual

pro

ble

ms

(not

spec

ified

);S

Y,

Impro

ve

the

tast

eof

med

icin

es

TC

,T

achyca

rdia

;T

H,

Str

ong

thir

st;

TN

,T

onic

;T

A,

Tra

nsi

ent

glo

bal

am

nes

ia;

TT

,T

oth

pro

ble

ms:

1.

Tooth

ache

2.

Infl

amm

atio

nof

the

gum

s3.

To

easi

erto

oth

extr

acti

on

4.

Ulc

erous

chan

ges

on

the

gum

s5.

Per

iodonti

tis

6.

Gin

giv

itis

7.

Cle

anin

g‘s

tain

edte

eth’

8.

Tooth

dec

ay

UA

,U

nder

arm

pai

n;

UN

,P

rolo

nged

unco

nsc

iousn

ess;

US

,O

ver

acti

ve

swea

tgla

nds;

UT

,U

rinar

y-t

ract

dis

ord

ers:

1.S

and

and

stones

inth

ekid

ney

san

duri

nar

ybla

dder

2.

Lit

hia

sis

3.

Kid

ney

dis

ease

s(n

ot

spec

ified

)4.

Ble

edin

gca

use

dby

sand

and

stones

inth

ekid

ney

san

duri

nar

ybla

dder

5.

Dis

ease

sof

the

uri

nar

ybla

dder

(not

spec

ified

)6.

Enure

sis

7.

Dysu

ria

8.

Pyel

onep

hri

tis

9.

Ure

trit

is10.

Cis

titi

s11.

Ben

ign

pro

stat

ehyper

pla

sia

12.

Uri

nar

y-t

ract

dis

ord

ers

(not

spec

ified

)13.

Bed

wet

ting

(by

chil

dre

n)

14.

Pro

stat

eca

nce

r(p

reven

tive)

VI,

Vit

ilig

o;

VO

,V

om

it;

VU

,V

aric

ose

ulc

ers;

VV

,V

aric

ose

vei

ns

WO

,W

ounds

(fre

shan

dold

):1.W

ounds

inw

hic

hth

ere

are

shar

ds

of

iron

2.M

aggot-

infe

sted

wounds

3.

Old

and

open

wounds

4.D

raw

ing

pus

from

wounds

5.C

lean

sing

wounds

6.

Ord

inar

yw

ounds

7.G

ranulo

ma

in

the

wound

8.

Puru

lent

wounds

9.

Wound

infe

ctio

ns


123

Table 2 Compound medicines drugs and their medicinal use described in pharmacological manuscripts of the Chilandar Medical

Codex No. 517. and in the contemporary literature for Western Balkans area

Type of compound medicines Popular and Latin name in the CMC Main uses (CMC) Main uses

(contemporary

literature)

Golden pills Zlatne pilule EY6; MN;

Pills which nobody should be

without

Pilule bez kojih ne sme niko da bude

[sine quibus nullo esse]

CI; CO; EY4; EY5; HA;

Pills for acute and peracute fevers

and for any fever which affects

the functioning of the internal

organs

Pilule protiv akutne i perakutne

ognjice i za svaku ognjicu koja

smeta pravilnoj funkciji

unutrasnjih organa

FB4; G I11;

Pills to aid digestion Pilule dobre za probavu GI11;

Absinth oil, absinth ointment Pelinovo ulje, Pelinova mast, Oleum

absinthum

AH; EA6; FM5; GI12; SP;

Bay oil Lovorovo ulje, Oleum laurum CI; LE; LI; SK4; SP;

Brick oil Ulje od ceramide (crepa) CO;

Chamomile oil Ulje od kamilice, Oleum

chamomillum

CO; LI; MB; NH; SK9; TH; UN;

UT1;

Dill oil Ulje od anetuma, Oleum anetum AN1; CA; TN; SW;

Elder oil Ulje od bzovine (zove) GI6; HO; SK25;

Field mustard oil Ulje od slacice, Oleum sinapinum AR; CI; CO; DM; EX; PO2; SK11;

Lily oil Ulje od ljiljana, Oleum lilium SK1; SK6;

Mastic oil Ulje od mastike, Oleum masticinum BF; CL;

Poplar oil Populeon ulje, Oleum populeon-

populeonicum

FB1,2

Radish oil Rotkvino ulje, Oleum raphanum AN2; GI6; SK7; VI;

Rose oil Ruzino ulje, Oleum rosatum AA; EY7; FB5; FB6; GI10; GI12;

HA3; HD; HL; LI; RS2; RS4;

SK11; SK12; UN; UT1; UT7;

WO2; WO6;

Rue oil Ulje od rute, Oleum rutaceum CA; CL, CR; WO3;

Agrippa ointment Agripina mast, Unguentum agrippa AL; CA; CO; SK1; UT7;

‘Atractivum’ ointment Atraktivum mast WO5;

Basil ointment Mast bazilikum, Unguentum

basilicum

WO6;

Black ointment Crna mast, Unguentum fusco-fuscum WO4;

Citrine ointment Limunska mast, zuta mast,

Unguentum citrinum

LE; SK11,12,13; WO6;

Gold ointment Zlatna mast, Unguentum aureum AN3; CL; FB6; GI12; UT1,2; UT3;

Ointment to prevent inflammation

of the joints

Mast protiv zapaljenja zglobova,

Unguentum contra arthritidem or

periathritidem

AR;

Ointment to reduce tissue

proliferation and granulation in

wounds

‘‘Mast za redukciju proliferovanog

tkiva i granulacija u rani’’

CR; WO5,7;

Ointment for bloodshot eyes Mast protiv crvenih ociju EY4;

Poultice for reducing tissue

proliferation in wounds

Emplaster za redukciju

proliferovanog tkiva u rani

AS; WO7;

Poultice for preventing abscesses Emplaster protiv otoka (aposteome) SK1;


123

Vitis sp. is the most frequently mentioned medicinal

plant used as an ingredient in a variety of medicines

and it was used in the form of a wine, vinegar, or the

ripe, unripe or dried fruit. Other medicinal substances

were very often dissolved in wine or combined with

vinegar, so the spectrum of treatment was wide

(wine—to treat diseases of the digestive organs, colds,

lung diseases, liver diseases, flaccidity of the sexual

organs, headaches, and haematuria, and as an aphro-

disiac, an antipyretic, a cardiotonic, and a tonic;

vinegar—to treat various swellings, stones and sand in

the urinary tract, splenomegaly, stomach pains, itch-

iness, arthritis, and ear conditions, and as a digestive,

an antidote to snake and scorpion venom, and an

antipyretic). Additionally, in the lists of materia

medica of the medieval Jewish community (the

Taylor–Schechter Genizah collection, Cairo, Egypt,

eleventh–fourteenth centuries) the use of grape vine

products (wine, vinegar, raisins) is mentioned, most

often for treating snakebites, paresis and limpness

(weakness) of the sexual organ, and also as an

aphrodisiac (Lev 2006). Today, 500 years later in

Serbia, the most widespread use of Vitis sp. is in the

form of komovica (grape pomace brandy), most

commonly for treating febrile conditions, contusions,

wounds, bruises, fractures, and rheumatic pains, and

also as a disinfectant (Drobnjak 2004). Saric-Kundalic

et al. (2011) cite Vitis sp. as an important medicine in

the treatment of anaemia, blood detoxification, diar-

rhoea, dry skin, and varicose veins (Table 1).

In the pharmacological manuscripts of the CMC,

olive oil (Oleum olivarum) is mentioned 60 times,

which shows its importance in medieval Serbian

medicine. It was used to treat a whole variety of

ailments (skin diseases, headaches, earache, indiges-

tion, cachexia, mastitis, arthritis, gynaecological con-

ditions, splenomegaly, and hair loss) and served as a

base for making other medicinal ointments and oils

(Oleum rosatum, O. chamomillum, O. absinthum, O.

rutaceum, elder oil, brick oil, O. anetum, etc.),

poultices or balms, as well as an antidote to some

poisons. The history of olive oil seems to begin during

the Copper Age (sixth millennium BC). Called ‘liquid

gold’ by Homer (nineth-eighth centuries BC), it was

used to treat burned skin, dermatitis, stomach, liver

and intestinal pains, and as protection from the sun.

Olive oil was even highly regarded by Hippocrates

(460–377 BC) and Pliny the Elder (24–79 AD), in his

Historia Naturalis, listed 48 medicines made with

olive oil (Caramia et al. 2012). In the Middle Ages, the

medical ‘monacus infirmorum (monk)’ of the abbeys

used preparations containing olive oil to treat burns

and swellings, as well as different infections (i.e.

gynaecological): a large number of these therapeutic

indications were included during the tenth-twelth

centuries in the texts of the ‘Scuola Medica Salerni-

tana (Salerno Medical School)’, the first Western

medical school (Caramia et al. 2012). This practice

continued during the Renaissance. In fact, the ‘Oleum’

jar was present in all pharmacies since olive oil had

recognized healing properties for heart conditions,

fevers, soothing, and hypertension, and as an anti-

diabetic and diuretic (Lawn 1963). In medieval

France, olive oil was used as a traditional remedy in

Table 2 continued

Type of compound medicines Popular and Latin name in the CMC Main uses (CMC) Main uses

(contemporary

literature)

Poultice for any wound or ‘poultice

made from the juice of many

grasses’

Emplaster za svaku ranu ili

‘‘emplaster sastavljen od soka od

mnogo trava’’

WO6;

Poultice for treating mange Emplaster za lecenje suge SK11;

Poultice for bone fractures Emplaster za frakturu kostiju BF;

Poultice for facial skin complaints Emplaster protiv bolesti na licu koja

ih ‘‘grize’’

SK13;

Electuary with savory (Satureja

hortensis)

Electuario sa cubrakom AD; SX2;

Syrups Sirupi SY;

See footnote of Table 1


123

the treatment of disorders of the digestive and urinary

systems, and as a choleretic and cholagogue. Some

authors also attributed mild laxative properties to the

oil (Brunenton 2001). Today, olive oil (Olea euro-

paea) is most often used in ethnomedicine in south-

western Serbia, as well as in Bosnia and Herzegovina,

as an anti-hypertensive, anti-diabetic, anti-rheumatic,

and diuretic, and to treat febrile conditions, gynaeco-

logical problems, eye ailments, skin ailments, tuber-

culosis, digestive disorders, swollen legs, bruises,

contusions, hair loss and haemorrhoids, as well as

being used in cosmetic hair products (Pieroni et al.

2011; Saric-Kundalic et al. 2010, 2011), Table 2.

Rose (Rosa canina) was and still is one of the most

frequently used traditional medicines. It was the name

for medicine in the form of rose water, rose honey,

rose sugar or rose oil, which is mentioned 60 times in

the CMC (p. 158b). It had a highly significant use in

the treatment of a whole variety of ailments: phleg-

mons, irritable bowel syndrome, fatigue due to

diarrhoea, stomach pains particularly in the liver

region, headaches caused by high temperatures, and

ulcerous changes on the gums, and was used as an

antipyretic (acute and peracute states), antidiarrheic,

and antiemetic. Rose is among the ‘top ten’ medieval

practical drugs, according to the Genizah documents,

which state that it was most frequently used for

treating liver ailments, lice, poor eyesight, migraines,

and eye diseases, as linctuses and ointments, for

cleaning and treating teeth, for invalid diets, as a

purgative, as medical chewing gum, for treating eye

diseases, umbilical hernias and incessant crying, and

fevers (Lev and Amar 2008). In medieval Persia, rose

oil was used to treat recurrent unilateral and bilateral

headaches; it was applied as a topical and had

prophylactic and nerve fortifying effects (Gorji

2003). Likewise, a collection of prescriptions from a

monastery in Cyprus shows that rose was used to treat

swollen and inflamed eyes, dysenteric/unspecific

diarrhoea, intestinal bleeding, bloody stools, haemor-

rhages (internal), plague, catarrh and common colds,

abscesses, acne, aphthae, furuncles, inflamed and

bleeding gums, loose teeth and wounds, and as a

cholagogue, laxative, and prophylactic for cholera

(Lardos 2006). More recent research has shown that

rose is still extensively used as a medicine across the

whole of the Western Balkans, including Serbia,

particularly in the treatment of respiratory complaints

Table 3 The twenty

medicinal substances most

frequently used in medicine

preparations (CMC)

English name Scientific name No. times

mentioned

Grape Vitis sp. 128

Olive Olea europaea L. 60

Rose Rosa sp. 60

Honey Apis mellifera Linnaeus, 1758 46

Lentisk Pistacia lentiscus L. 37

Wax Apis mellifera Linnaeus, 1758 30

Chicken Gallus gallus domesticus Linnaeus, 1758 29

Sugar Saccharum officinarum L. 23

Absinth Artemisia absinthium L. 21

Aloe Aloe sp. 17

Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 16

Spurge Euphorbia sp. 15

Olibanum Boswellia carteri Birdw. 13

Anise Pimpinella anisum L. 13

Psyllium Plantago psyllium L. 13

Tragacanth Astragalus tragacantha L. 12

Clove Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb. 12

Myrtle Myrthus communis L. 12

Senna Cassia acutifolia Delile 11

Dill Anethum graveolens L. 10


123

(Jaric et al. 2007; Redzic 2007; Saric-Kundalic et al.

2010, 2011; Pieroni et al. 2011; Menkovic et al. 2011;

Mustafa et al. 2012a, 2012b; Savikin et al. 2013;

Zlatkovic et al. 2013; Rexhepi et al. 2013), Table 1.

In medieval medicine, lentisk or mastic (Pistacia

lentiscus) was very widely used, which is borne out by

evidence from various manuscripts from that period.

In the pharmacological manuscripts of the CMC (p.

148a), it is a frequently mentioned medicine, which

was used (either on its own or in combination with

other medicinal substances) as an antidiarrheic and an

antiemetic, to ease tooth extraction (an anaesthetic for

the gums—mastic and wild ginger mixed together), to

clean ‘stained teeth’ (a powder from mastic resin was

rubbed onto the teeth), to treat watering eyes, enteritis,

conditions of the stomach and liver, breathing diffi-

culties, tonsillitis, headaches caused by a cold (the

resin was chewed), itchiness, lichens, and freckles.

According to the Cairo Genizah, in medieval materia

medica, lentisk was mainly used for treating eye

diseases, umbilical hernias and incessant crying,

diarrhoea, fevers, the burning of black bile and

phlegm, obstructions, wind, diarrhoea, pleurisy and

trembling (Lev 2006, 2007; Lev and Amar 2007).

According to data from the Ottoman period

(1571–1878), on the island of Cyprus lentisk was

used for a wide spectrum of ailments: dysenteric/

unspecific diarrhoea, catarrh and common colds,

tremors, internal ailments (not specified), belly-ache

(not specified), bad breath, cuts, tinnitus, impaired

vision, watering eyes, constipation, dyspepsia, gastric

tonic, intestinal bleeding, bloody stools, headaches,

migraines, heart pains, haemorrhoids, kidney or spleen

pains, plague, rheumatic conditions, coughs, tonsilli-

tis, scrofula (lymph node disease), eczema, skin

tumours, skin ulcers, loose teeth, toothache and

wounds. It was also used to cleanse (a cholagogue

and laxative), as a haemostatic (for external wounds),

as incense, as a prophylactic for cholera, to improve

the sense of smell, and in dental health care (Lardos

2006). Data from more recent studies relating to

Serbia and the Western Balkans as a whole does not

mention the use of this species for medicinal purposes.

Gentiana lutea was used in medieval Serbian

medicine as an anti-asthmatic, an antidote (to snake

or scorpion venom), and as a tonic (CMC, p. 33a).

Today it is used in south-western Serbia and the

Republic of Macedonia for treating problems of the

respiratory system (influenza and coughs), while in the

rest of the Western Balkans it is used as a tonic and as

medicine to treat gastrointestinal problems (Pieroni

et al. 2011; Rexhepi et al. 2013; Savikin et al. 2013;

Saric-Kundalic et al. 2010, 2011; Mustafa et al. 2012a,

2012b; Menkovic et al. 2011) (Table 1). Moreover, in

some parts of Montenegro, it is used to clean the blood,

and in the south-west of Serbia for pain relief in cases

of varicose veins and as an anti-rheumatic. Gentian is

most often used in the form of tea or brandy lincura

(gentian brandy—slightly-built people drink one small

glass, larger people two glasses per day, before a meal)

(Pieroni et al. 2011).

According to the pharmacological manuscripts of

the CMC, Juniperus communis was used in the Middle

Ages as an anti-diarrheic, anti-asthmatic and carmi-

native, but also in the treatment of arthritis (oil) and

haematuria (CMC, p. 36a and 199b). An analysis of

Serbian literature relating to ethnobotany and ethno-

medicine and that from neighbouring countries shows

that this species is used in a variety of ways today as

well, above all in the treatment of problems related to

the renal system and the urinary tract, rheumatic

complaints, problems related to the respiratory (the

common cold, coughs, sinusitis, pulmonary cancer,

asthma, tuberculosis, chest pains, mucosal inflamma-

tion and for inhalation) and digestive systems, etc.

(Table 1). It is most commonly used as a tea (infusion

or decoction), oil or brandy klekovaca (juniper

brandy—15–20 ripe juniper berries are covered with

1 litre of plum brandy sljivovica and left in the sun for

40 days). In south-western Serbia, juniper brandy is

considered a panacea. The people of Serbia and its

neighbouring countries can purchase juniper berries at

herbal pharmacies and markets.

Thymus serpyllum has been used for centuries in the

treatment of headaches caused by colds, laryngitis, for

soothing coughs (an antitussive) and to treat diseases

of the digestive organs (CMC, p. 98). It is used for the

same purposes today, as confirmed by ethnomedical

research of the whole of the Western Balkans

(Table 1). Thyme is most often used as a tea.

The tradition of using both pennyroyal (M. pule-

gium) and peppermint (M. piperita) dates back

centuries (CMC, p. 56a) although peppermint was

more often used in food and less frequently for

medical purposes (periodontitis and tooth decay).

However, pennyroyal was most often used for treating

stomach pains, liver diseases, mastitis (a poultice—the

herb is cooked in wine and olive oil), headaches, and


123

as an antiemetic and antihelmintic (the juice from the

herb is mixed with a little vinegar and drunk in the

morning). The main role of this medicine even today is

to eliminate stomach and respiratory problems, and

according to available data it is also used as a sedative,

anti-rheumatic and antiseptic in some regions of the

Western Balkans (Table 1). In addition to these

species, other species of the genus Mentha are used

in medicine today (M. longifolia, M. arvensis,

M. 9 gentilis, M. 9 gracilis, M. rotundifolia, M.

spicata, M. villosa, etc.), and it is interesting to note

that in the Republic of Macedonia for example tea

from the aerial part of M. longifolia is used to boost the

immune system of children (Rexhepi et al. 2013).

Another species which has been used for several

centuries for its medicinal properties is Inula helenium

(CMC, p. 60a), which according to the CMC manu-

scripts was used for ear conditions (a balm—the herb

is cooked in olive oil and wine), neoplasm and

granulation tissue in old wounds (the powder of the

herb is sprinkled directly onto the wound), freckles,

and to suppress dandruff. It still has an important role

to play in the medicine of some regions today, mainly

in treating problems involving the respiratory organs

(Table 1). Pieroni et al. (2011) also cites an interesting

use for this medicine in south-western Serbia—

warding off the evil eye.

The CMC mentions the use of Allium sativum in

treating haematuria and liver disease and A. ampelo-

prasum (syn. A. porrum) as an antidote (to snake

venom) and also in the treatment of haematuria (CMC,

p. 23a). However, ethnobotanical and ethnomedical

research on the use of this medicine five centuries later

shows that the people of the Western Balkans know

significantly more about its medicinal properties now,

as confirmed by its wide variety of uses today, mainly

in treating cardiovascular, respiratory, urogenital,

gastrointestinal, skin, endocrine and dental problems

(Table 1). In addition, in Serbia and most neighbour-

ing countries, it is considered a panacea which acts

where ‘no other medicine can help’. Furthermore, in

Serbian folk culture, it is considered to be the most

universal apotropaion.

Pimpinella anisum was an important medicine in

medieval Serbian medicine as it was used for a large

number of illnesses (a carminative and a digestive, to

treat belching with increased secretion of stomach

acids, stomach pains, splenomegaly, earache, condi-

tions of the female genitalia, and bruising, and to

increase spermatogenesis and lactation) (CMC,

p. 25a). Today, it is used mainly in Bosnia and

Herzegovina for treating respiratory and gastrointes-

tinal problems, but also as an antihelmintic for

children (Saric-Kundalic et al. 2010, 2011).

In the CMC manuscripts, sugar is mentioned 23

times and its role was in the making of syrups and

other medicines (CMC, p. 9a, 9b, 10a). It had a similar

use in manuscripts from other regions: in Iatrosoph-

icon it is mentioned 16 times and in the Cairo Genizah

11 times (Lardos 2006; Lev and Amar 2007).

According to these literary sources, sugar was used

in combination with other medicinal substances for

treating eye diseases, colic and coughs, and as a

purgative and antipyretic (syrup).

The medicinal properties of absinth (Artemisia

absinthium) were well known in Serbian medieval

medicine, as proven by its frequent use (it is

mentioned 21 times). It was used as a simple medicine:

as an antihelmintic (for children), to treat menorrha-

gia, splenomegaly, hematoma arising from contu-

sions, cataracts, and ear conditions, to improve

eyesight, as an antidote (to poisonous mushrooms),

and for body detoxification (Figures 1 and 2). How-

ever, it was also an essential ingredient in several

compound medicines: Oleum absinthum, Oleum mas-

ticinum, pills which nobody should be without, pills

against acute and peracute fevers and for any fever

which affects the functioning of internal organs, and

pills to aid digestion.

In the Middle Ages, absinth was used as a purge and

vermifuge. It began to be a ‘general remedy for all

diseases’ and was referred to as ‘a herb of Mars’ for its

overarching medical powers (Baker 2001). In his

paper De materia medica, Dioscorides described the

use of the aerial parts of the species Artemisia

absinthium in the preparation of an ointment with figs

soda and ryegrass flour, which was used to treat sore

throats, while a poultice with Cyprus ointment was

used to treat dropsy and spleen pains. A poultice made

from the absinth herb mixed with oil was also used

against mosquito bites. In his paper Historia Naturalis,

Pliny described the use of the aerial part of absinth in

the form of a poultice with Cyprian wax or figs for iliac

regions affection (De Natale et al. 2009). In medieval

Persia, physicians used absinth to treat recurrent

unilateral headaches (Gorji 2003). In the sixteenth

century, wine made from absinth was used for gout of

the feet. It was believed to cleanse the joints internally


123

and to prevent harmful new substances from reaching

those parts. Painful joints were also to be rubbed with

A. absinthium (Adams et al. 2009). Whilst absinth is

mentioned in almost all early herbals, the comprehen-

sive section on absinth contained in Rembert Dod-

oen’s herbal ‘The Stirpium Historiae’ printed in 1583

is particularly noteworthy (Nathan-Maister 2009). It is

interesting to note that even after five centuries absinth

is still used as an antihelmintic and for detoxification

in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Redzic 2007). However,

according to data available, the other uses of this

medicine described in the CMC have been forgotten,

and hence today in the remaining areas of the Balkans

it is mostly used to treat gastrointestinal problems

(Table 1). In Serbia, the use of the species A.

absinthum and A. vulgaris is widespread in making

herbal brandy pelinkovac or stomaklija, which is

mainly used for improving appetite, eradicating or

easing gastrointestinal problems, and rinsing infected

wounds (pelinkovac—add one handful of absinth to 1

litre of strong plum brandy sljivovica; shut the bottle

tightly and leave in the sun for 7 days, Drobnjak

2004). In addition, tea from A. vulgaris is used as an

aromatic, a tonic herb, a digestive stimulant, and a

diuretic, to improve body strength and appetite, and to

treat dyspepsia, while A. absinthium is used in

veterinary ethnomedicine (Jaric et al. 2007).

It is also worth noting that the non-native species

Aloe sp. is grown specifically for its medicinal

properties by many households in Serbia and it is

possible to buy it at nurseries and at the Botanical

Gardens in Belgrade. This plant was first mentioned in

the Hodosh Codex and somewhat later in the CMC (p.

14b-16a). The medicinal liquid from the leaves was

used to strengthen blood vessels, to treat conditions

related to the head, liver and spleen, to improve

eyesight, to regulate a woman’s monthly cycle, to

prevent hair loss, and as a carminative and antihel-

mintic. Today it is used to ease the side-effects of

chemotherapy (300 g of fresh leaf of aloe, aged over

1 year, [best between 3 and 5 years old] is finely

chopped or ground. 700 ml of red wine, 500 g of

chicory (Cichorium intybus), 400 g of honey with

honeycomb and 400 ml of 90 % proof ethyl alcohol is

added to this. It is mixed well and then poured into a

dark bottle, shut tightly and left in a cool, dark place

for at least 1 week. After this, one teaspoonful is taken

three times a day 2 h before meal for the first 5 days,

and then one teaspoonful three times a day 1 h before

Fig. 1 Absinth ointment (Oleum absinthum), Bay oil (Oleum

laurum) and Field mustard oil (Oleum sinapinum), CMC169b;

description and use

Fig. 2 Absinth (Artemisia absinthium,), CMC, 26a; description

and use


123

meal for the following 5 days). It is also used for

treating cancer sufferers’ exhaustion (100 ml aloe

juice, 500 g ground walnuts, 300 g honey; mix well

and leave for a month in a cool, dark place; the dosage

is one spoonful three times a day, half an hour before

meal). These anti-cancer mixtures also help with the

treatment of tuberculosis, asthma, stomach ulcers,

rheumatism, and illnesses related to the organs of the

female reproductive system. In addition to facial skin

care, the juice from aloe leaves is applied directly to

small cuts, burns, rashes and for dermatitis.

The practice of using animals and their products for

the treatment of various ailments reached its peak

during the time of medieval medicine and still exists in

folk medicine the world over (Lev 2003). In general,

domestic animals were used as these were most readily

available, but their usage when compared to raw

materials of plant origin was significantly less. In the

prescriptions of the CMC, the most frequently men-

tioned are: honey (46), chicken products (29), and wax

(30). An important ingredient in a significant number

of medicines described in the CMC was beeswax,

which was particularly suitable for making poultices,

while honey has been considered a universal medicine

since ancient times. Beeswax was used in combination

with other medicinal substances for treating skin

diseases, bronchopneumonia, sinusitis, rheumatoid

arthritis, and toothache, and as an astringent, anti-

asthmatic, stomachic, and antitussive, and for improv-

ing circulation. Honey had a wide use in the prepa-

ration of simple and compound medicines and was

also used as a protective substance rubbed onto the

skin before the application of a poultice, most often in

combination with medicines with more powerful

pharmacological effects. Due to its properties, it was

most often used as a carminative, digestive, tonic,

laxative, and purgative (in cases involving high

temperatures), and for treating phlegmons, body

detoxification, and for cosmetic purposes. In the

Manuscript on simple medicines, it is stated that

honey can keep its beneficial properties for up to

100 years (CMC, p. 59a). Likewise, the significant use

of wax and honey is stated in literary sources from the

early Muslim period (tenth century) to the late

Ottoman period (nineteenth century) in the Levant

(Lev 2003). According to these sources, honey was

most often used for treating skin, eye, and stomach

diseases, haemorrhoids, burns, and wounds, and for

strengthening and cleaning the stomach and lungs,

while wax was used for treating haemorrhoids, burns,

and wounds.

The CMC manuscripts describe chicken products

(eggs, meat, fat) as ingredients in some medicines

which were used as tonics, anti-asthmatics, antitus-

sives, and astringents, and to treat eye diseases,

gynaecological conditions, and skin problems (freck-

les and wrinkles). A study on the use of medicinal

substances in the Levant during the Middle Ages

found that 9.5 % of all the medicinal substances were

of animal origin. They had a wide variety of uses,

including the reinforcement of potency and enhancing

libido, treating rheumatism, eye diseases, and internal

diseases (Lev 2003, 2006).

Among the inorganic substances identified in the

CMC’s pharmacological manuscripts, those most

frequently mentioned are: glass (9), salt (7), aurum

(6), litharge (6), mumie (6), orpiment (6), and

petroleum (6). Inorganic substances were found to be

used far less frequently for medical treatment than raw

materials of plant origin. The explanation for this

discrepancy probably lies in the fact that many

inorganic substances used as treatments in the past

were toxic (Lev 2006). In medieval Serbian medicine,

glass (vitrium) in the form of powder was used in

combination with other medicinal substances to treat

itchiness, freckles, and cataracts. Salt, as a medicinal

substance mentioned in the CMC manuscripts, was

used for treating eye diseases, pustules on the tongue,

sciatica, toothache, stomach ache, pains in the spleen,

and itchiness, and for improving peristalsis in the

small intestine. In medieval Ottoman al-Sham, salt

was used as a treatment for animal bites and poisons,

internal diseases and pains (Lev 2002).

In the chapter on simple medicines, gold (Aurum) is

described as a medicine of exceptional significance in

the treatment of conditions affecting the brain, heart,

stomach, and spleen, and as a preventative against

leprosy (every meal was cooked with gold ducats).

Gold boiled in broth was used to strengthen the body.

An identical prescription can be found in the work of

William Spurstowe (1659), also for strengthening,

‘which if weighed afterwards is found to lose little or

nothing of its former weight or to suffer any diminu-

tion of its substance’. In addition, in the CMC chapter

on compound medicines, there is a recipe for gold

ointment (Unguentum aureum), which was prepared

from gold powder and recommended as a treatment for

all kinds of colds and arthritis. The composition of this


123

ointment is very complex and is one of the most

complicated recipes in the CMC as it comprised over

60 substances. Due to damage to the original manu-

script, some of the ingredients for this recipe are

missing. This medicine had multiple pharmacological

benefits, particularly when used as a poultice, which

was put on the loins for those suffering from kidney

problems or nephrolithiasis (Subaric-Georgieva

2007). Likewise, gold was the main ingredient of

gold pills, which were used for treating short-sighted-

ness and mental unburdening. Belief in the magic

powers of metallic gold clearly influenced the early

practice of medicine if Chinese texts from 2500BC are

accepted as credible (Burnett 1879). For at least two

millennia, ayurvedic physicians in India have used

preparations of very fine metallic gold powder ‘Swar-

ma bhasma’ (gold ash) to treat a variety of ailments,

including asthma and arthritis (Brown et al. 2007).

Great importance was placed on the dosage of the

medicine being used. A good example is fragrant hel-

lebore, whose toxic properties were well-known even

at that time. Two species of hellebore (Helleborus

odorus and Helleborus niger) are mentioned in the

CMC (CMC, p. 196b). Black hellebore purges the

body of phlegmons, while it can also be used for

detoxification when mixed with white hellebore.

However, it is emphasised that these plants should

under no circumstances be given to people with weak

constitutions as they can have undesirable side-effects.

In addition, those medicines suitable for children are

presented with exact instructions on how to use them

and the dosage. Similarly, in one prescription from

1562, it is mentioned that giving a person just one sip

of a mixture of equal amounts of henbane (Hyosci-

amus niger) and opium poppy (Papaver somniferum)

can cause drowsiness, and there is also a precise

remark on the dosage that should be given, i.e. ‘If you

want him to sleep less, give him less’ (Norton 2005). In

the CMC, the exact dose for specific ailments is given,

i.e. the dosage that should be taken, when and how it

should be taken, as well as what should be avoided in

certain cases. It is certainly interesting to note that in

some regions of the Western Balkans H. odorus and H.

niger are still used today, mainly for treating skin

diseases (Mustafa et al. 2012a, 2012b; Menkovic et al.

2011). Henbane (CMC, p. 128a) and opium poppy

(CMC, p. 154a) were important medicinal plants in

medieval Serbia (Table 1), but only Hyosciamus niger

is used today (as an anti-asthmatic and sedative) and

even then only in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Saric-

Kundalic et al. 2011; Redzic 2007).

In medieval Serbia, up until the appearance of the

first pharmacies and pharmacists, physicians prepared

medicines themselves, following the prescriptions that

existed at the time. Ointments and oils were kept in

glass jars until they were used. The most frequent

measures for the weight of a medicine were uncia (a

twelfth of a litre) and aksag (a sixth of an uncia). Litre

in the Middle Ages was both a measurement of weight

and volume (Cirkovic 1974).

Conclusions

Analysis of the pharmacological manuscripts of the

CMC collection revealed that the main ingredients of

medicines were substances of plant origin. Inorganic

substances and substances of animal origin were found

to be used far less frequently in medical treatments.

Most medicines were named according to the

botanical name of their main ingredient; thus, in

chapter on simple medicine there are 119 medicines

whereas in the chapter on compound medicines there

are 15 medicines named after certain plant species,

which points to a high level of knowledge of their

botanical and pharmacological properties. The con-

tents of the manuscripts analysed highlight a sound

familiarity with the diversity of plant species, their

origins, the degree of their healing powers, and how

they should be collected and prepared, as well as the

recommended doses for treating specific illnesses. As

these manuscripts contain not only common, lay

terms for plants, but also scientific, botanical ones,

we can consider them the precursor to Serbian

botany.

Of the 125 medicines named after plant species

described in the CMC, 90 plant species were native,

while the rest were imported. An analysis of contem-

porary literature on ethnobotany and ethnomedicine in

the Western Balkans shows that of these 90 plant

species, 52 (60.5 %) are used in folk medicine today.

The unbroken tradition of the use of some medicines is

proof enough of their healing properties. For this

reason, some plants (Allium sativum, Juniperus com-

munis, Prunus domestica, Pyrus communis, Thymus

serpyllum) have deservingly earned the epithet ‘pan-

acea’, and hence in Serbia can always be found at

markets and in pharmacies.


123

The traditional knowledge that we recorded is

demonstrative of the remarkable intangible natural

and cultural heritage of the area. The ethnobotanical

data recorded provides an interesting basis for further

phytotherapeutical research, for fostering sustainable

uses of plant resources and also for promoting local

biocultural diversity. The focus should be on much

lesser-known plants, which have been used for cen-

turies in traditional therapy in the region and therefore

may be potential sources for new therapies. This is

also important for studies on plant genetic resources

since most of the medicinal plants available now on

the European and world markets come from south-

eastern Europe, meaning the conservation of this

genetic heritage is crucial for the future of the herbal

market.

Acknowledgments This paper was supported by the Ministry

of Education, Science and Technological Development of

Serbia, Grant no. 173018. Two of the anonymous reviewers

gave valuable comments for the improvement of this paper and

are gratefully acknowledged. We are grateful to Ljiljana

Puzovic from the National Library of Serbia, Department of

Archaeography. We also thank Jonathan Pendlebury, lector at

Belgrade University’s Faculty of Philology, for proofreading

this paper.

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