policing belief

Policing Belief

THE IMPACT OF BlAsPHEMy lAws On HuMAn RIgHTs

A F R E E D O M H O U S E S P E C I A L R E P O R T

69

PakistanIntroductIon

TheissueofblasphemylawsandotherrestrictionsonfreedomofexpressioninPakistanconsistentlygarnersheadlines,withcontroversialdecisionsrangingfromaMay2010banonaccesstothesocial-networkingwebsiteFacebookandthevideo-sharingsiteYouTubetotheimpositionofdeathsentencesforblasphe-myconvictions.1Minorityleadersandhumanrightsgroupshavelongcriticizedthecountry’sblasphemylawsforbeingundulyharsh,arguingthattheyareregu-larlyexploitedbyextremiststotargetanddiscriminateagainstminoritygroups,andmisusedbyotherstosettlepettydisputesorexactpersonalvengeance.

Theblasphemy lawscanbe found in thePakistanPenalCode(PPC),Sec-tionXV,Articles295–298.Theyaddressanumberofoffenses,includingdefilingaplaceofworship,damagingtheQuran,andwhatamountstoapostasy.Perpe-tratorsfacepossiblefines,short-termorlifeimprisonment,andeventhedeathpenalty;whileseveral individualshavebeensentencedtodeathforblasphemy,noonehasyetbeenexecutedforthecrime.2Themajorityofcasesofblasphemyfiled inPakistanfallunderArticles295or298of thePPC.Theseare themoststringentprovisions inSectionXV,and the leastcompatiblewith internationallegalstandards.

Accordingtodatacompiledbynongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)andcitedbytheU.S.StateDepartment,a totalof695peoplewereaccusedofblas-phemyinPakistanbetween1986andApril2006.Ofthose,362wereMuslims,239wereAhmadis,86wereChristians,and10wereHindus.3ThePakistanidailynewspaper Dawn has reported that some 5,000 cases were registered between1984to2004,and964peoplewerechargedwithblasphemy.Thereligiousbreak-downofthedefendantswassimilartothatcitedbytheStateDepartment.4ThepopulationofPakistanisestimatedat173millionpeople,5andaccordingtothe

70 policing belief: The impacT of blasphemy laws on human RighTs

1998census,97percentofthepopulationisMuslim;mostareSunniMuslims,withShiiteMuslimsaccountingforabout20percent.Theremaining3percentofthepopulationismadeupofHindus,Christians,Ahmadis,Parsis,andBaha’is.6

Fromthesefigures, it is clear thatPakistan’sblasphemy lawsareusedpro-lifically and applied disproportionately to non-Muslims. Although many othercountrieshavelawsagainstblasphemy,thesituationinPakistanisuniqueinitsseverityanditsparticulareffectsonreligiousminorities.

Background

Overthepastseveraldecades,PakistanhasundergoneaprocessofIslamiza-tioninlawandsocietyandadeclineinrespectforpluralisticideals.ThecountrywasformedasaMuslimhomelandin1947,followingtheendofBritishcolonialruleintheIndiansubcontinent.Sinceindependence,ithasseenconsiderablepo-liticalinstability,withfrequentchangesingovernmentthroughdemocraticelec-tionsaswellasmilitarycoups.ThoughitwasformedasastateforMuslims,Paki-stanwasnotinitiallyanIslamicstateinthestrictestsense.However,thepoliticallandscapehasbeenheavilyinfluencedbytheulama,orMuslimclericalelite,whohavesoughttobringPakistanilawintocompliancewiththeirinterpretationsofShari’a(Islamiclaw).7

TheObjectivesResolution,passedin1949bynewlyindependentPakistan’sConstituentAssemblytohelpguidetheprocessofdraftingaconstitution,offi-ciallyproclaimedthatthe“principlesofdemocracy,freedom,equality,toleranceandsocialjusticeasenunciatedbyIslamshallbefullyobserved.”Thedocumentalsoemphasizedanddefendedpluralism,minorityrights,andfreedomofexpres-sionandbelief.8

In1956,Pakistan’sfirstconstitutionwasadopted,andthoughitdiddeclarePakistan to be a state “based on Islamic principles of social justice,” it did notmakeanyexplicitreferencetoShari’aastheauthoritativesourceforPakistanilaw.Theconstitution includeda “repugnancy”clause, stipulating that “no lawshallbeenactedwhich is repugnant to the injunctionsof Islamas laiddown in theHolyQuranandSunnah,”butnogovernmentalbodywasestablishedtoenforcethis.9The1956constitutionwasdissolvedaftertwoyearswhenthemilitaryseizedpower.Anewconstitutionadoptedin1962didnotincludearepugnancyclauseandhadfewerreferencestoPakistanasanIslamicstate.

a fReedom house special RepoRT Pakistan 71

MountingpressurefromtheulamaandothersinfavoroftheIslamizationofPakistan’slawsledtoconstitutionalamendmentsin1964,includingtheadditionofanew,stricterrepugnancyclause:“NolawshallberepugnanttotheteachingsandrequirementsofIslamassetoutintheHolyQuranandSunnah,andallexist-inglawsshallbebroughtintoconformitytherewith.”10AnAdvisoryCouncilofIslamicIdeologywasestablishedtoimplementthisclause.11

In1973,followingawarinwhichEastPakistanbrokeawaytoformwhatisnowBangladesh,anewciviliangovernmenttookpowerinPakistanandanewconstitution was drafted. Under this charter, the Advisory Council of IslamicIdeologywasrenamedtheCouncilofIslamicIdeology,anditsmandatewasex-panded to include the taskofadvisingParliamentandprovincialgovernmentson“whetherornotacertainlawisrepugnanttoIslam,namelytheQuranandSunnah.”12In1974,theconstitutionwasamendedtoaddaprovisionthatdefined“Muslim”toexcludegroupsthatwereseenasheretical,13suchasAhmadis,whoconsiderthemselvesMuslimsdespitetheirheterodoxbeliefs.14

GeneralMuhammadZiaul-Haq,whoruledfrom1977to1988,continuedandarguablyacceleratedtheIslamizationprocessashesoughttosecuresupportamongreligiousradicalsandthemiddleclasses.15Duringthisperiod, thePPCandtheCodeofCriminalProcedureunderwentaseriesofchanges,includingtheimpositionof theHudoodOrdinance,whichallowsharshShari’apunishmentsforextramaritalsex,theft,andviolationsoftheprohibitionofalcohol.Fiveor-dinanceswereaddedtothePPCthatexplicitlytargetedreligiousminoritiesandcriminalizedblasphemy.Inaddition,Shari’abencheswereintroducedintoSupe-riorCourtsthroughaconstitutionalamendment.Thesebenchesweresoonre-placedbytheFederalShari’aCourt,whosemandateincludesreviewingallPaki-stanilaws,withtheexceptionoftheconstitution,forcompliancewithShari’a.16

ThoughthePPChadalwaysfeaturedprovisionsaddressingoffensestoreli-gion,theIslam-specificarticleswereadoptedonlyin1982.AndthepunishmentsforblasphemyandotherreligiousoffenseswereamendedduringtheZiaadminis-trationtoincludethepossibilityoflifeimprisonmentandthedeathpenalty.Mostofthesechangesweremadebypresidentialdecree.

ThedriftawayfrompluralisminPakistanhashadsevereconsequencesforminoritiesand religious freedom ingeneral. Ithas createdanatmosphere thatencouragesintoleranceandviolence,andtheincreasedinfluenceofreligiousex-tremistsinthepoliticalsystemhascompromisedtheabilityoflower-leveljudges,police,andgovernmentofficialstoupholdpluralisticvalues.Asonecommentatorpointedout,“Itis…theresponsibilityoftheelectedpoliticianstoprovidethelaw


andorderwithoutwhichnojudiciarycanwork.Today,forinstance,ajudgeinthedistrictsdarenotreleasethevictimsofblasphemyforfearofbeingharmedbyviolentmullahs.”17Theinfluenceofreligiousextremistshasalsopreventedbothelectedandunelectedgovernments fromworking toamendor repealharmfullawsinanysubstantiveway.FormerPrimeMinisterBenazirBhuttoandformermilitaryrulerPervezMusharrafbothexpressedtheircommitmenttoamendingthereligious laws,butbacktracked in the faceofdemonstrationsbyextremistsandpressurefromMuslimclerics.18UnderMusharraf,whoruledfrom1999to2008,anewamendmentrequiredpolicetoinvestigateblasphemyallegationsbe-foremakinganarrest,butthisruleisrarelyobservedinpractice.

InFebruary2010,MinisterofMinorityAffairsShahbazBhattitoldtheme-diathatheexpectedachangeintheblasphemylawsbytheendoftheyear.19Theproposed amendments would require judges to investigate cases of blasphemybefore theyare registered,andwould imposepunishmentsequivalent to thosefacedbyblasphemersforfalseaccusations.20AttheEuropeanParliamentinMay2010,Bhattireiteratedhisconfidencethatthelawswouldbeamendedbytheendof2010,andstatedthatPakistaniauthoritieshave“madeacommitmenttoamendtheselaws.”21

Atthesametime,Pakistan’sgovernmenthasconsistentlysupportedUNHu-manRightsCouncilresolutionson“defamationofreligions,”whichaimtopro-tectreligionsassuchfrominsultoroffense.Thisefforthasbeencondemnedbyhumanrightsgroupsasathreattofreedomofexpressionandotherfundamen-talrights.22SincePakistanintroducedthefirstresolutionin1999,ithasactivelyadvocatedforthe“defamationofreligions”conceptinotherUNforumsaswell,includingtheDurbanReviewConference;theAdHocCommitteeonComple-mentaryStandards;andthe2008OfficeoftheHighCommissionerforHumanRightsConferenceonArticles19and20oftheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(ICCPR).

Bl asphemy l aws

TheblasphemylawsinSectionXVofthePPCarequiteexpansive.Inaddi-tiontoprohibitingexpressionthatisintendedtowound“religiousfeelings,”anddeliberateormaliciousactsintendedto“outragereligiousfeelingsofanyclassbyinsultingitsreligionorreligiousbeliefs,”theblasphemylawsspecificallyprohibitdefilingtheQuranandinsultingtheprophetMuhammadoranyofhiswives,fam-


ily,orcompanions.The“misuseofepithets,descriptions,andtitles,etc.”thatarereservedfor“holypersonagesorplaces”isalsoprohibited.TheselawswereaddedtothePPCbetween1980and1986,withthemoststringentamendmentbeingadoptedin1986.Article295(C)madeitanoffensepunishablebylifeimprison-mentordeathtouseanyderogatorylanguageabouttheprophetMuhammad.In1991,theFederalShari’aCourtruledthatthepunishmentforthisoffenseshouldbeharsher,andArticle295(C)wasamendedtomakethedeathpenaltymanda-toryforindividualsconvictedofmakingderogatoryremarksabouttheprophet.23

IncompatibilitywithInternationalLawPakistan’sblasphemylawsareincompatiblewithinternationalhumanrights

standardsnotonlybecausetheyimposeunduerestrictionsonfreedomofexpres-sion,freedomofreligion,andotherhumanrights,butalsobecausetheyaredis-criminatoryintheireffect.Moreover,theylackthenecessarysafeguardsagainstabuse,providingnocleardefinitionofwhatconstitutesblasphemy,weakeviden-tiarystandardsforconvictionsinlowercourts,andnomens rea(criminalintent)requirement.24Thismakesitpossibleforthelawstobeexploitedtopersecutemi-noritiesorexactrevengeinpersonaldisputes.Theblasphemylawshavealsobeeninvokedtoinstigateandjustifysectarianorcommunalconflict,withallegationsofblasphemyoftenservingasthetriggerformobviolencethathasinsomecasesbeenimplicitly,ifnotexplicitly,condonedbypoliceandgovernmentofficials.

PakistanformallyratifiedtheICCPRinJune2010,pledgingitscommitmentto the treaty’sprotections.Manyof the rightsviolatedbyPakistan’sblasphemylawsarealsoenshrinedintheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,andarenominallyprotectedbythePakistaniconstitutionandotherdomesticlegislation.

LackofClarityDespitetheirharshpenalties,theblasphemylawsprovidenoclearguidance

onwhatconstitutesaviolation.Thisdeterminationislefttopoliceandjudicialof-ficialstomake,oftenrelyingontheirownpersonalbeliefsandinterpretationsofIslam.Asonecommentatorhasargued,“interpretingwhatfallsunderPakistan’santi-blasphemy laws is essentially a theological question and, since there is noblack-letterdefinitionof thecrime in theQuranorotherauthoritative Islamicsources,itisonethatremainsunsettled.”25Thevaguenessofthelawslendtotheirutilityforsettlingpersonalvendettasandtargetingreligiousminoritiesatwill.

Inaddition,Pakistan’sblasphemylawsfailtoconsistentlydistinguishbetweenmalicious,deliberateactsofblasphemyandunintendedones—adistinctionnor-


mallyprovided for in criminal law.WhileArticles295and295(A) specify thecriminalizationof“deliberateandmalicious”acts,oractsintended“toinsultthereligionofanyclass,”theotherarticlesinSectionXVofthePPCdonotincludeanysuchlanguage.

TheeffectsofthisshortcominginthelawareapparentinthecaseofAnwarKenneth,aPakistaniChristianwhowasarrestedandchargedwithblasphemyin2001fordistributingaChristianpamphletanddeclaringthatMuhammadwasafalseprophet,oneofthemostseriousformsofblasphemyinPakistan.26Ken-nethalsoclaimedhewasareincarnationofJesusChrist,andthathehadreceivedrevelationsfromGod.27Accordingtoanumberofsourcesclosetothecase,hesufferedfromseverepsychiatricproblems.28Hislawyer,SaadiaKhalid,reportedlyrequestedanexamtodeterminewhetherhewasmentallyfittostandtrial,buttherequestwasdenied.ThejudgearguedthatKenneth’smentalstatuswasirrelevantashehadalreadyadmittedtodeclaringthatMuhammadwasafalseprophet.29Khalid reportedly insisted that the allegedly blasphemous statements were not“thehatefulsacrilegeofaninfidel,butthedementedravingsofasickman.”30Nev-ertheless,inJuly2002Kennethwassentencedtodeath.31Authoritativeinterpreta-tionsofinternationallawsince1999havestipulatedthatthedeathpenaltyshouldnotbeapplicabletopersonssufferingfrommentalretardation,mentaldisorder,orlimitedmentalcompetence.32

LackofSafeguardstoPreventAbusePakistan’sblasphemylawsareroutinelyusedtoexactrevenge,applypressure

inbusinessorlanddisputes,andforothermattersentirelyunrelatedtoblasphe-my.Criticsrangingfromacademicstocivilsocietyactivistsandjournalistshavearguedthatinmostinstances,chargesofblasphemyareleveledforulteriormo-tives.33

InSeptember2006,policerefusedtoregisteracaseofallegedtheftbySha-hidMasihandMohammadGhaffarduetoinsufficientevidenceprovidedbythecomplainant, Arshad Khan.34 According to the Asian Commission for HumanRights,policeadvisedKhanto instead lodgeacomplaintofblasphemyagainstthem.35HesubsequentlyfiledapolicereportallegingthatthetwomenhadstolenandburnedanIslamicreligioustext.Despiteknowingthatthechargeswerefab-ricated,thepolicearrestedMasihandGhaffarforblasphemyunderSectionXVofthePPC.36Bothmenwereeventuallyacquittedofthechargesandreleased.37Inanothercase,ParvezMasih,theheadmasterofaChristianhighschoolinSialkot,wasarrestedin2001forallegedblasphemyunderArticle295(C).38Accordingto


numerousreports,MohammedIbrahim,theownerofanotherschoolinthearea,fabricatedtheaccusationduetohisdispleasurewiththecompetitioncreatedbyMasih’sschool.39

Thelowevidentiarythresholdrequiredtoregistercasesofblasphemy,coupledwiththesensitivenatureofthecrime,exacerbatesthelaws’potentialforabuse.Until2004,whenalegalamendmentbeganrequiringaseniorpoliceofficialtoconductaninvestigationbeforearrestingasuspectonblasphemycharges,anin-dividualcouldbechargedandarrestedbasedsolelyontheaccusationofareliableperson.40Inapositiverulingin2007,thePunjabHighCourtfoundablasphemycaseagainstdefendantMuhammadShariftobeinadmissible,citingthefailureofthepolicetoinvestigateandsubstantiatetheallegations.41However,thisappearstohavebeenanexceptionratherthanthenorm.Insomecases,policeofficersmaylacktheresourcesnecessarytocarryouteffectiveinvestigations.Therehavealsobeenreportsofalackofwillingnesstoinvestigatetheallegations.PoliceofficershaveallegedlybeenharassedandintimidatedbyIslamicradicalswhodemandthearrestofsuspectedblasphemersregardlessofwhethertheaccusationshavebeensubstantiated.

ThiskindofpressurewasreportedinthecaseofRobinSardar,whowasar-restedonblasphemychargesin2008.Hisaccuserhadtriedtosetupashoestalloutside of Sardar’s medical practice but was told to remove it. He then filed acomplaintclaimingthatthedoctorhadblasphemedagainsttheprophetMuham-madandthreatenedtoburndownSardar’shouseandkillhisfamilyifpolicedidnotarresthim.Sardarwas thenarrestedandchargedwithoutanypreliminaryinvestigation.42

InanotherexamplefromJanuary2009,fivemembersoftheAhmadiyyacom-munity were arrested in Punjab for allegedly writing the name of the prophetMuhammadonabathroomwallatamosque.43Severalreportsontheincidenthave indicated that therewasnoevidence implicating thearrested individuals,and police did not carry out any investigation prior to their arrest. AccordingtotheAsianHumanRightsCommission(AHRC),militantIslamistspressuredpolicetodetainthefiveAhmadis,threateningto“closedownthewholecityandattackthehousesofAhmadisectmembers.”44

IntimidationbyIslamicextremiststakesplaceatthetrialstageaswell.Law-yerswhohaverefusedtoprosecutecasesofallegedblasphemyhavebeenharassed,threatened,andevensubjectedtoviolence.Asaresult,judicialofficialshavebeenknowntotakecomplaintsofblasphemyatfacevalue,demandingnoinvestigationorcriticalassessmentofthefactsbyauthoritiesandeffectivelyviolatingtherights


toa fair trial anddueprocess.Theseriouspunishmentsat stake in suchcasesmaketheproceduralshortcomingsevenmoreproblematic.

DisproportionatePenaltiesThepenaltiesforviolatingPakistan’sblasphemylawsareexcessivelysevere,

givingrisetoarangeofpossiblehumanrightsviolations.Asnotedabove,Paki-stan’sFederalShariatCourtruledin1991thatthepunishmentforblasphemingagainsttheprophetMuhammadis“deathandnothingelse.”45Manydefendantshavebeensentencedtodeathonblasphemycharges,andalthoughnonehaveyetbeenexecutedforthiscrime,severalremainondeathrow.

Thedeathpenaltyhasnotbeenbannedbyinternationallaw,buttheUnitedNationshassetimportantandnecessarylimitationsonitsapplication,reservingitonlyfor“themostseriouscrimes.”46TheUNHumanRightsCouncilhasrou-tinelyinterpreted“themostseriouscrimes”tomeanthoseoffensesthatresultinlossoflife.47TheUNHumanRightsCommittee’sGeneralComment6similarlystates that the committee “is of the opinion that the expression ‘most seriouscrimes’ must be read restrictively to mean that the death penalty should be aquiteexceptionalmeasure.”48TheUNspecialrapporteuronextrajudicial,sum-maryorarbitraryexecutionshasfoundthatundernocircumstancesandfornooffenseisamandatorydeathpenaltyevercompatiblewithinternationalhumanrights law.49Inthesamestudy,thespecialrapporteurcitedinstancesinwhichtheHumanRightsCouncilhasarticulateditsconcernthatcrimescarryingthedeathpenaltyare“excessivelyvague,”“looselydefined,”and“couchedintermssobroadthattheimpositionofthedeathpenaltymaybesubjecttoessentiallysubjectivecriteria.”50Article295(C)ofthePPCsuffersfromalloftheseshort-comings.Andastheformerspecialrapporteurforfreedomofreligionorbeliefhasstated,“applyingthedeathpenaltyforblasphemyappearsdisproportionateandevenunacceptable.”51

Asdescribedabove,dueprocessandfairtrialprotectionsareoftenlackinginblasphemycases,andtheUNmemberstateshavemadeclearthatsuchguaran-teesareessentialwhendealingwiththedeathpenalty:“Capitalpunishmentmayonlybecarriedoutpursuanttoafinaljudgmentrenderedbyacompetentcourtafterlegalprocesswhichgivesallpossiblesafeguardstoensureafairtrial,atleastequaltothosecontainedinarticle14oftheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights.”52


Impact on the enjoyment of human rIght s

FreedomfromDiscriminationTheoverarchinghumanrightsviolationresultingfromPakistan’sblasphemy

laws is discrimination based on religion or belief. The laws serve to legitimizediscriminatorypractices,enablingextremistsandopportuniststousetheforcesofthestateagainstmembersofminorityfaiths.AstheInstituteonReligionandPublicPolicyhasargued,“theygivethespiritofintoleranceameanstoanend.”53Moreover,thediscriminationismultilayered.Thelawsaswrittenarethemselvesdiscriminatory (specifically against Ahmadis), they are misused to target reli-giousminoritygroupsfortheirbeliefs,andthosefacingblasphemyaccusationsencounterfurtherhostilityfromsocietyasaresultofthestigmaassociatedwiththecharge.

Asnotedabove,theratioofMuslimstonon-Muslimsamongblasphemyde-fendantsillustratestheextenttowhichtheselawsareusedtopersecutereligiousminorities.Pakistan’sministerforminorityaffairs,ShahbazBhatti,haspubliclyarguedthat“theblasphemylawisbeingusedtoterrorizeminoritiesinPakistan.”54Ahmadisarethemostaffected,followedbyChristians.

However,Muslimsarenotexempt.AlmosthalfofallblasphemycaseslodgedoverthelasttwodecadeshavebeenagainstMuslims,includingbothSunnisandShiites.TheHumanRightsCommissionofPakistan (HRCP) reported in2006thatwhileminoritygroupswereoftenvictimsoffalseblasphemyaccusations,“thenumberofinstancesinwhich[blasphemylaws]wereabusedtosettlepettyscoreswithotherMuslimshadrisensharplyoverthepastyears.”55ShiiteMuslimsareareligiousminorityintheirownright,andtheyhavefacedperiodicattacksbySunniextremists.56However,theuseofblasphemylawsagainstSunniandShiiteMuslimsdoesnotappeartobebasedonsectariandifferencessomuchaspersonaldisputes.

Regardlessofthemotivesbehindtheirchargesandtheoutcomeoftheircas-es,thoseaccusedofblasphemyaresubjecttojobdiscrimination,ostracismfromtheircommunitiesandneighborhoods,andevenphysicalviolenceandmurderatthehandsofangrymobs,forcingmanytoliveinfear.57ThecaseofAnwarMa-sih,aChristianinLahorewhowaschargedwithblasphemyin2003,providesanexampleofsuchstigmatization.In2004,followinghistrialproceedings,Masihwasacquittedofallchargesandreleasedfromjail,buthewasforcedtogointohidingasaresultofdeaththreats.58In2007,hewasfiredfromhisjobatafactory,reportedlybecausehisemployerwasthreatenedbyreligiousextremistsforhiring


ablasphemer.59AccordingtotheNGOInternationalChristianConcern,Masihwasthencompelledtomovefromvillagetovillageoutofsafetyconcerns,andfacedseriousdifficultiesinfindingemployment.60Inaseparatecase,twoChris-tianswhowerechargedwithblasphemyin1999andeventuallyacquittedin2006reportedlyfacedpovertyandunemploymentasaresultoftheirordeal.61

Suchdiscriminationisexperiencednotonlybytheaccusedblasphemers,butalsobytheirfamilies,whoinsomecaseshavebeenforcedtofleetheirhomesandgointohiding.TheexperienceofphysiologyprofessorYounusShaikh,describedindetailintheboxbelow,isacaseinpoint.Followinghisacquittalonblasphemychargesandreleasefromjail,Shaikhreportedreceivingnumerousdeaththreatsfromtheclericswhohadbeeninvolvedinbringingthechargesagainsthim.Fear-ingforhissafety,hewasforcedtofleetoEuropeandultimatelysecuredasyluminSwitzerland.ParvezMasih,theChristianheadmaster,wasalsoforcedtoliveinhidingfollowinghisacquittalonblasphemycharges.AccordingtotheU.S.StateDepartment,MasihtoldASSISTNewsService,“Iamforcedtostayinhiding.Icannotmoveinanypublicplace.FearingattacksbythefundamentalistMuslims,evenmyrelativeshaveabandonedmeandtheynolongerentertainme.”62Inan-otherexample,ShahidMasih,whoalongwithMohammadGhaffarwas falselyaccusedofdefilingareligioustext,wasreleasedonbailfourmonthsafterhisar-restandwhilehistrialwasstillongoing.HewasreportedlyunabletolivewithhisfamilyduringhistrialforfearthattheirhousewouldbeattackedbyMuslimextremists.63 The AHRC reported that following the accusations against Masihandhiscodefendant,angrymobsbesiegedtheirhousesandthreatenedtheirfam-ilies.64AccordingtotheU.S.CommissiononInternationalReligiousFreedom,“invirtuallyallcasesthoseacquittedhavebeenforcedintohidingorevenexile,outoffearofattacksbyreligiouslymotivatedextremists.”65

FreedomofExpressionWhiletheyarenottheonlyprovisionsinPakistan’slegalsystemthatimpose

restrictionsonfreedomofexpression,theblasphemylawsfoundinSectionXVofthePPCclearlybreachthefreeexpressionguaranteesfoundinArticle19oftheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsandArticles19and20oftheICCPR.66

Theexplicitpurposeofthelawsistorestrictcertainformsofspeechandexpres-sion,andtheyareusedtojustifythebanningofbooks,movies,andothermedia,creatinganenvironmentconducivetointoleranceandsectariantension.67

WriterMohammedYounusShaikhpublishedabookentitledSatanic Clericinwhichhearguedthatdeathbystoningasapunishmentforadulterywasnot


mentioned in theQuranandallegedly insultedhistorical imamsbydescribingthemasJews.HewasarrestedinAugust2005andchargedhimwithblasphemy,andwas eventually convictedand sentenced to life inprison.Heappealed theverdictbuthiscasewasstillpendingin20.71

the Case OF YOUnUs shaikh

The case of younus shaikh, which drew much international attention, serves as a

striking example of the broad range of human rights violations that result from paki-

stan’s blasphemy laws. shaikh, a professor at a medical college in islamabad, was ar-

rested and detained on charges of blasphemy in october 2000. he was accused by one

of his students of violating article 295(c) of the pakistani penal code by making de-

rogatory remarks about the prophet muhammad. shaikh spent three years in detention

while his case unfolded, including two and a half years in solitary confinement.68

during his detention, shaikh articulated his belief that the case was not really about

any blasphemous remarks, but rather was a result of his political views on Kashmir, the

disputed territory that remains divided between pakistan and india.69 according to the

international humanist and ethical union and a letter written by shaikh from prison, he

had attended a meeting of the south asian union just days before his arrest on blas-

phemy charges. at the gathering, which was addressed by an official from pakistan’s

military intelligence service, shaikh expressed his view that the line of control between

india and pakistan in Kashmir should be recognized as the permanent international

border.70 Two days later, one of shaikh’s students, who was also a foreign office employ-

ee at the meeting, prepared the blasphemy case against him and took it to a muslim

cleric, who added further details and filed the case with the police.

The lower court that first heard the case found the cleric’s evidence to be hear-

say and uncorroborated, and the student who initiated the complaint was found to

have been absent on october 2, the day of the lecture in which shaikh supposedly

made the blasphemous remarks. however, two other students then came forward

and claimed that they heard the remarks. shaikh presented evidence to show that he

did not give any lectures at the stated time on october 2, arguing not only that the

incident never took place, but also that there was no evidence to prove that any of his

remarks at any time were blasphemous.

nevertheless, shaikh was found guilty of violating article 295(c) and sentenced to

death. he and others have described the severe intimidation by religious extremists

that took place during the trial. his lawyers were reportedly threatened so much that

the proceedings had to be moved to the central jail in Rawalpindi. shaikh appealed

the verdict, and a retrial was ordered. in november 2003, following two hearings of his

retrial, he was acquitted of all charges and released from jail. fearing for his safety, the

judge ordered that his release take place in secret, and he was offered a police body-

guard. shaikh lived in hiding in pakistan for several months before securing asylum in

switzerland.


The blasphemy laws have also been used to censor journalists.72 MunawarMohsin,asubeditor for thePakistanidaily theFrontier Post,waschargedwithblasphemyin2001andsentencedtolifeinprisonforprintingalettercontainingblasphemousmaterialontheeditorialpageofthepaper.Theletterwasreportedlyentitled“WhyMuslimsHateJews”andincludedderogatoryremarksabouttheprophetMuhammad.PolicealsoarrestedsixotherstaffersfromtheFrontier Post,butMohsinwassingledoutinajudicialinvestigationasthepersonresponsibleforprintingtheletter.73Itisnoteworthythattheinvestigationcameonlyafterthesevenarrests.Mohsinbecamethefocusofthecasedespiteadoctor’sfindingthathewasunfitfortrialduetohismentalstate.HehadbeenreleasedfromPeshawarMentalHospitaldaysbeforetheincident,74whichmarkedthefirsttimehewastasked with selecting letters and articles to appear on the editorial page.75 Theothersixdefendantsinthecasewereacquitted.76

InMay2010,aPakistanicourtappliedtheblasphemylawstoonlinecontent,orderingabanonthepopularwebsitesFacebookandYouTube.77TheblockonFacebookwastriggeredbyapagepromotingacompetitiontodrawtheprophetMuhammad,whichsomeMuslimsconsiderblasphemous.78

FreedomofReligionAlthoughPakistanwascreatedasastateforMuslims,itwasnotanIslamic

stateatthetimeofitsindependencein1947.Thecountry’sfoundingfather,Mo-hammed Ali Jinnah, emphasized the importance of freedom of religion in hisspeechtotheopeningsessionoftheConstituentAssemblyofPakistan:

“Youarefree;youarefreetogotoyourtemples,youarefreetogotoyourmosquesortoanyotherplaceorworshipinthisStateofPakistan.YoumaybelongtoanyreligionorcasteorcreedthathasnothingtodowiththebusinessoftheState….Wearestartinginthedayswherethereisnodiscrimination,nodistinctionbetweenonecommunityandanother,nodiscriminationbetweenonecasteorcreedandanother.WearestartingwiththisfundamentalprinciplethatweareallcitizensandequalcitizensofoneState.”79

Intoday’sPakistan,however,intoleranceisendorsedandevenencouragedbystringentlawsthatdiscriminateagainstreligiousminoritiesandevencriminalizethereligiouspracticesoftheAhmadiyyacommunity.

Becausetheblasphemylawsaresoopentoabuseandaredisproportionately


usedtotargetreligiousminorities,membersofminorityfaithsareunabletoprac-ticeopenlyandfreelywithoutfearofpersecution.However,whileShiitesareaminority,theyareasignificantlylargeronethantheChristians,Hindus,Ahmadis,andothergroups,andtheydonotappeartofacethesamedegreeofdiscrimina-tionas theotherswhen itcomes to theblasphemy laws.ShiitesaresometimesprosecutedincasesinstigatedbySunniextremists,butinmanyinstancesthelawsareinvokedbyfellowbelieversinthecontextofpersonaldisputes.

There are a few particularly notable blasphemy cases involving non-SunniMuslimdefendants.In1998,GhulamAkbar,aShiite,wasarrestedandconvictedofblasphemy forallegedlyusing thenameof theprophetMuhammad invainduringanaltercationataSunni-ownedrestaurantin1995.80Hereceivedaman-datorydeathsentence,reportedlymakinghimthefirstMuslimtofacethispen-alty forblasphemy.81Heappealed theverdictbutremains in jailwhilehiscasemakesitswaythroughthecourts.82Inanothercase,SufiMuslimspiritualleaderMohammedYusufAliwasconvictedofblasphemyin2000forallegedlyclaimingtoresembletheprophet.HisreligiousteachingsweredeemedbyIslamistgroupstobe“workingagainstIslam.”83In2002,AliwasshotdeadinLahore’sKotlakpatJail,wherehewasawaitinghisdeathsentence.Hiskillerwasidentifiedasamem-berofthebannedSunnimilitantgroupSipah-e-Sahaba,whichhasbeenrespon-siblefornumerousattacksonnon-SunniMuslims.84

WhilePakistan’sblasphemy lawsaffect the religious freedomof allminor-itygroups,Ahmadisare singledout inArticles298(A) through298(C),whichequateAhmadibeliefsandpracticeswithblasphemyagainstIslam.Theseprovi-sionsarefrequentlyreferredtoastheanti-Ahmadilaws.ThoughtheyconsiderthemselvestobeMuslimsandworshipaccordingly,Ahmadisareexplicitlybarredfromreferringtotheirplacesofworshipasmosquesorworshippinginanynon-Ahmadimosquesorpublicprayerrooms.Similarly,theyareprohibitedfromus-ingtheMuslimcalltoprayer,quotingtheQuran,participatinginthepilgrimagetoMeccaortheactivitiesassociatedwiththeholymonthofRamadan,proselytiz-ing,holdinggatherings,ordistributinganyAhmadiyya-relatedliterature.More-over,anindividual’sreligionmustbeidentifiedonallgovernmentforms,suchaspassportapplicationsandvoterregistrationdocuments,andthereisnoAhmadioption.AnyonewishingtobelistedasMuslimisrequiredsignadeclarationde-nouncingthefounderofAhmadiyya.85

HumanRightsWatchhasconcludedthat“thepersecutionoftheAhmadiyyacommunityiswhollylegalized,evenencouraged,bythePakistanigovernment.”86Inaseminalcasein1993,thePakistaniSupremeCourtupheldtheanti-Ahmadi


legislation,arguingthatifanAhmadiwereallowedtoworshipinpublicasaMus-lim,hewouldbeexposedtoextremistviolence.Thecourtasked,“Canthead-ministrationinthatcaseguaranteehislife,libertyandproperty,andifso,atwhatcost?”87ManymembersoftheAhmadiyyacommunityhavebeenarrestedundertheanti-Ahmadi laws, and they face extralegalpersecutioneven if charges aredroppedortheyarereleasedonbail.Forexample,accordingtotheU.S.StateDe-partment,inJanuary2008anAhmadiinPunjabwasarrestedonchargesofdis-tributingAhmadiyya-relatedpamphlets.Hewasgrantedbailthreemonthslater,butreceivedaseriesofdeaththreatsandwasforcedtoleavethearea.88

FreedomfromArbitraryArrestandDetentionPakistan’sblasphemylawsandtheirimplementationinpracticeleadtorou-

tine violations of the right not to be held in extended arbitrary detention, asprovidedforinArticle9oftheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsandtheICCPR.Despitethe2004amendmentsrequiringapoliceinvestigationpriortoanarrest,individualsaccusedofblasphemyareroutinelyarrestedanddetainedwithoutanypreliminaryinquiry.Furthermore,thelowercourtsissueconvictionsbasedonminimalevidence,ofteninthecontextofintimidationandthreatsbyreligiousextremists.Thishas ledtoaccusedblasphemersspendingyearsinjailbeforehighercourtsoverturntheirconvictionsandclear themofallcharges.89Accordingtoonecommentator,ittakesapproximatelyeightyearsforaconvicteddefendanttobeexoneratedbytheSupremeCourt.90

Inonecase,allegedblasphemerAyubMasihwasdetainedforsixyearsbeforebeingacquitted.HewasarrestedinOctober1996afteroneofhisneighbors,withwhomhereportedlyhadadispute,claimedtohaveheardMasihutterpraiseforauthorSalmanRushdie’sSatanic Verses,abookthatwasconsideredblasphemousbymanyMuslims.Thiswasreportedtopolice,whoarrestedanddetainedMa-sih.91InApril1998,hewassentencedtodeathforinsultingtheprophetMuham-mad.In2001,theUNWorkingGrouponArbitraryDetentionissuedanopiniononMasih’scase,findingaviolationofhisrightnottobearbitrarilydetainedandhisrighttoafairtrial.92Hewaseventuallyacquittedandreleasedin2002,afterhislawyerwasabletoshowthatthesolecomplainantinthecase,Masih’sneighbor,hadforcedMasih’sfamilyoffthedisputedlandandtakenitashisown.93Similarly,YounusShaikh,thephysiologyprofessorwhoeventuallysecuredasyluminSwit-zerland,wasimprisonedforthreeyearsbeforebeingacquittedandfreed.Twoandahalfofthoseyearswerespentinsolitaryconfinementduetothreatsonhislifebyreligiousextremistinmates.


Thoughbailisallowedforblasphemycharges,judgestypicallydenybailmo-tionsoutoffearforthesuspect’ssafetyaswellastheirown.94AccordingtotheU.S. Stated Department, “lower courts frequently delayed decisions [on bail],experienced intimidation, and refused bail for fear of reprisal from extremistelements.”95 In January2009,HectorAleem, thecountrydirectorof theChris-tianhumanrightsorganizationPeaceWorldwide,wasarrestedanddetainedonchargesthathehadsentablasphemousmobile-phonetextmessagetoaMuslimcleric.Aleem’slawyersfromtheCentreforLegalAid,Assistance,andSettlement(CLAAS)wereabletoprovethatthemessageswerenotsentfromhisphone,andtheblasphemychargesweredropped.However,hewasinsteadchargedwithabet-tingblasphemy,andhisbailrequestwasdenied.96Hislawyerspetitionedforhisreleaseinlightofthereducedcharges,butAleemwasremandedintocustody“‘forhisownprotection’afterareligiousextremistlawyerthreatenedhislifeinacourthearing.”97Aleemremainedbehindbarsatthetimeofwriting,andhisfamilyhasbeenpersistentincallinginternationalattentiontohiscase.98

RighttoDueProcessBlasphemytrialsinalmostallcaseslackessentialsafeguardstoensurethatthe

accusedenjoydueprocessandafairhearing.Muslimextremistsreportedlyattendthesetrialsenmasse,harassingandintimidatingbothjudgesanddefendants.99AccordingtotheNGOChristianSolidarityWorldwide,defenselawyersalsofacedeaththreatsandphysicalassault.100InthecaseofphysiologyprofessorYounusShaikh,defenselawyersreceivedsomanythreatsthatthetrialhadtobemovedtotheRawalpindiCentralJailfortheirsafety.101InJanuary2006,religiousextrem-istsattackedandbeathumanrightslawyerParvezAslamChoudhry,reportedlybecauseofhisworkdefendingblasphemysuspects.102Choudhryhasalsoreportedreceivingnumerousthreateningphonecalls,someofwhichhaveincludeddeaththreats.103Insomecases,eventheworstthreatshavebeencarriedout.ALahoreHighCourtjudge,ArifHussainBhatti,waskilledin1996,reportedlybyMuslimextremistsangrywithhisdecisiontoacquitablasphemydefendant.104

Ayub Masih has said that during his trial, “Islamic extremists packed thecourtroom and shouted loud threats against me, my lawyer, and the judge.”105The UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention also raised serious questionsaboutthefairnessofhistrial,findingthattheaccusationandsubsequentverdictwerebasedonthetestimonyof“asingle,biasedwitness,”106andthatextremistsissued threats against Masih and his lawyer during the trial, creating a hostileatmosphere. In addition, the Working Group argued that Masih had not been


providedwith“anydocumentaryorotherevidenceagainsthim,”preventinghimfrompreparinganadequatedefense.107TheWorkingGroupconcluded,“Theseseriousdeficienciesinproceedingswherecapitalpunishmentisprovidedbylawnotasanalternativepenalty,butasamandatoryoneiftheaccusedisfoundguilty,basicallystripstheprocedureofitsrequisitefaircharacter.”108

YounusShaikhhasalsodescribeddisturbancessurroundinghistrial,report-ing that“thereligious studentsof theclaimantclericsofDeeniMadrassausedto demonstrate against me.”109 The International Humanist and Ethical Union,whichwasheavily involved incampaigning forhis release, stated thatShaikh’strial“tookplaceinahostilecourtroompackedwithIslamicfundamentalistswhowarnedthedefenselawyers:‘thinkofyourfamiliesandchildren.’”110InthecaseofShahidMasih,whowasunexpectedlyacquittedofallchargesbyalowercourt,religious extremists attending the trial were reportedly angered by the verdict.CompassNewsDirectquotedMasih’slawyer,KhalilTahirassayingthat“therewereabout100fanaticsinsideandoutsidethecourtroomwhowereastonishedwhen their own witnesses claimed that the accused were innocent. They werevery,veryangry.”111Thesekindsofconditionsmakeitvirtuallyimpossibleforper-sonsaccusedofblasphemytoenjoyafairtrial.

FreedomfromTortureandCruel,Inhuman,orDegradingTreatment&RighttoLifeandSecurityofthePerson

Pakistan’shumanrightsrecordismarredbynumerousreportedincidentsofabusethatamounttoviolationsoftheprohibitionontortureandothercruel,in-human,ordegradingtreatment.AccordingtoHumanRightsWatch,“torturebyPakistan’spoliceandthemilitary’sintelligenceservicescontinuestoberoutine.”112Individuals accusedofblasphemyarenot exempt from thispattern, and somehaveallegedthattheyweretorturedormistreatedindetention,eitherbyfellowinmatesorbypoliceandprisonguards.Securityforceshavealsoallegedlystoodbywhileextremistvigilantestookblasphemyaccusationsintotheirownhands.ThenewspaperDawnhasreportedthat32peopleaccusedofblasphemywerethevictimsofextrajudicialkillingsbetween1984and2004.113

In July2009, ImranMasih(alsoreportedas ImranJohn),a shopkeeper inFaisalabad, was accused by a neighboring shopkeeper of burning pages of theQurananddesecratingit.114Aftertheaccuserinformednearbyvendors,theypro-ceededtobeatandtortureMasih.PolicethenarrivedatthesceneandarrestedMasihforblasphemy.Noneofhisattackersweredetained.MasihwasfoundguiltyandsentencedtolifeimprisonmentinJanuary2010.115Inanotherincident,Hindu


factoryworkerJagdishKumarwasbeatentodeathinApril2008bycoworkerswhoallegedthathehadmadeblasphemousremarksabouttheprophetMuham-mad.121PoliceweresummonedbutdidlittletointerveneorprotectKumar.Thethreeleadersoftheattackwerearrested—notformurder,butforfailingtoreportacaseofblasphemy.122Somepolicemenwereeventuallysuspendedfortheirlackofactionintheincident.123

In July 2010, two Christian brothers accused of blasphemy were shot andkilledastheywereleavingahearingataFaisalabadcourthouse.Theywereac-cused of writing a pamphlet that was critical of the prophet Muhammad, butchurchsupporters,governmentofficials,andthePakistanMinoritiesDemocraticFoundationsaiditappearedthatthemenhadbeensetup.124TheirdeathssparkedviolentclashesbetweenMuslimsandChristiansintheircommunity.125

The death of another blasphemy suspect, Robert Fanish (also reported asRobertDanishandFanishMasih),tookplaceinpolicecustody.Fanish,aPaki-staniChristian,wasarrestedonblasphemychargesinAugust2009.OnSeptem-ber15, the22-year-oldwas founddeadinhiscell intheSialkotCentral Jail.126Thedeathwas initially reportedasa suicidebyhanging,butmanyquestionedthisassessment,127andwitnessesreportedlystatedthatFanish’sbodyboresignsoftorture.128ShahidMasihandMohammadGhaffar,thetwomenwhowerefalselyaccusedofblasphemyaftertheiraccuser’stheftcomplaintwasrejectedforlackofevidence,werealsoallegedlytorturedwhileinpolicecustody.129

In July 2010, two Christian brothers accused of blasphemy were shot andkilledastheywereleavingahearingataFaisalabadcourthouse.Theywereac-

blasphemy-related vigilante violence in the town of gorja, punjab province, in august

2009 resulted in the destruction of more than 50 houses. at least seven christians

were burnt alive in the attacks, and 18 others were injured.116 The assault was first

reported to have been triggered by allegations that some christians had desecrated

the Quran. however, according to the hRcp, which investigated the incident, the vio-

lence was planned in advance, police were aware of it, and the blasphemy allegation

was simply a pretext.117 several days before the attack, announcements made from

mosques in the area reportedly called on muslims to “make mincemeat of the chris-

tians.”118 The hRcp’s investigation also showed that the violence was organized and

methodical, that perpetrators were well equipped with gasoline and other flammable

chemicals, and that a police contingent in the area did nothing to prevent or stop the

assault.119 a government inquiry similarly concluded that police and local officials had

failed to take any preventive action or intervene once violence broke out.120


cusedofwritingablasphemouspamphletcriticaloftheProphetMohammed,butchurchsupportersandthePakistanMinoritiesDemocraticFoundationsaidthemenhadbeensetupandarrestedontrumpedupcharges.

Detainedblasphemysuspects faceother formsof cruel, inhuman,andde-gradingtreatment.Severalhavereportedbeingheldinsolitaryconfinement,al-legedlyfortheirownsafety.YounusShaikhhaswrittenabouthisexperienceasadeath-rowinmateconvictedofblasphemy:“Iwasheldinsolitaryconfinement,inaverysmalldeathcellintheCentralJail,Rawalpindi,adarkanddirtydeathcell….IremainedconstantlyunderthreatofmurderbyIslamicinmates in jailformurderandgangrape,andbysomereligiously-mindedprisonwardens.”130ParvezMasihsaidhewasheldinasixfootbyfourfootcellthatreachedtempera-turesofover120degreesFahrenheit.131

Theprolongeddetentionofindividualsaccusedofblasphemycoupledwiththethreatofbeingsentencedtodeath,orwithanactualsentenceofdeath,mayalsoamounttocruel,inhuman,anddegradingtreatment.InSoeringv.UK,theEuropeanCourtofHumanRightsruledthatextraditinganindividualtotheUnit-edStates,wherehewouldmostlikelybesentencedtodeath,wouldamounttoabreachofArticle3oftheEuropeanConventiononHumanRightsbecauseofthelengthyandcomplexpostsentencingproceduresinvolved.Thecourtstatedthatasaresult,“thecondemnedprisonerhastoendureformanyyearstheconditionsondeathrowandtheanguishandmountingtensionoflivingintheever-presentshadow of death.”132 As described above, individuals facing death sentences inPakistanforblasphemingtheprophetMuhammadhavebeendetainedforseveralyearsduringthetrialandappealsprocess.

c onclusIon

Pakistan’sblasphemylawsfosteranenvironmentofintoleranceandimpunity,andleadtoviolationsofabroadrangeofhumanrights, includingtheobviousrightstofreedomofexpressionandfreedomofreligion,aswellasfreedomfromarbitraryarrestanddetention;therighttodueprocessandafairtrial;freedomfromtortureandcruel,inhuman,anddegradingtreatment;andtherighttolifeandsecurityoftheperson.Thecountryisuniqueintheseverityofabusesarisingfromtheapplicationofitsblasphemylaws,andinthefrequencywithwhichthelawsareinvokedtoprosecuteindividualsandjustifyvigilantism.Theoverallef-fectisaseriouserosionoftheruleoflawitself,withpoliceandcourtsseemingly


atthemercyofIslamistextremistsandotherextralegalforces.Basicinjusticesare meted out not just to religious minorities and Muslims with dissentingviewsonIslam,butalsotoordinarypeoplewhosepersonaldisputes,opinions,orweaknessesmakethemreadyfodderforthebroaderconflictsthattroublePakistanisociety.

AfreedomhousespeciAlreport REFERENCES 119

80 InternationalFederationforHumanRights,SteadfastinProtest:2006 Annual Report of the Observatory for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders(Paris:InternationalFederationforHumanRights,March2007),http://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/FIDH-EN-ASIA.pdf.

PAKISTAN

1 YouTubeandFacebookwereblockedforabouttwoweeksinMay2010duetoallegedlyblas-phemouscontentdirectedattheprophetMuhammad.See“PakistanBlocksYouTubeover‘Blasphemous’Material,”Dawn,May20,2010,http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/pakistan/03-pakistan-blocks-youtube-over-blasphe-mous-material-ss-01.

2 SteveCzajkowski,“PakistantoReviseBlasphemyLaws:Report,”Jurist(UniversityofPitts-burghSchoolofLaw),February7,2010,http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2010/02/pakistan-to-revise-blasphemy-laws.php.

3 BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”inInternational Religious Free-dom Report 2006(Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofState,September2006),http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71443.htm.

4 MansoorRaza,“TheUnholyWar,”Dawn,January19,2010,http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/pakistan/02-the-unholy-law-02.

5 U.S.DepartmentofState,“BackgroundNote:Pakistan,”June9,2010,http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm.

6 BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”inInternational Religious Free-dom Report 2009 (Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofState,October2009),http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127370.htm.

7 DavidF.Forte,“ApostasyandBlasphemyinPakistan,”Connecticut Journal of International Law10(Fall1994):31–32.

8 PakistanConstitution,ANNEX,Article2(A):TheObjectivesResolution,availableathttp://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/annex_objres.html.Itshouldbenotedthatatthetimeofitsadoptionin1949,theresolutionstatedthat“adequateprovisionshallbemadefortheminoritiestofreelyprofessandpracticetheirreligionsanddeveloptheircultures.”WhentheresolutionwasmadeasubstantivepartofthePakistaniconstitutionbyPresiden-tialOrderNo.14of1985,theword“freely”wasdropped.

9 Forte,“ApostasyandBlasphemyinPakistan.” 10 FirstAmend.,ActIof1964(amendingPak.Const.of1962),citedinForte,“Apostasyand

BlasphemyinPakistan.” 11 PakistanConstitutionof1962,PartX,Chapter1,Article204,availableathttp://www.cii.gov.

pk/docs/con1962.pdf. 12 WebsiteoftheCouncilofIslamicIdeology,availableathttp://www.cii.gov.pk/.Seealso

PakistanConstitutionof1973,Articles227–230,availableathttp://www.cii.gov.pk/docs/constitution.pdf.

120 policingbelief:theimpActofblAsphemylAwsonhumAnrights

13 PakistanConstitutionof1973,PartXII,Miscellaneous,Chapter5:Interpretation,Article260(3):“IntheConstitutionandallenactmentsandotherlegalinstruments,unlessthereisanythingrepugnantinthesubjectorcontext:(a)‘Muslim’meansapersonwhobelievesintheunityandonenessofAlmightyAllah,intheabsoluteandunqualifiedfinalityoftheProphethoodofMuhammad(peacebeuponhim),thelastoftheprophets,anddoesnotbelievein,orrecognizeasaprophetorreligiousreformer,anypersonwhoclaimedorclaimstobeaprophet,inanysenseofthewordorofanydescriptionwhatsoever,afterMu-hammad(peacebeuponhim);and(b)‘non-Muslim’meansapersonwhoisnotaMuslimandincludesapersonbelongingtotheChristian,Hindu,Sikh,BuddhistorParsicommu-nity,apersonoftheQuadianiGrouportheLahoriGroupwhocallthemselves‘Ahmadis’orbyanyothernameoraBahai,andapersonbelongingtoanyoftheScheduledCastes.”

14 TheAhmadiyyacommunityisareligiousgroupwithabout600,000adherentsinPakistan.TheyconsiderthemselvesMuslimsandworshipasMuslims,butareseenasapostatesbymanySunniMuslimsbecauseoftheirbeliefthatMirzaGhulamAhmed,whofoundedthesectinthe19thcentury,wastheMahdi,theprophesizedredeemerofIslam.Asaresult,theysufferseverediscriminationandpersecutioninPakistan.FormoreinformationonAhmadiyya,seetheofficialwebsiteathttp://www.alislam.org/.

15 Forte,“ApostasyandBlasphemyinPakistan.” 16 PakistanConstitutionof1973,Article203D. 17 “StateoftheJudiciary,”Daily Times (Pakistan),July7,2009,http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/

default.asp?page=2009\07\07\story_7-7-2009_pg3_1. 18 “ReligiousIntoleranceinPakistan,”PakistanNewswires,December11,2002;“Pakistan’sBlas-

phemyLawU-Turn,”BritishBroadcastingCorporation(BBC),May17,2000,http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/751803.stm.

19 “PakistanMinisterSeesBlasphemyLawRevisionThisYear,”AgenceFrance-Presse,February7,2010.

20 “Pakistan:PakBlasphemyLawsUsedtoJustify‘Murder,’”RightsVisionNews,May22,2010. 21 Ibid. 22 BecketFundforReligiousLiberty,“DefamationofReligions,”IssuesBrief(condensedver-

sion),June2008,http://www.becketfund.org/files/87155.pdf. 23 BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”in1994 Country Reports on Hu-

man Rights Practices(Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofState,February1995),availableathttp://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/democracy/1994_hrp_report/94hrp_report_sasia/Paki-stan.html.

24 U.S.CommissiononInternationalReligiousFreedom(USCIRF),“Pakistan,”in2009 Annual Report (Washington,DC:USCIRF,May2009),http://www.uscirf.gov/images/AR2009/pakistan.pdf.

25 NinaShea,“TestimonyofNinaShea,DirectorofHudsonInstitute’sCenterforReligiousFreedom,beforetheTomLantosHumanRightsCommissionoftheCommitteeonForeignAffairsoftheUSHouseofRepresentatives:Pakistan’sAnti-BlasphemyLaws,”HudsonInstitute,October8,2009,http://www.hudson.org/files/documents/SheaPakistan108.pdf.

26 AsianHumanRightsCommission,“Pakistan:AnotherPersonSentencedtoDeathun-derBlasphemyLaw,”newsrelease,August1,2002,http://www.ahrchk.net/ua/mainfile.php/2002/286/.

27 PaulWatson,“ADeadlyPlaceforBlasphemy,”Los Angeles Times,August5,2002,http://ar-ticles.latimes.com/2002/aug/05/world/fg-blasphemy5/4.


28 Thishasbeenreportedbythepolice,Kenneth’slawyer,andaChristianhumanrightsworkerwhowasinvolvedinhiscase.Seeibid.;“PakistaniChristianSentencedtoDeath,”BBC,July18,2002,http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2136291.stm;“PakistaniCourtCondemnsCatholictoDeathforBlasphemy,”AgenceFrance-Presse,July18,2002.

29 Watson,“ADeadlyPlaceforBlasphemy.” 30 Ibid. 31 “PakistaniChristianSentencedtoDeath,”BBC. 32 SeeUNEconomicandSocialCouncilResolution1989/64,“ImplementationoftheSafe-

guardsGuaranteeingProtectionoftheRightsofThoseFacingtheDeathPenalty”(ESC/RES/1989/64),May1989[Thisresolutionrecommended“eliminatingthedeathpenaltyforpersonssufferingfrommentalretardationorextremelylimitedmentalcompetence”];UNCommissiononHumanRightsResolution,“QuestionoftheDeathPenalty,”(E/CN.4/RES/1999/61),April28,1999,andUNCommissiononHumanRightsResolution,“TheQuestionoftheDeathPenalty,”(E/CN.4/RES/2000/65),April27,2000[Theseresolu-tionsurgestatestorefrainfromimposingthedeathpenalty“onapersonsufferingfromanyformofmentaldisorder,”atermthatincludesboththementallyillandthementallyretarded].SeealsoHumanRightsWatch,Beyond Reason: The Death Penalty and Offenders with Mental Retardation(NewYork:HumanRightsWatch,2001),18,http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2001/03/05/beyond-reason.

33 Raza,“TheUnholyWar”;BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”inIn-ternational Religious Freedom Report 2009;“PakistaniChristianSentencedtoDeath,”BBC;“‘BlasphemyLaws’UsedtoJailElderlyChristianinPakistan,”CompassDirectNews,June29,2010,http://www.compassdirect.org/english/country/pakistan/22092/.

34 MasihisacommonPakistaniChristiansurname.BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”in2007 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices(Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofState,March2008),http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100619.htm.

35 AsianHumanRightsCommission,“Pakistan:TortureofTwoMenAfterBeingFalselyChargedunderBlasphemyLaw,”newsrelease,October10,2006,http://www.ahrchk.net/ua/mainfile.php/2006/2021/.

36 Ibid. 37 “ChristianUnexpectedlyAcquittedofBlasphemy,”CompassDirectNews,September18,

2007,http://wwrn.org/articles/26288/. 38 Ibid.;“PakistaniGroupDemandsRepealofBlasphemyLaws,”AgenceFrance-Presse,June15,

2001. 39 AsianHumanRightsCommission,“Pakistan:DeathThreatstoMinoritiesbytheFundamen-

talists,”newsrelease,April27,2001,http://www.ahrchk.net/ua/mainfile.php/2001/95/;Shea,“TestimonyofNinaShea.”

40 InternationalCrisisGroup,The State of Sectarianism in Pakistan (Brussels:InternationalCrisisGroup,April2005),http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/asia/south-asia/paki-stan/095_the_state_of_sectarianism_in_pakistan.ashx.

41 “PakistanAuthoritiesHeldUpforFalseBlasphemyCase,”PressTrustofIndia,December13,2007.

42 CentreforLegalAid,Assistance,andSettlement,“A55YearOldPakistaniChristianDoc-torJailedonBlasphemyCharges,”May9,2008,http://www.claas.org.uk/bcase_detail.aspx?ID=162;“IsThereanEnd?”Dawn,August6,2009,http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/pakistan/provinces/18-is-there-an-end-am-01.


43 Thefivesuspectsincludedfourteenagers,reportedlyranginginagefrom14to16.SeeSatin-derBainsandMaqboolAhmad,“AhmadiChildrenArrestedonFalseChargesinPakistan,AllegesIndianAhmadiyyaCommunity,”PunjabNewsline,February10,2009,http://www.punjabnewsline.com/content/view/15239/38/;BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”in2009 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices(Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofState,March2010),http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/sca/136092.htm.

44 BainsandAhmad,“AhmadiChildrenArrestedonFalseChargesinPakistan.”Foranother,morerecentcase,see“‘BlasphemyLaws’UsedtoJailElderlyChristianinPakistan,”Com-passDirectNews,June29,2010,http://www.compassdirect.org/english/country/paki-stan/22092/;“73YearsOldPakistaniChristianArrestedunderBlasphemyafterDialogueonReligion,”Pakistan Christian Post,June25,2010,http://www.pakistanchristianpost.com/headlinenewsd.php?hnewsid=2076;AftabAlexanderMughal,“ChristianandShiaMenFacingBlasphemyChargesinPakistan,”FaithFreedom.org,June26,2010,http://www.faithfreedom.org/features/news/christian-and-shia-men-facing-blasphemy-charges-in-pakistan/.

45 AmnestyInternational,Pakistan:The Death Penalty(London:AmnestyInternational,Sep-tember1996),http://asiapacific.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGASA330101996?open&of=ENG-333.

46 Article6(2),ICCPR:“Incountrieswhichhavenotabolishedthedeathpenalty,sentenceofdeathmaybeimposedonlyforthemostseriouscrimesinaccordancewiththelawinforceatthetimeofthecommissionofthecrimeandnotcontrarytotheprovisionsofthepres-entCovenantandtotheConventiononthePreventionandPunishmentoftheCrimeofGenocide.Thispenaltycanonlybecarriedoutpursuanttoafinaljudgementrenderedbyacompetentcourt.”

47 UNHumanRightsCouncil,Report of the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief, Asma Jahangir: Addendum—Summary of Cases Transmitted to Governments and Replies(A/HRC/7/10/Add.1),February28,2008,paragraph199,availableathttp://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/7session/reports.htm.

48 UNHumanRightsCommittee,GeneralComment6(HRI/GEN/1/Rev.1),1982,paragraph7. 49 Thereportstates:“Makingthedeathpenaltymandatoryforcertaincrimes,insuchaway

thatajudgeisprohibitedfromtakingthecircumstancesofanindividualaccusedpersonintoaccountinsentencing,isillegalunderinternationalhumanrightslaw.Thisisnottosaythatcountrieswhichretainthedeathpenaltyareunabletoapplythatpenaltyinthemajorityofcasesinvolvingamostseriouscrime,buttheyareobligatedtoatleastprovideforthepossibilitythatajudgemightfindadeathsentenceimpermissibleinaparticularindividual’scasebecauseofextenuatingcircumstancesofonekindoranother.”UNHumanRightsCouncil,Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions, Philip Alston(A/HRC/4/20),January29,2007,paragraph66,availableathttp://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/4session/reports.htm.

50 Ibid.,paragraph51. 51 UNCommissiononHumanRights,Report Submitted by Mr. Abdelfattah Amor, Special

Rapporteur, in Accordance with Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1995/23: Ad-dendum—Visit by the Special Rapporteur to Pakistan(E/CN.4/1996/95/Add.1),January2,1996,paragraph82,availableathttp://ap.ohchr.org/documents/alldocs.aspx?doc_id=780.


52 OfficeoftheUNHighCommissionerforHumanRights,“SafeguardsGuaranteeingtheRightsofThoseFacingtheDeathPenalty,ApprovedbyEconomicandSocialCouncilResolution1984/50of25May1984,”http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/protection.htm.

53 InstituteonReligionandPublicPolicy,Religious Freedom in Pakistan (Washington,DC:In-stituteonReligionandPublicPolicy,September2008),availableathttp://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/UPR/Pages/UPRPKStakeholdersInfoS2.aspx.

54 “HateEngulfsChristiansinPakistan,”New York Times,August2,2009,http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/03/world/asia/03pstan.html.

55 HumanRightsCommissionofPakistan,State of Human Rights in 2006(Lahore:HumanRightsCommissionofPakistan,January2006),141,http://www.hrcp-web.org/pdf/Ar-chives%20Reports/AR2006.pdf.

56 DeclanWalsh,“PakistanBlamesIslamistsLinkedtoAl-QaidaforAttackonChristians,”Guardian,August3,2009,http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/aug/03/pakistan-chris-tian-attack-islamists-blamed;“BombAttackonShiaMarchinPakistaniCityofKarachi,”BBC,December28,2009,http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/8432409.stm.

57 BenedictRogersandJosephLaconte,“BlasphemyinPakistan:TheLawThatBreedsTerror,”Daily Standard(Weekly),April2,2008,http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/015/016osxyq.asp?page=2

58 AsifShahzad,“MilitantsThreatenChristianManinPakistanAfterHisAcquittalinBlasphe-myCase,”AssociatedPress,January27,2005.

59 “IsThereanEnd?”Dawn. 60 InternationalChristianConcern,“ChristianClearedofBlasphemyChargesFiredfromJob,

FacingDeathThreats,”newsrelease,February22,2008,http://www.persecution.org/suf-fering/ICCnews/newsdetail.php?newscode=7202&title=christian-cleared-of-blasphemy-charges-fired-from-job-facing-death-threats.

61 MassoudAnsariandMichaelHirst,“Pakistan’sBlasphemyLawsUsedtoPersecuteNon-Mus-lims,”Sunday Telegraph(London),June25,2006.

62 ChristianSolidarityWorldwide,Briefing—Pakistan: A Submission to the United Nations Hu-man Rights Council Universal Periodic Review(Surrey,UK:ChristianSolidarityWorldwide,January2008),availableathttp://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/UPR/Pages/UPRPKStake-holdersInfoS2.aspx.

63 “ChristianUnexpectedlyAcquittedofBlasphemy,”CompassDirectNews. 64 AsianHumanRightsCommission,“Pakistan:TortureofTwoMenAfterBeingFalsely

ChargedunderBlasphemyLaw.” 65 USCIRF,“Pakistan,”in2009 Annual Report. 66 TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsisavailableathttp://www.un.org/en/documents/

udhr/index.shtml.TheICCPRisavailableathttp://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/ccpr.htm. 67 KarinKarlekarandothers,eds.,“Pakistan,”inFreedom of the Press 2010(NewYork:Freedom

House;Lanham,MD:Rowman&Littlefield,2010),http://freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=16.

68 InternationalHumanistandEthicalUnion,“PakistaniBlasphemyLaw,”newsrelease,May4,2005,http://www.iheu.org/node/1304.

69 “PakistanDoctoronTrialforBlasphemy,”BBC,May19,2001,http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1339792.stm.

70 KarinKarlekarandothers,eds.,“Pakistan,”inFreedom of the Press 2010(NewYork:FreedomHouse,2010),http://freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=16.


Formoreinformationonthiscase,see:M.YounusShaikh,“Blasphemy—MyJourneythroughHell,”Mukto-Mona,nodate,

http://www.mukto-mona.com/Articles/Younus_Sheikh/blasphemy.htm. 71 AmnestyInternational,“Pakistan:FearforSafety/PrisonerofConscience(POC),Moham-

medYounusShaikh,”newsrelease,August19,2005,http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA33/023/2005/en/dc8bb567-d4b7-11dd-8a23-d58a49c0d652/asa330232005en.html;HumanRightsCommissionofPakistan,State of Human Rights in 2007(Lahore:HumanRightsCommissionofPakistan,March2008),82,http://www.hrcp-web.org/pdf/Archives%20Reports/AR2007.pdf.

72 BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”in2004 Country Reports on Hu-man Rights Practices(Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofState,February2005),http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41743.htm.

73 CommitteetoProtectJournalists,“JournalistSentencedtoLifeinPrisonforBlasphemy,”newsrelease/lettertoPakistaniprimeminister,July10,2003,http://cpj.org/2003/07/jour-nalist-sentenced-to-life-in-prison-for-blasphe.php.

74 “BlasphemyConviction:JournalistAssuredofLegalAssistance,”Daily Times(Pakistan),July11,2003,http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_11-7-2003_pg7_32;Am-nestyInternational,“Pakistan:FurtherInformationonFearforsafety,”newsrelease,July15,2003,http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA33/007/2003/en/26af5df9-d6b3-11dd-ab95-a13b602c0642/asa330072003en.html.

75 PakistaniPressFoundation,“FourJournalistsHeldResponsibleforPublicationofBlasphe-mousLetter,”InternationalFreedomofExpressioneXchange(IFEX),March9,2001,http://www.ifex.org/pakistan/2001/03/12/four_journalists_held_responsible/.

76 AmnestyInternationalexpressedseriousconcernsaboutthefairnessofMohsin’strial.TheHighCourtandtheDistrictCourtBarAssociationsreportedlypassedresolutionsstatingthattheirmemberswouldnotdefendanyoftheaccusedindividuals,andMohsinhadtoberepresentedbyajuniorattorney.SeeAmnestyInternational,“Pakistan:FurtherInforma-tiononFearforSafety.”

77 “PakistanBlocksYouTubeOver‘Blasphemous’Material,”Dawn,May20,2010,http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/pakistan/03-pakistan-blocks-youtube-over-blasphemous-material-ss-01.

78 Ibid.;“PakistaniCourtOrdersFacebookBlockedinProphetRow,”BBC,May19,2010,http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/8691406.stm.

79 MohammedAliJinnah,“Mr.Jinnah’sPresidentialAddresstotheConstituentAssemblyofPakistan,August11,1947,”Pakistani.org,http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/legislation/constituent_address_11aug1947.html.

80 “PakistaniCourtSentencesFirstMuslimtoDeathforBlasphemy,”AssociatedPress,Septem-ber10,1998.

81 BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”in1999 Country Reports on Hu-man Rights Practices(Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofState,February2000),http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/1999/441.htm.

82 BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”inInternational Religious Freedom Report 2004,(Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofState,2004),http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35519.htm.

83 ZaffarAbbas,“Pakistani‘Prophet’SentencedtoDeath,”BBC,August5,2000,http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/867449.stm.


84 “IsThereanEnd?”Dawn. 85 BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”in2009 Country Reports on Hu-

man Rights Practices. 86 HumanRightsWatch,“Pakistan:PanderingtoExtremistsFuelsPersecutionofAhmadis,”

newsrelease,May6,2007,http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2007/05/05/pakistan-pandering-extremists-fuels-persecution-ahmadis.

87 Dardv.Pakistan,No.149/89,(Sup.Ct.ofPak.,July3,1993),ascitedinForte,“ApostasyandBlasphemyinPakistan.”

88 BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”inInternational Religious Free-dom Report 2009.

89 BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”in2009 Country Reports on Hu-man Rights Practices.

90 “StateoftheJudiciary,”Daily Times. 91 “IsThereanEnd?”Dawn. 92 UNWorkingGrouponArbitraryDetention,“OpinionNo.25/2001(Pakistan),”inOpinions

Adopted by the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention(E/CN.4/2003/8/Add.1),22,avail-ableathttp://ap.ohchr.org/documents/dpage_e.aspx?m=117.

93 Shea,“TestimonyofNinaShea.” 94 AkbarS.Ahmed,“Pakistan’sBlasphemyLaw:WordsFailMe,”Washington Post,May19,

2002,http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A36108-2002May17&notFound=true.

95 BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”in2009 Country Reports on Hu-man Rights Practices.

96 “BailDeniedtoChristianActivistforHisOwnSafety,JudgeAlsoUnderFire,”CompassNewsDirect,May6,2009,availableathttp://www.religionnewsblog.com/23451/muslim-lawyer-threatens-christian.

97 Thiscaseisalsoanexampleofharassmentandintimidationbyreligiousextremists.Ac-cordingtoonereport,theprosecutinglawyerstated,“IfthejudgedoesnotpunishAleemaccordingtothelaw,then[we]willkillhimourselves.”Thejudge’sdecisionwasreportedlyheavilyinfluencedbythesethreats.See“BailDeniedtoChristianActivistforHisOwnSafety,JudgeAlsoUnderFire,”CompassNewsDirect;BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”in2009 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices.

98 SeeHectorAleem’sblog,maintainedbyhisdaughterMehwishAleem,athttp://hectoraleem.blogspot.com.

99 USCIRF,“Pakistan,”in2008 Annual Report (Washington,DC:USCIRF,May2008),http://www.uscirf.gov/images/AR2008/pakistan.pdf.

100ChristianSolidarityWorldwide,Briefing—Pakistan.101M.YounasShaikh,“LivingAmongtheBelievers,”InternationalHumanistandEthicalUnion,

November28,2001,http://www.iheu.org/node/1166.102BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Pakistan,”in2007 Country Reports on Hu-

man Rights Practices.103“IsThereanEnd?”Dawn;ChristianSolidarityWorldwide,Briefing—Pakistan.104“IsThereanEnd?”Dawn;FranciscansInternational,“BlasphemyLawsClaimMoreVictims

inPakistan,”newsrelease,nodate,http://www.franciscansinternational.org/node/3006.105AyubMasih,“DeathSentence:AyubMasih,”JubileeCampaign,nodate,http://www.jubilee-

campaign.co.uk/features/just-right/155-death-sentence-ayub-masih.


106UNWorkingGrouponArbitraryDetention,“OpinionNo.25/2001(Pakistan).”107Ibid.108Ibid.109M.YounasShaikh,“LivingAmongtheBelievers.”110InternationalHumanistandEthicalUnion,“YounusShaikhFree!”newsrelease,January23,

2004,http://www.iheu.org/node/271.111“ChristiansUnexpectedlyAcquittedofBlasphemy,”CompassNewsDirect.112HumanRightsWatch,“Pakistan,”in2009 World Report(NewYork:HumanRightsWatch,

January2010),http://www.hrw.org/en/node/87399.113Raza,“TheUnholyWar.”114Shea,“TestimonyofNinaShea.”115FareedKhan,“Faisalabad,YoungChristianSentencedtoLifeImprisonmentforBlasphemy,”

AsiaNews.it,January18,2010,http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Faisalabad,-young-Chris-tian-sentenced-to-life-imprisonment-for-blasphemy-17374.html#.

116TariqSaeed,“SevenBurntAliveinGojraViolence,”Dawn,August2,2009,http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/pakistan/06-six-christians-die-in-riots-with-muslims-rs-05.

117AsmaJahangir,“GojraAdminKnewAboutPre-PlannedAttacks,”HumanRightsCommis-sionofPakistan,August4,2009,http://www.hrcp-web.org/showprel.asp?id=83;NirupamaSubramanian,“CommunalClashes:FocusonBlasphemyLawsinPakistan,”The Hindu,August6,2009.

118Jahangir,“GojraAdminKnewAboutPre-PlannedAttacks.”119Ibid.120“GojraReportProposesAmendingBlasphemyLaws,”Daily Times(Pakistan),December

7,2009,http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2009\12\07\story_7-12-2009_pg7_3.

121ImranAyub,“FactoryWorkerLynchedfor‘Blasphemy,’”Dawn,April9,2008,http://www.dawn.com/2008/04/09/top8.htm.

122QaiserFelix,“Killedfor‘Blasphemy,’NowHisFamilyIsatRisk,”AsiaNews.it,April28,2008,http://www.asianews.it/index.php?l=en&art=12121&geo=2&size=A.

123Shea,“TestimonyofNinaShea.”124GhulamMohiuddin,“ClashesinFaisalabadas‘Blasphemers’ShotDead,”Express Tri-

bune,July20,2010,http://tribune.com.pk/story/29024/clashes-in-faisalabad-as-%E2%80%98blasphemers%E2%80%99-shot-dead/;“TwoChristiansKilledOutsideCourtOver‘Blasphemy,’”Daily Times,July20,2010,http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2010\07\20\story_20-7-2010_pg1_4.

125MuhammadSaleem,“BlasphemyAccusedKilledonCourtPremises,”Dawn,July20,2010,http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/pakistan/two-brothers-killed-for-alleged-blasphemy-jd-01.

126“Pakistan:AllegedSuicideofChristianBoyCondemned,”Daily Pak Banker,publishedinHindustan Times,August17,2009.

127WaqarGillaniandSabrinaTavernise,“PakistanRightsGroupSeeksAnswersonChristian’sDeath,”New York Times,September16,2009,http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/17/world/asia/17pstan.html.

128Ibid.;“ChristianHeldforBlasphemyDiesinPakistanCustody:Officials,”AgenceFrance-Presse,September15,2009.

129AsianHumanRightsCommission,“Pakistan:TortureofTwoMenAfterBeingFalsely


ChargedunderBlasphemyLaw,”130M.YounusShaikh,“Blasphemy—MyJourneythroughHell,”Mukto-Mona,nodate,http://

www.mukto-mona.com/Articles/Younus_Sheikh/blasphemy.htm.131Shea,“TestimonyofNinaShea.”132EuropeanCourtofHumanRights,Soering v. UK,AppNo.14038/88,July7,1989,http://www.

echr.coe.int/echr/en/hudoc/.

POL AND

1 BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Poland,”inInternational Religious Freedom Report 2009 (Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofState,October2009),http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127330.htm.

2 U.S.DepartmentofState,“BackgroundNote:Poland,”June30,2010,http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2875.htm.

3 U.S.HolocaustMemorialMuseum,“Poles:VictimsoftheNaziEra,”http://www.ushmm.org/education/resource/poles/poles.php?menu=/export/home/www/doc_root/education/foreducators/include/menu.txt&bgcolor=CD9544.

4 U.S.DepartmentofState,“BackgroundNote:Poland.” 5 Ibid. 6 Article114ofthe1921constitutiondeclaredthatCatholicismwasthechiefreligionofthe

state.SeeDanielH.Cole,“Poland’s1997ConstitutioninitsHistoricalContext,”Saint Louis-Warsaw Transatlantic Law Journal(1998):6,availableathttp://indylaw.indiana.edu/instructors/cole/web%20page/polconst.pdf.

7 Article25.1andArticle25,ConstitutionofPoland(1997),http://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/angielski/kon1.htm.

8 Ibid.,Article25.5. 9 BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor,“Poland,”International Religious Freedom

Report 2009. 10 Ibid. 11 Article25.2,ConstitutionofPoland. 12 EuropeanCommissionforDemocracyThroughLaw(VeniceCommission),Annexe II:

Analysis of the Domestic Law Concerning Blasphemy, Religious Insult and Inciting Religious Hatred in Albania, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Turkey, United Kingdom, on the Basis of Replies to a Questionnaire (Stras-bourg:CouncilofEurope,2008),72,availableathttp://www.venice.coe.int/docs/2008/CDL-AD%282008%29026add2-bil.asp[hereafter:VeniceCommissionSurvey].

13 “NorwegianGood,”Warsaw Voice,March7,2004. 14 “NorwegianArtistAccusedofOffendingPolishCatholics,”AgenceFrance-Presse,February

16,2004. 15 VeniceCommissionSurvey. 16 Ibid. 17 “Prosecutor’sOfficeLaunchesInvestigationAgainstWprostWeekly,”PAPNewsWire,

September6,1994. 18 “PriorNottoTakeStandonDroppingInvestigationAgainstWeekly,”PAPNewsWire,

October16,1994.

policing belief

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