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ReligionandSocietyinAncientThessalyMariaMili

Printpublicationdate:2014PrintISBN-13:9780198718017PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:January2015DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198718017.001.0001

PolisCultsMariaMili

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198718017.003.0003

AbstractandKeywords

Thechapterexaminesthosecultsthatcould,onthebasisofvariouscriteria,beclassifiedasthepubliccultsofThessalianpoleis.SomeofthemostcharacteristicThessaliangodsarediscussed,includingEnnodia,ZeusThaulios,Themis,andApolloKerdoos,alongsideothermorefamiliarfigures,suchasAthenaPolias,Demeter,Dionysus,Heracles,Hestia,andAsclepius.Thechapterexploresthequestionsofwhoparticipatedinthesecults,whattheirfunctionswere,andhowthecultswereperceived.TheanswerstothesequestionswillallowustoreachabetterunderstandingoftheroleandplaceofpolisreligionintheoligarchicThessaliancities.

Keywords:poliscults,AthenaPolias,ZeusThaulios,DionysusKarpios,Heracles,Demeter,Asclepius,Ennodia,ApolloKerdoos,Hestia

3.1.QuestionsandDefinitionsThedefinitionofwhatastateorpubliccultis,andinwhatprecisewayitdiffersfrom

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privateandnon-statecults,isproblematic.Theindividualparticipatedinpubliccults,whichoftenincludedprivateactsofworship,andprivatecultswereoftencondonedbythepolis.Thedivisionbetweenpublicandprivatecanbestbediscernedinmattersofadministrationandfinance.Inpublic/statecultsthepoliswasresponsibleforthefinancing,organization,andregulationofseveralcults.Butalotofvariationexisted,rangingfromthepolisregulatingeveryaspectoftheculttoitssharingresponsibilitiesandco-operatingwithotherbodies,orhavingonlyaminimuminvolvement.1Thessalyisnotanareawherewewillfindourselvesengrossedintheminutiaeofcultadministration.Evidenceforsuchmattersisinshortsupply.Occasionally,wewillseeapolisseekingoracularadviceconcerningthetreasureofoneofitssanctuaries;orcivicofficialshandlingthemoneyforsacrificesandsupervisingwhatseemstobethesacredpropertyofvariouscults.Inmanyinstanceswewillhavetoadvancebyamoreindirectway.Evidencesuchascultsdepictedoncoins,eponymouspriests,thecultstowhichmagistratesdedicated,orthesanctuarieswherecivicdecreesweredisplayedcanmanifestapolisinterestinacertaincult.2

Thelocationofthevarioussanctuarieshasplayedanimportantrolebothintheselectionofthecults,andinthestructuringofthediscussionthatfollows.Muchhasbeenwritteninrecentyearsontheplacementofsanctuaries,stressingthattheirlocationisanimportantparameterwhichshouldcontributetoourunderstandingofacult.3Verypopularisthedivisionofsanctuariesintourban,suburban,andextra-urban.Whilethemechanicalapplicationofthesecategories,withlittleattentiongiventotheactualtopographyofaplace(p.100) andtochronologicalchanges,hasbeenrightlycriticized,thisshouldnotleadustodenytheimportanceoftheplacementofsanctuaries.4Featuresofthehumanornaturallandscapecouldimpactonourunderstandingofaparticularcult.Theacropolisandtheagora,forinstance,tomentionherejustthemostobviousexamples,wereimportantsymbolicplacesinancientcitiesandweneedtodiscussthecultssituatedwithinthemagainstthebackgroundoftherestoftheactivitiesthattookplacethere.Forthesereasons,andinordertohelpthereaderformabetterpictureofancientThessaliancities,Iwillfollowbroadlyatopographicalapproach,startingwiththecultsoftheacropolis,movingtotheagoraandthentotheoutskirtsofthecity.Wherenecessary,however,andinordertounderstandaparticularcultbetter,Iwillbringtogetherevidencewhichcrossesthesedivisions.Thatsaid,thischapter,aswillbecomeapparent,discussesalmostexclusivelysanctuarieswhichwerelocatedinsideThessaliancitiesorveryclosetothem,thatistosay,thosethatwouldbeclassifiedinvariousstudiesasurbanandsuburban.Thisissimplyduetotheevidenceavailable,notbecauseIaccedetoanaprioridivisionbetweenurbanandruralcults.Importantpolissanctuaries,asiswellknown,couldalsobefoundinthecountryside.

Thequestionofwhoparticipatedinacult,howandwhy,willbecontinuouslyaskedthroughoutthiswork.Since,aswesaw,oneofthecriticismsofpolisreligionisthatitmightdescribe,particularlyinanoligarchy,onlyaminorityofreligiouslife,thequestionsofparticipationinacultandtherolethatthecultplayedinpeopleslivesareparticularlyimportant.IfwelookatwhatweknowfromotherpartsoftheGreekworld,suchasAthens,differentcultsbroughttogetherdifferentgroupsofworshippers.5Somewere

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openonlytowomen,inotherstheywereexcluded.Importantpolisfestivalscouldpulltogetheralargecrowd:women,men,andchildren;citizens,meticsandotherforeigners,orevenslaves.Somewalkedintheprocession,otherstookpartinthecompetitions,setupanoffering,receivedaportionfromthepublicsacrifice,ordinedinprivate.Andstillothers,wemayimagine,stoodapart,beingmerelyspectators.6Ontheotherhand,somecultsdemandedtheleastnumberofpeople.Therewereriteswhichrequiredsecrecy;andriteswhichcouldbesufficientlyexecutedonlybythosedirectlyinvolvedinthecult,suchasthesacrificesperformedbytheassemblyandbythemagistrates.Itisclear,then,that,whenaskingaboutreligiousparticipationinthepoliscultsofoligarchicThessaly,weshouldnotbelookingforasingleall-encompassinganswer,orbuildtheargumentsolelyontheevidenceofasinglecult.Onesource,forexample,speaksofafestivalatKrannoninwhichallKrannonians(p.101) participated.7Butthisinitselfimpliestheexistenceofmoreexclusivefestivals.Weshouldaimtosketchthecontoursofapicturewiththeexpectationthattherewillbeconsiderablevarietyandvaryingdegreesofparticipationindifferentcults.Thisvariety,however,maynotbeincompatiblewith,andmayenable,theemergenceofanoverallpattern.

WemustacceptthelimitationsoftheThessaliancasestudy.WewillneverbeabletoaccessthedetailsoffestivalparticipationinthewaythatcansometimesbedoneinAthens.Norwillwebeabletoguessthenumberandidentityofthespectators.FortheFrenchschoolthemostimportantstatus-definingritualwassacrifice,8butwedonothaveasinglepieceofinformationaboutthedivisionofThessaliansacrifices.9Theevidenceavailable,then,largelycomesintheformofdedications,andinparticularinscribeddedications.Thisrelativelylargebodyofevidence,anditsuseforthestudyofThessalianreligion,hasbeendiscussedindetailinthefirstchapterofthiswork.Itwasarguedtherethatthepatterningoftheevidenceseemstoindicatethattherewerecustomsgoverningthedecisionofwhocouldofferaninscribeddedicationtoaparticulargod.Theirevidencemay,therefore,provideuswithastartingpointfordiscussionsoftheimportanceofcertaincultsforparticularworshippers.Geographicalvariation,thedemandsofindividualcults,theevidenceofothertypesofdedication,anddifferentformsofreligiousparticipationaddcomplexitytothepicture.Bycombiningthevarioussourcesofevidenceavailable,andwhilebringingthiscomplexitytothefore,IwillattemptinwhatfollowstocomeupwithaplausibledescriptionofsomeofthemostimportantThessalianpoliscults.

Sourvinou-Inwood,whendiscussingwhatshecalledcentralpoliscults,puttheemphasisnotonthequestionofwhopreciselyundertooktheadministrationofthecultbutonthegroupforwhomthecultwasadministered:centralpoliscults,sheargued,arethoseadministeredonbehalfandforthewelfareofthewholepolis.10Herdefinitionbringsforththeothermajorissuethatisgoingtoconcernushere,thesymbolicimportancethataculthadinpeopleslives.WeshouldelaboratehereonSourvinou-Inwoodsdefinitionanddistinguishbetweentheclaimsofaculttobeperformedforthewelfareofthecityatlargeandtheperceptionofthiscultbydifferentgroupswithinthepopulation.Thesearedifficultquestionsdifficultnotonlybecausewehardlyhavetheevidencetoanswerthem,butbecauseweshouldperhapsnotsearchforclearanswers.Thematter,thoughcloselyrelatedtothequestionsofcultparticipationandthefunctionofacult,isnot

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exhaustedbythem.Thereisnotasimple(p.102) correlateofthesortcultswithfewparticipantsmatteredtofeworcultswhichhadsomeconnectionwithfertilityloomedlargeinthepopularimagination.InthecaseofAthens,passagesinliterarysourcesconveytoussomethingoftheimportancethatsomecultscouldhaveinpeopleslives:theAnthesteriaforachildoranexpatriateinEgypt;theThesmophoriaforthewomenwholeftthehouseandfortheirmenwhostayedindoors.InThessalywelackanytextstosignpostthewayforus.Inmostcasesthetextsareonlyparticularlyvividreflectionsofwidelyheldattitudesandperceptions.Thesecanpotentiallybeaccessedfromotheranglesandwithothertypesofdata;wemightwellguesssomethingofthesignificanceoftheAnthesteriafromthemanychoesfoundinexcavation.

Inordertounderstandthesignificanceofacultwehavetoexplorethemultiplewaysinwhichitcouldbeinscribedinpeopleslives.Participationandfunctionareobviouslyimportant.Butwemustalsoconsiderthefrequencyoffestivals,theaccessibilityanduseofthesanctuaryoutsideoffestivaldays,andthememoriesevokedbythecultinworshippers.Degreesofmaterialinvestmentcanofferusinsightintothesephenomena.Magnificenttemples,forexample,evenifviewedfromafar,canevokethecultinthemindsofonlookers.Itisinthisrespectthattheevidenceofinscribeddedicationsacquiressomeofitsinterpretivevalue.Theyshouldnotbeseensomuchasanindicatorofactualcultparticipation,butasanindicatoroftheconstructedmemoriesofit.InwhatfollowsIoccasionallyventurethoughtsonthesymbolicimportanceofsomeofthecults.InnocaseamIclaimingasimplecorrelationbetweenspecifictypesofevidenceandspecifictypesofconclusion.Itisthroughanoverallassessmentofasmanyvaryingfactorsasareavailablethattheseargumentsareconstructed.11

3.2.CultsontheAcropolisTheacropoleisofThessaliancities,andtheircults,canbedescribedindetailonlyinahandfulofcases,suchasPharsalos,Pherai,andLarisa.Inallthreecases,aswithmanyothers,12thehilloftheacropoliswaslocatedattheedgeofthecity,usingasitsexteriorwallthecityfortifications,whileasecond,separate,wallsupposedlydividedtheacropolisfromtherestofthecity.TracesofthatseparatewallhaveonlybeenfoundatPharsalos.ThePharsalianacropolis,locatedinthesouthernmostpartofthecity,intheareaofProphitisElias,consistedoftwohillsunitedbyalowersaddle.Thewallsvisibletoday(p.103) areByzantine,butcloselyfollow,soitisbelieved,thecourseoftheancientfifth-andfourth-centurywalls.Theareaenclosedhadatotallengthof500metresandawidthof60metres:approximatelythesamesizeastheAthenianacropolis.13

Asimilararrangementfortheacropolis,consistingoftwohillsandaridge,possiblyexistedatPherai.Inthesouth-westpartofthecitythetwohillsofMagoulaBakaliandHagiosAthanasiosrise,andonthelowsaddlebetweenthemstandsthemodernchapelofPanagia.Thecourseoftheacropoliswallisunclearandnoremainsexistofthewallthatcutofftheacropolisfromthecity.Onlyafewtracesofthefourth-centurycitywallhavebeenunearthedinthesouthandsouth-westernpartofHagiosAthanasios.Itislikely,asKakavogiannishassuggested,thatbothhills,andnotonlyMagoulaBakali,asotherscholarsprefer,servedastheacropolis.14

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AtLarisatheacropolis,ifwefollowthesuggestionsofthemainexcavatorofthecity,A.Tziafalias,seemstohaveenclosedamuchwiderarea.Itwaslocatedinthenorthpartofthecity,atthesitecalledPhrourion,wherethemodernchurchofHagiosAchileiosissituated.TziafaliashassuggestedthattheacropolisenclosedtothesouthbothofLarisastheatresandthePeukakiahill.Tothesouth-eastheplacestheTempegate,atthepointwherehebelievestheacropoliswallmetthecitywall.15However,notraceofanyofthesewallssurvives;thecitywall,aHellenisticinscriptioninformsus,wasmadeofmudbricks.16Tziafaliasreconstructionofthecitywallscircuitisbasedonthelocationoftheancientcemeteries,whilethatoftheacropoliswallismerelyhypothetical.

Giventhatwedonotknowhowfartheareaoftheacropolisextended,itwillnotalwaysbeclearwhichcultsshouldbecountedascultsoftheacropolis.Norwillwebeabletotellwhethertheywerelocatedinsidethewallsorontheslopesoftheacropolishill,andwhetherdecidingonthematterisofanysignificanceornot.Ithas,forinstance,beensuggestedthatinthecaseofAthenswecouldperhapsdistinguishbetweenacropolisandperiacropolitancults.17Inwhatfollowswecouldtentativelydistinguishbetweentwogroups:ontheonehandthecultofAthenaPoliasandperhapsofZeusThaulios,locatedontopoftheacropolis,whichstoodsymbolicallyforthecityandits(p.104) protection;and,ontheother,thecultsofDionysus,Demeter,andHeracles,which,althoughofnolesscivicimportance,werelocatedontheslopesoftheacropolis,standingsymbolicallyforthecountrysidewithinthecity.

3.2.1.GuardingtheCity:theCultofAthenaPoliasWewillbeginoursurveywiththecultoftheacropolisparexcellence,thatofAthenaPolias.AtLarisa,aHellenisticcivicdecreespecifiesthatacopyofitshouldbesetupinthesanctuaryofAthenaPolias.18LittleelseisknownaboutthisLariseancult,presumablylocatedontheacropolisofthecity,otherthanthatthegoddesswashonoured,probablyinthefourthcentury,withalargetemple,remainsofwhicharestillvisibleonthehillofHagiosAchileios.19Accordingtoonestrandoftradition,Akrisios,thefounderheroofLarisa,wasburiedinthesanctuary.20AtthenearbycitylocatedatGremnosMagoula(mostcommonlyidentifiedwithancientArgissa)welearnthatfineswerepaidtothetreasuryofthegoddessinthefifthcentury.21Itisnotclearfromthefragmentarydecreewhetherthetrespassingbeingpunishedrelatedtothecultofthegoddessornot;thelattercasewouldmeanthatthetreasuryofAthenaPoliasservedasarepositoryforawiderincome.AnimportantpassagefromXenophon,towhichIwillreturnonseveraloccasionslaterinthischapter,informsusthatinthefourthcenturyfundstobeusedbothforsacredandsecularpurposeswerekeptontheacropolisofthecityofPharsalos.XenophontellsusthatthePharsalians,whentheyfellintostrife,entrustedPolydamaswiththeacropolisandwiththedutyofreceivingtherevenues.Hewasresponsibleforspendingbothforreligiouspurposesandfortheadministrationingeneral,followingthelawsandgivingthemayearlyaccount.Andwhenevertherewassomedifficultyhepaidfromhisownmoney,andwhenevertherewasasurplushepaidhimselfback.22

ApartfromLarisaandArgissaallevidenceforthecultofAthenaPoliasinotherThessaliancitiesisconjectural.AccordingtoArvanitopoulos,the(p.105) sanctuarywhichhebriefly

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excavatedonahill,perhapstheacropolis,inthecentreofKrannonwasthatofAthenaPolias.Numerousfragmentsofdecreeswereunearthedduringtheseexcavations.Mostofthemarelosttoday.Judgingfromthereports,noneseemstohavementionedthenameofthedeityinwhosesanctuarytheyweretobesetup.23ThecityofKrannon,sowelearnfromdecreesfoundscatteredallovertheareaofthecity,setupitsdocumentsinseveralsanctuaries,includingthoseofApolloProerniosandofAsclepius,whoseexactlocationisunknown.24Asingledecree,whichalsocomesfromthewiderareaofKrannon,specifiesthatacopyofitshouldbesetupinthesanctuaryofAthena.25Wearelefttospeculate:wasthissanctuarylocatedontheacropolis,orelsewhereinthecity?MovingontoPherai,atorsoofAthenaintheseverestyleandofalmostlifesizefoundontheacropoliscouldbeevidenceforhercult.26AndAthenasheadwearingahelmetwasrepresentedonfifth-centurycoinsmintedbyPharsalosandKierionandonfourth-centuryissuesofthecitiesOrthos,Peirasia,Phaloreia,Pharkadon,andTrikka.27ButagainwhethershewasworshippedasPoliasontheacropolisorundersomeothertitleelsewherewecanhardlytell.28Theimportanceofthegoddess,however,forthevariouscitiesisunmistakable.

ThecultofAthenaPoliaswasalsoobservedintheperioikicareas.TwoimportantsanctuariesofthegoddesswererevealedatthebeginningofthelastcenturyontheacropolisofGonnoiinPerrhaibiaandPhthioticThebesinAchaiaPhthiotis.29EvidenceforcultactivityatbothdatesbacktotheArchaicperiod,tothesixthoreventheseventhcentury,30whenthefirstvotivesappear,andlastswellintotheHellenisticperiod.Tothislaterperiodofusebelongseveralinscribeddedicationsengravedsometimesonsmallbases,butusuallyonsimplestelai,whichmayhavebeenoncecoveredwithpainteddecoration.ItisfromtheseinscribedHellenisticdedicationsthatwecanstart(p.106)conjuringupanimageofthecultofthegoddessinthesecities.Asweshallsee,someoftheconclusionswewillreachcouldberelevanttotheThessalianevidence.

Thefirstobservationtobemadeisthatallthededicantswhorecordedtheirnameinthededicationsweremen.Lookingmorecloselyatthededicatoryformulae,wecanglimpsesomethingoftheroleandintereststhatthesemenhadinthecult.InadedicationfromGonnoi,offeredbyoneTimon,thegoddessiscalledHoplophorosandPallas,twoculticepithetsofAthenawithclearmilitaryconnotations.AlthoughtheepithetHoplophoroscouldsimplyrefertothearmedAthenaherself,hoplophoria,thecarryingofarms,isattestedasthenameofaritualelsewhereintheGreekworld;andarmedparadeswerenotforeigntothecultofthegoddess.ItmaywellbethatTimonhadprocessedordancedinarmourduringacelebrationinhonourofthegoddess.31

FourotherdedicationstoAthenafromGonnoimadebytheguards,phrouroi,bringoutthepossibilitythatmeninarmourwereactuallytobeseeninthesanctuaryofthegoddessondaysotherthanthoseoffestivalcelebrations.32AgroupknownasthephrouroiisalsoattestedonseveraldedicatoryinscriptionsfoundatthemodernvillageofMikroKeserli(ancientElateia?),almostoppositeGonnoi,33andonafunerarystelefromAtraxsetupforTeleutias,presumablyoneoftheircolleagueswhodiedinoffice.34Ithasbeenfurtherarguedthatthearcheskopoi,whodedicatedtoAthenaPoliasatPhthiotic

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Thebes,wereasimilartypeofgroup.35Thephrouroi,ten,eleven,andtwelveinnumberandheadedbyanarchiphrouros,seemtohavebeencitizens,asisindicatedbytheinclusionoftheirpatronymic.Butasfortheirage,modeofappointment,andexactdutieswearelesscertain.TheyhavebeencomparedtotheAthenianephebes,whowere,intheHellenisticperiod,responsibleforpatrollingtheAtticcountryside.36Andithasalsobeen(p.107) suggestedthattheirdutieswerenotstrictlyspeakingmilitary,butmainlyreligious:whatthephrouroisafeguardedwasnottheterritoryofthecity,butitstemplesandprecincts.37Othershaveseenthephrouroiandarcheskopoiasmilitary,astandingunit,permanentlyresidentontheacropolis.38Itisnotcleareitherwhetherweshoulddrawadistinctionbetweenthearchiphrouros,whowasattheheadofthegroup,andtherestofthephrouroi.Thearchiphrouros(butalsooneofthephrouroi),evidencefromGonnoishows,belongedtooneofthemostprominentfamiliesofGonnoi.39BycontrastonededicationfromMikroKeserli,ifcorrectlyrestored,wouldprovideevidencethatsomeofthephrouroiwereoflowstatus.40PhthioticThebes,Gonnoi,MikroKeserli(Elateia?),andAtraxwerealllocatedatsitesofstrategicimportanceduringtheMacedonianperiod.Wasthepresenceofthephrouroiinthesecitiesaninnovationofthattime?

Itistimetobringintothediscussionthepoliarchoi.AtPhalanna,aPerrhaibiancity,guarddutiesseemtohavebeentheresponsibilityofacollegeofcivicmagistrates,thepoliarchoi.AHellenisticinscription,engravedonalargebase,foundatthebroaderareaofancientPhalanna,recordsadedicationbythepoliarchoitoAthenaPolias.41Moreimportant,Hellyhasassociatedwiththisbase,becauseofsimilaritiesinmaterial,size,anddate,astonecarryinganepigramcomposedbyanotherwiseunknownpoetcalledAphthonetos,whichcommemoratesthededicationofastatuetoKoreTritogenes(apoeticepithetofAthena)bythefaithfulguards(phylakes)whomthewholecityhaselected.42IfHellyssuggestioniscorrect,wegainacoupleofimportantpiecesofinformationconcerningthepoliarchoi.First,theywereelectedbythedemos,secondlytheyseemtohavehadguardingduties.PoliarchoiarealsoattestedintheHellenisticperiodinThessaliancities,suchasKrannonandMopsion.43Inthiscasewemight,therefore,feelourselvesonlessslipperygroundwhilecrossingtheThessalian/perioikicdivide.

WecouldtakewithHellyanotherstep:atLarisawehearofanothergroupofmagistrates,thepoli(to)phylakes,who,heargues,hadsimilarfunctionsto(p.108) thoseofthepoliarchoi.Theywere,judgingbytheirname,theguardsofthecity,andaccordingtoAristotle,whobrieflyreferstothem,theywerealsoelectedbythedemos,unlikeothermagistrateswhowereelectedbyamorerestrictedgroup.AccordingtoAristotletheroleofthepolitophylakesinthepoliticsofLarisawasnotnegligible.Theywere,hetellsus,oftenpronetodemagogy,theirlustforpowercausingmanyrevolutionsinthecityofLarisa.44Adifferentpicturestartstoemergehere,oneinwhichthedutyofsafeguardingtheacropolisandthecityseemstohavefallenontheshouldersofanimportantgroupofmagistrates.

Guardsandtheacropolisalsofigureprominentlyinthepassage,quotedatthebeginning

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ofthissection,fromXenophon,whichreferstothePharsalianPolydamasandhisdutytoguardtheacropolisandkeepitsafe.45PolydamaswasacontemporaryofJasonofPheraiandXenophontakestheopportunitytotalkabouthimwhiledescribingtheeventsthatledtotheascendancyofJasontotheleadingpositionintheThessalianethnos.Jason,wearetold,inordertoachievehisplans,visitedPharsalosandmetPolydamas,aprominentcitizenofthecity,whowasamanofhighesteemnotonlyinPharsalositself,butinthewholeofThessaly.WhichofficePolydamasheldinPharsalosatthetimeofJasonsvisitisamuchdebatedquestion.Almosteverypossibleanswerhasbeenrehearsed,butonepossibilityisthathewassomethinglikeapoliphylax.46

Itisnoteasytofittheevidencewehavebeenreviewingintoasinglecoherentpicture.Wehavecomealongwayfromthephrouroiofsecond-centuryGonnoitoPolydamas,theopponentofJasoninthefirstdecadesofthefourthcenturyandoneofthefewnamedindividualsinThessalianhistory.Isitlikelythatwhatwasoncethedutyofanimportantgroupofmagistratessteadilypassed,insomeplacesatleast,intothehandsofmoreminorofficials?Didthepoliarchoi/politophylakesloseoverthecourseoftimesomeoftheirpower?Evenifweareuncertainofthespecificdetails,ageneralpictureemerges:wecanclearlydiscernthesymbolicimportanceoftheacropolisasastrongholdandtreasuryofthecityandtheresponsibilityaccordedtovariousgroupsofofficialstosafeguardit;themesthatwere,insomecitiesatleast,closelyconnectedwiththecultofAthenaPolias.

Armedparades,militaryguards,civicofficialssafeguardingthecity;atGonnoiweevenfindmalepriestsservingthegoddess.47UsuallyinGreekreligionmenservedmalegodsandwomenservedgoddesses.Athena,likeAphrodite,doesfurnishtheoccasionalexceptiontothis.Buttheevidence(p.109) discussedheresuggestsanexceptionalcentralityofmeninhercult.48Toourpresentknowledge,notasingleinscribeddedicationtoAthenaPoliaswasofferedbyawoman.Itisnot,however,onlythelackofanyfemalevotariesthatstandsoutbutalsothelackofanyprivatededicationsmadebyeithermenorwomen.Whatabouttherestofthevotivematerial?ThefindsfromthesanctuariesatGonnoiandPhthioticThebes,recordedverybrieflyandwithnoprecisedating(butmostobjectsseemtodatetotheArchaicperiod)ornumbersbeingmentioned(sometimesweonlyknowthemfromphotographs),wereverysimilar.49Theyincludedsmallbronzefibulaeandrings,otherjewelleryitems,suchasleadpendants,andacoupleofgoldandsilverpieces(PhthioticThebes),smallbronzevases,bronzefigurinesofbirds(PhthioticThebes),knives(Gonnoi),andminiatureweapons(PhthioticThebes).Severalterracottafigurinesportrayingastandingfemalewerealsofound;inparticular,asingleprotomerepresentinghelmetedAthenahasbeenreportedfromPhthioticThebes.Thediversityofthefindsandtheirmaterialopensupscopeforustoimagineavarietyofworshippersofdifferentstatusesandmeanscomingtothesanctuaries.Butcanwebuildonthisevidenceanimageofagoddess,liketheoneontheAthenianacropolis,approachedwithgiftsandthank-offeringsatnumerousoccasionsofoneslife?Severaloftheseofferings,suchasthedressornamentsandjewelleryitems,areusually,althoughnotunequivocally,connectedwithfemalevotaries.50Furthermore,theyaresometimesconsideredasdedicationsmadebywomenatimportantperiodsof

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theirlife,suchasmarriageorchildbirth,51butthereislittleotherevidencetosuggestthatAthenaPoliaswasrelatedtosuchfemaleconcerns,ortosaythatpinsandfibulaemusthavehadthismeaninginThessaly.Wecouldequallywellthinkthatseveraloftheseobjectswereofferedbyparticipantsduringsomeofficialcelebrations;thedressornaments,forinstance,couldhavebeenofferedbywomenincommemorationofsomeritualroletheyhadinthecult,forexampleafterariteofpeplophoria.52

Thematterultimatelyhastoremainopen.Butwecould,inthewayofframingadiscussion,putforwardonepossibleimageofthecultofAthena(p.110) Polias.Wecouldpictureapubliccelebrationduringwhichmenparadedinarms,whilewomenofferedgarmentstothegoddess.Thefestival,wemayguess,mighthavebeenasplendidone,celebratedinthemanneroftheThessalianmegaloprepeia:finewoventextileshangingonthewallsandgoldorsilverdrinkingsetsbeingpassedaround.Butoncethefestivalwasovertherewaslittlelefttoremindoneofthesesplendidoccasions,littlereasonforavisitortowanderabout.Thetemples,toanAthenianatleast,wouldhavelookedhumble,53thededicationspoor,andtheonlynamesthatonecouldreadonthestelaiwouldbethoseofmenwhohadservedinthecult,ofpriests,phrouroi,andmagistrates.IsitacoincidencethatwiththeexceptionofthebordercityofGonnoi,otherThessaliancitiesonlyveryrarelysetupcopiesoftheirdecreesontheacropolis?Theepiphanestatostoposofthecity,wherehonourswereannouncedandthedecreesweretobeseen,wasusuallyelsewhere.54Theacropolis,itcouldbeargued,wasimportantandhadtobesafeguarded,butoncethiswasarrangedthemajorityofthepeoplecould,andperhapsshould,forgetaboutit.AtPharsalos,ithasbeenobserved,the(p.111)acropoliswasacitywithinthecity.Itwasperchedontheedgeofthetownandhadtwogates,allowingontheonehandcontactwiththecityitselfandtheotherdirectcontactwiththecountryside.Thelargeronesurprisinglywastheonethatledoutside,whileonlyasmallgategaveaccesstoandfromthecity.55InAthens,tobringtheargumentintosharperfocus,theacropoliswasthesymbolicheartofthecity.Thefeelingthatitbelongedtothedemosandcouldnotbeassociatedwithanyseparateindividual,orgroupofthem,wassostrongthat,ithasbeenargued,anypoliticalgatheringswerenormallyexcludedfromthearea.TheonlytimethatwefindtheacropolisassociatedwithparticularindividualsiswithPeisistratosandDemetriosPoliorketes.WhenPeisistratosfellfrompower,hesurrendered,accordingtoAristotle,theacropolistotheAthenians.56ThesituationseemstobereversedinThessalywhen,inthewordsofXenophon,thePharsaliansconsignedtheiracropolistoPolydamas.ItcouldbearguedthatinThessaliancities,theacropolis,althoughitwasasymbolicallyimportantarea,retainedastrongofficialcharacterandpossiblyneverbecamethepopulardestinationthattheAthenianonecametobe.57

3.2.2.KillingfortheCity?TheProblemofZeusThauliosLetusproceedtoexamineothercultswhichmayhavebeenhousedontheacropolis.ZeusThauliosmightalsohavebeenworshippedontheacropolisofLarisa,ifthelatefourth-orearlythird-centurystelededicated(?)tohimandfoundattheareaofHagiosAchileioswasfoundinsituandisevidenceforactualcult.58ThecultofZeusThauliosisattestedonlyinThessaly.TheepithetThaulios,ithasbeensuggested,stemsfromthe

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rootthau-,whichmeanstokill.ZeusThaulioscouldthusmeansomethinglikeZeusPhonios,anotherepithetofthegod,whichisalsoattestedatLarisa.59ThepowerofZeusThaulios(andZeusPhonios)tokill,ithasfurtherbeenargued,wasmainlydirectedagainstanimals.TheargumentrestsonthesimilaritybetweentheepithetofthegodandthenameoftheAtheniangenosThaulonidai,whichplayedanimportantroleattheAthenianBouphonia.60AttheBouphonia,whichwasthenameof(p.112) themostprominentritualoftheDipoleiafestivalcelebratedinhonourofZeusPolieus,amemberofthegenosThaulonidaikilledanoxwithanaxe.61ZeusThaulios,followingthissuggestion,wasakindofZeusBouphonios(orbetterZeusoftheBouphonia),theThessalianversionofZeusPolieuspairedneatlyontheacropolisofLarisawithhisdaughterAthena,ashewasontheacropolisofAthens.Theconnection,however,betweentheepithetofthegodand,throughthegenosofThaulonidai,withtheBouphoniaistenuous.

Weshouldinturnconsideranotherdominantstrandofinterpretation,onewhichplacesZeusThauliosamongotherZeuses,suchasZeusAlastor,ZeusMeilichios,orZeusHikesios,whoserelationwithkillinganddeathcamethroughtheirassociationwithpurificationfrombloodshedandthevengeanceoftheangrydead.62ZeusThauliosmaywellhavesharedinterestswithZeusMeilichiosinThessaly,ifitistruethattheywerebothworshippedtogetherwithEnnodia(agoddesswho,asweshallsee,mightherselfhavehadaconnectionwithpurification).ZeusMeilichiosreceivedadedicationtogetherwithEnnodiaandanothergodatLarisa.63ButthesuggestedrelationbetweenZeusThauliosandEnnodia,thoughitisprominentinscholarship,islessclear.64ThesuggestionthatZeusThaulioswasworshippedtogetherwithEnnodiaathergreatsanctuaryatPheraidatesbacktothebeginningoflastcentury,whenexcavationsatthelargetempleofthegoddessinthenorthernpartofthecitybegan.AtthattimethetemplewasactuallyattributedsolelytoZeusThaulios,thoughnoinscriptionsmentioningthegodwerefoundinthesanctuary.Theexcavators,ArvanitopoulosandBquignon,assumedthatthetemplebelongedtohim,becausetheyhadfoundseveralstelaidedicatedtothegodinthecityofPherai,andsoZeusThauliosappearedtohavebeenanimportantPheraiandivinity.Wheninscriptionswereeventuallydiscoveredinthesanctuary,however,theyactuallynamedEnnodia.Buteventhen,andeventhoughtheownershipofthetemplewasreinstatedtothegoddess,ZeusThaulioswasallowedashareinhercult.Thefindspotofsomefurther(p.113) inscriptions,discoveredmorerecently,whichalsomentionZeusThaulios,isequallyunclearandinformationaboutthemisoftencontradictoryinthevariousreports.65AnotherpieceofevidencewhichmayormaynothavecomefromthesanctuaryisabronzefigurineofZeusbrandishinghisthunderboltdatedtothefifthcentury:butwasheavisitinggodorarecipientofcult?AndwhichZeusarewetorecognizeinthisimage?66

Tocontinue,bothZeusThauliosandZeusMeilichiosseemtohavebeenworshippedbysmallkinshipgroups.Butagain,thereispossiblyadifferencetobenotedhere.Theevidence,meagrethoughitis,suggeststhatdifferentworshippersdedicatedtoZeusMeilichiosandZeusThaulios.ZeusMeilichios,aselsewhereintheGreekworld,seemstohavecaredfortheprosperityofthefamilyanditsmembers.Anunknowndedicant

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offeredasteletoZeusMeilichiosandTycheinfavourofsomebodyelse(achild?)andinanotherinstanceawomandedicatedtothegod.67InthepreviouschapterwehavediscussedtheassociationofZeusThauliosatPharsaloswiththeproblematicgroupsoftheanchistoi,arguingthatthecultofZeusThauliosseemsnottohavebeenthecultofaparticularkinshipgroup,agenoscultforinstance,butacultofkinshipgroupsingeneral.OtherevidenceshowsthatthededicantsofZeusThauliosweremostlygroupsofmen.SixmendedicatedtothegodatPheraiandanotherdedicationfromAtrax,possiblytoZeusThaulios,preservesthenameofeightmen.68AtthesamecityhealsoreceivedadedicationbyagroupcalledSimmidai(possiblyagentiliciangroupofsomekind),whichcountedtwentymembers.Thededicationwasdatedbythetwotagoi,theofficialsoftheSimmidaiwemayassume.69

Toconclude,evenwiththeuncertainties,intotaltheevidenceseemstoindicatethatwithZeusThauliosweareoutsidetheclosedfamilyunitanditsconcerns.Hisrealmseemstohavebeenmorerelatedtothemaleworld.We(p.114) canhardlytellwhatconstitutedhispreciseinterests.Perhapshewasconnectedwithpurificationandvengeance,ashasbeensuggested.ButiftheassociationwithEnnodiaisremoved,asmightverywellbethecase,thenlittleremainstogroundthissuggestion.Thelocationofhissanctuaries,judgingatleastfromthediscoveryofseveralofhisdedicationsatimportantlocations(ontheacropolisofLarisa,ontheacropolisofthesmallsettlementXyladesclosetoPharsalos,andinPharsalositselfontheHagiaParaskevihill,whichsomehaveidentifiedastheoldcitycentre),alsobegsaquestion.Howweretheconcernsofagodworshippedbysmallgroupsofkinsmencentraltothecity?WasitbecausehecoulddirecthispowerforvengeanceagainsttheenemiesofthecitythatZeusThaulioscouldbeassociatedwiththeacropolis?Thaulon,Hesychiusinformsus,wastheMacedonianAres.70ItisalsonoteworthyinthisrespectthatXylades,thesmallsettlementclosetoPharsalos,whereoneofthededicationstoZeusThaulioscamefrom,mighthavebeenadefencesettlement.71WeretheworshippersofZeusThauliosalsobrothersinarms?

WhatevertheprecisefunctionofthecultofZeusThaulios,thefactthatheisbeingworshippedbygroupsofkinsmenattheveryheartofthecity,ontheacropolis,remainsmostimportantandremarkable.Thecultoffersusanotherviewoftheclaimsstakedintheheartofthecity;aviewofthefactionsandcompetitionsofvariousgroupsofatypethatultimatelyledatPharsalostotheelectionofPolydamasandtheassignmentoftheacropolistohishands.

3.2.3.AcropolisViewsoftheCountryside:Dionysus,Demeter,andHeraclesWeshallproceeddownthesouthslopesoftheacropolisofLarisatomorefamiliarground.Dionysuswasworshippedhereinoneofhiswell-knownsettings,closetoamonumentaltheatreconstructedinthethirdcenturyBC.HewasinvokedasDionysusMakedonikosinafirst-centurydedicationofferedtohimbythepriestessesofAphrodite.72ButhewasalsoworshippedinamoreThessalianguise.AlistofthepriestessesofDemeterPhylakaandarchousaiofDionysusKarpioswasinscribedonafirst-centurystelefoundinthewiderareaoftheacropolis.73ThetitleKarpiosforDionysusseemstohavehadanoldThessalianpedigree.Itcanbetracedbacktothefifth

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century,whenthegod(p.115) receivedadedicationatLarisa.74HewasalsoworshippedatMikroKeserli,asmallsettlementtotheeastofLarisa,andatGomphoiinwesternThessaly.75

ThepairingofDionysusandDemeterisnotuncommon,giventheagriculturalconnectionsofbothdeities,apointreinforcedbythetitleKarpios(derivingfromkarposfruit)giventoDionysus.76Thecultofbothdeities,itisoftenstated,wasverypopularinThessaly,anareafamousforitsagriculturalproduce.77Thereisquitealotofevidencefortheircult,butweshouldnotconsiderthematterentirelystraightforwardandunproblematic.TheircultsintroduceustoanumberofquestionsconcerningtherelationshipbetweenagricultureandreligioninThessaly.Tohelpunderstandtheissuesatstakewecanbringhere,asaparallel,thecaseofSparta.Inbothareasmuchagriculturalworkwasdonebytheservileclassesofthepenestaiandhelots,whileanyonewithsocialorpoliticalaspirationsshouldhavehadhishandsfreefromagriculturallabour.RelatedtothischaracteristicofSpartansociety,ithasbeenargued,wasthefactthatthecultsofDionysusandDemeterdidnotdevelopinthewaytheydidelsewhereintheGreekworld;onlycertainaspectsoftheircultseemtohavebeenprominent.78Thessaly,however,wasnoSparta.DespitePindarsinvocation,inthefirstlinesofPythian10th,oftheircommonHeraclidorigin,thetwostateswereinseveralrespectsverydifferent.ToboilthematterdowntoitsessentialswecouldsaythatSpartahadamilitaryaristocracy,whileThessalyhadalandedone.ThefertilityoftheThessalianlandwasacommontoposinliterarysources,andtheThessaliannoblemen,althoughneverengagedthemselvesinagriculturallabour,werestillveryoftenmentionedinthesamebreathastheirvastestatesoflands,theirnumerouspenestai,andlargeflocksofanimals.NeitherwasthestatusoftheThessalianunder-classescomparableinallmatterstothatofthehelots.ThehelotswereownedbytheSpartanstate,whilenosuchevidenceexistsforthepenestai,whoseemtohavebeencloselyassociatedwiththeirowners;andwhileeveryyearSpartadeclaredwaragainstitshelots,theThessalianpenestaiseemtohavefoundthemselvesregularlyfightingatthesideoftheirmasters.79Inalandthatboasteditsfertility,itisthusnosurprisetofindthecultofsuchagriculturalgodsasDionysusandDemeterhousedontheacropolisofitscities.Butwe(p.116) alsoneedtowonder:howstressedwereconcernsaboutagricultureinthecultsandhowopenwasparticipationintheirfestivals?

LetusstartbygoingthroughtheevidenceforthecultofDionysusinThessaly.Eleveninscribeddedicationstohimsurvive,theoldestofwhichhasbeendatedtothefifthcentury,whiletherestbelongtothethird,second,andfirstcenturiesBC.Theycamefromanumberofsites:Larisa,MikroKeserli,Atrax,andPheraiinThessaly,andPolydendriandLechoniainMagnesia.80Othersourcesofevidencehelpcompletethepicture.WehearforinstanceofamonthcalledDithyrambiosatGonnoi,ofonecalledIyggiosatKierionandScotoussa,andThyiosinthefederalcalendar.81AmountaincalledNyseion,whichmighthavebeenidentifiedwiththemythicalNysawhereDionysuswasborn,appearsinaterritorydisputeinvolvingKondaia,acityclosetoLarisa.82AtScotoussa,therewasagatecalledAuroschadophoros,namedmostlikelyfromaritualinhonourofthegod,whichinvolvedthecarryingofvinebranchescalledauroschades.83

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Connectedmightbethebunchofgrapesdepictedonfourth-centurybronzecoinsofthecity.84TherewasacultofDionysusPelekosatPagasai.85Dionysiacimageryappearsonthecoinsofseveralcities,includingMetropolisinwesternThessaly.TheyportrayDionysusseatedonarockandholdingathyrsus.86AbunchofgrapesalsoappearsonthecoinsofthecitiesofEurai,Eurymenai,Meliboia,andRhizous,allofwhichseemtohavebeenlocatedonthenorth-eastcoastofMagnesia.87Finally,atypicalresistancemythtoldhowBoutes,thebrotherofLycourgos,pursuedthenursesofDionysuswhowerecelebratingorgiasticritessomewhereinAchaiaPhthiotis.88

Thereis,then,afairamountofevidenceforthecultofDionysusinseveralThessalianandperioikiccities,withaclusteringoftheevidenceinnorth-eastThessalyandMagnesia.WecanonlytouchhereonthepossiblerelationsbetweenthedistributionoftheevidenceforDionysusandthepracticeof(p.117) viticultureinThessaly.WeknowfromTheophrastusthatvines,albeitnotamongitsmostfamousproducts,grewinThessaly.89VineyardsboughtbythecityareindeedmentionedinaninscriptionwhichperhapscamefromHomolion,acitylocatedinthenorth-eastpartofMagnesiaclosetoEurai,Eurymenai,Meliboia,andRhizous,allofwhichdepictedgrapesonthecoins.90Wasviticultureperhapsaspecializationofthearea?91

HowexactlyshallwepictureDionysusfestivals?WeretheyoccasionscelebratedinjollyintoxicationbyfarmersandlandownersaliketimeswhensomeonewiththestatusofanAthenianambassadorcouldfindhimselfdrinkingconviviallyinthecompanyofpenestai?92Severalscatteredpiecesofevidence(theiconographyofcoins,thenamesofthegateAuroschadophorosandofthemonthThyios)mightbetrayaconnectionwithwine,butinfestivalsofDionysusthisshouldbeexpected.Weareunfortunatelymissingboththeendand,mostimportantly,thestartingpointoftheprocessionatScotoussa,whichbroughtintothecitythesymboloftheforeigngodfromsomewhereinthecountryside(orjustfromasanctuarybythewalls?).93Weareequallyignorantaboutthenumberandidentityofthosewhowalkedinit,whethertheywerejustmembersofsomeprestigiousfamilies,orwhethertheywerejoinedbypeopleofallsorts.OneoftheonlyhintsastoparticipationinDionysiaccultsisthatthethird-centurytheatreofLarisacouldfit,ithasbeencalculated,10,000people.Thisisalargenumber,ifwethinkthatLarisawasasmallcity(evenmoresoifwefollowsomescholarsinthinkingthattheatreseatsweremeantonlyforcitizenmales).HellyhascalculatedthatthenumberofthoseliabletomilitaryserviceinaThessaliancitywouldaveragearound1,000.Itissometimesarguedthatthetotalpopulationofacitywouldbeeightortentimesthenumberofthoseservinginthearmy,whichinthiscasewillgiveusanumberof8,000to10,000people.94Ifwearenotveryfaroffthe(p.118) mark,thiswouldmeanthatinthetheatreofLarisa,whenpacked,onewouldnothavemetonlywithonesfellowcitizens.CitizensfromotherThessaliancities,foreignerswholivedorvisitedLarisa,perioikoi,non-citizenLariseans,women,andevenpenestai:wecanchoosefromanyorallofthesetofillintheemptyseats.

Thefestivalprogrammemighthavebeenquitecultural.Dramaticcompetitionscouldwellhavebeenstagedinhonourofthegod,althoughwehavenohardevidenceforthem.95

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ButDionysusalsoloveddancinganditisnot,ofcourse,indramaticperformancesthatweshouldimaginethearchousaiofDionysusbeinginvolved.Evenifwehesitatetopicturetheminmaenadicecstasy,weshouldneverthelessmostlikelyimaginethemdancingorsingingforthegod.96Mentoo,someofthemofhighstatus,mayhavejoinedinthefestivedance.LuciantellsusthatinThessalytheleadingmen()werealsocalledthankstotheirprominentroleinthedance.Thegodinhonourofwhichtheydancedisnotmentioned,butDionysusisasgoodanoptionasany.97TheofDionysusknownfromathird-centurydedicationfromAtraxmustalsohavebeenagroupofmaledancersinhonourofDionysus.98GroupsofthesamenamearemostlyknownfromLateHellenisticandRomaninscriptionsfromPergamos,andtheirmembersseemtohavecomefromthebestfamiliesofthecity.99SomuchwecouldperhapsinferfortheAtracianboukoloi,judgingfromtheirdedicationwhichseemstohavebeenastatue,andthefindspotoftheinscription,whichmayhavecomefromtheagora.100

(p.119) Avividdescriptionofamilitarydancecalledkarpaia,whichhasbeenassociated,thankstoitsname,withDionysusKarpios,isfoundinXenophonsAnabasis.AccordingtoXenophonitwasperformedbyAiniansandMagnesiansperioikoioftheThessalians.101Thedancetooktheformofapantomime.Tothemusicoftheflute,amanwhosearmswerelaidtoonesidepretendedtosowandtodriveateamofoxen.Hefrequentlyturnedandcheckedaroundhimselfasifinfear.Arobberapproached.Assoonasthemansawhimcoming,hesnatcheduphisarmsandwenttofightinordertosavehisoxen.Thedanceusuallyendedwiththerobberbindingthefarmeranddrivingoffhisoxen.Butsometimes,Xenophontellsus,thefarmerwon,yokedthethiefalongsidetheoxen,hishandsboundbehindhim,anddroveoff.TherelationshipofthekarpaiatothecultofDionysusisnotimmediatelysecure.Itcouldbeobjectedthattheepithetofthegod,whichalsosupposedlygaveitsnametothedance,washardlyauniquelydionysiacepithet.AnepithetlikeKarpiosandadancecalledkarpaiacouldeasilybeattachedtootherdivinitiessuchasDemeter.102Moreover,Dionysushadlittleinteresteitherinwarfareorinthekindofagriculturalconcernsexpressedinthedance.103Shouldwe,however,expectthethemeofeverydancetoberelatedtothecultofthegod?Normallywemightsayyes,butDionysusmightconstituteanexceptiongiventherangeofDionysiacdrama.

HavingtwopiecesofevidencethatmightmatchissomethingofaluxuryinThessalianstudies!Tofind,therefore,aDionysusKarpiosandadancecalledkarpaiaintheneighbouringperioikoihasunderstandablyprovenaninvitingprospectforscholars.104Itisextremelytemptingtotidyuptheinconsistenciesandpursuetheargument,sinceitcanleadthediscussiondownsomeinterestingavenuesconcerningparticipationinthecult.AccordingtotraditionwhentheThessalianscametoThessalymanyofthosewhohadhithertolivedintheplaceleftThessalyandsettledintheirhistoricalhomelands,butmanyotherschosetostaybehind.105Thelatterwereeithersubduedintoserfdomor(p.120)mingledwiththenewcomers,accordingtotraditionswhichseemtohavebeencultivatedparticularlyintheareaoftheDotianplaintothenorth-eastofLarisa.106ThereseemstobeabodyoftraditionherethattiedtogetherThessalianslivingincitieslikeLarisa,

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excludedclasseslikethepenestaiandneighbouringcommunitiesliketheperioikoi.EachofthesegroupsshouldhavehaddifferentresponsestothesemythsandthishasaninterestingresonancewithXenophonsdescriptionofthemultipleculminationsofthedance.Wemayask,therefore,whetherthiswasperhapsadancesharedbymultiplegroups:coulditbe,forinstance,thatLarisasneighbours,perioikoi,orevenpenestai,dancedakarpaiainLarisa?107

ImovenowtothecultofDemeter.Thefertilityofthefieldsandthatofwomenareusuallyconsideredamongthemainfunctionsofthegoddess.108SomuchwecangenerallysaywastrueinThessaly,too.SeveraloftheepithetswithwhichshewasworshippedinThessaly,suchasMegalartos109atPherai,Phylaka110andPlout(e)ia111atLarisa,couldbetrayaconnectionwithagriculture.A(gatheringofwomen)ismentionedinoneoftheinscriptionsfoundinthesanctuaryofDemeteratProerna.112Andallbuttwoinscribeddedicationstoherand/orKorewereofferedbywomen,remindingusthatinThessaly,aselsewhereintheGreekworld,thegoddesswasmostlyapproachedbythosewhodidnotworktheland.113Ithasfurtherbeen(p.121)suggestedthatthefestivalofThesmophoria,popularalloverGreece,waswidelycelebratedinThessaly,too.114AthesmophorionisepigraphicallyattestedonlyatDemetrias,115hardlyatraditionalThessaliancity,butthesanctuaryofDemeteratProerna,andthoseknownfromarchaeologyontheacropolisandchoraofPharsalos(atthemodernvillageAmbelia),havealsobeenidentifiedasthesmophoria.Iamnotgoingtopressthepointanyfurtherhere,sincearguingfororagainstallthesesanctuariesbeingthesmophoriatellsusnothingmorethanwhatwealreadyknew,thatthegoddesswasworshippedbywomenandinsomeconnectionwithfertility(unlessweacceptthatdefiningcitizenstatuswasamongthefunctionsofthefestivalofThesmophoria,forwhichseefurtherlaterinthissection).

Thepresence,however,oflargenumbersofhorsefigurinesintwoofthesesanctuaries(60havebeenreportedfromProernaand102fromthevotivedepositatAmbelia)isworthfurtherdiscussion.PeloponnesianmythstoldofhowDemetermatedwithPoseidonintheformofahorse,andhorsefigurineshavebeenreportedfromsomesanctuariesofthegoddess.116ButonlyinThessalydotheyoccurinsuchlargenumbers.Ontheonehand,thisishardlysurprisinggiventheimportanceofhorse-breedingforthearea.Ontheother,wewouldliketoknowpreciselyhowDemeterandherfemaleworshipperswereconnectedwiththisactivity.Demeterhadnoconnectionswithpastoralism,mountainmeadows,andmovingherdsofanimals.117Asforthewomeninhercult,theyallbutcertainlyhadnothingtodowithhorse-breedingthemselves.ButitisperhapstoohastytothinkofhorsesinThessalyonlyintermsofpastoralism.HorsesandbunchesofcornweresometimeschosentodecorateoppositesidesofThessaliancoins.118Verymuchlikethecorn,whosegrowthDemeteroversaw,thehorsetooseemstohavebeenconsideredaproductoftheThessalianland,springingfromtheearthatthestrokeofPoseidonstrident.119Moreover,itisverylikelythatthehorsemighthave(p.122)servedinThessaly,likethecorn,asametaphorformarriedlifeandreproduction.120ItmighthavebeenbecauseofsuchasymbolicassociationthathorsescametobeassociatedwithDemeterinthefirstplace.121Somesupportforsuchasuggestioncanbe

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gleanedfromtheprominentappearanceoftheanimalinThessalianweddingceremonies.122

InAthensoneoftheprimefunctionsoftheThesmophoriaseemstohavebeentodefinethestatusofcitizenwomen.123AsimilarcasecanperhapsbemadeforThasos,wherethealtarsofthepatraiofthecitywerehousedinthethesmophorion.124ButwedonothaveevidencefromelsewhereintheGreekworldtoassertthatthiswasafunctionoftheculteverywhere.InthecaseofThessalyweneedtoalsoaskwhoexactlythesecitizenwomenwouldbe:onlythosewhosehusbandssatintheassemblyseats,thatisthewivesoffullcitizens,orshouldwealsoincludethewivesofthoseexcludedfrompolitics,andhowfardownthesocialscaleofthevariouscategoriesofarchomenoipolitaishouldwereach?Itisworthpointingoutherethatsanctuariesidentifiedasthesmophoriahavebeenfoundinvariouslocalities.ThatofDemetriaswasinsidethecity,theoneatProernaatitsedge,justoutsidethewalls.ButatPharsaloswehaveevidencefortwothesmophoria,oneontheslopesoftheacropolisandtheotherattherurallocalityAmbelia.AnothervotivedepositwhichhasbeenconnectedbytheexcavatorwithacultofDemeterhasrecentlybeenfoundatthelocalityKarpochoriinwestThessaly,anditseemsthatitshouldalsobeconnectedwitharuralsanctuary.125WehardlyknowthesettlementpatternofThessaly,anddespiteclaimsthathavebeenmadeattimes,wehavenoreasontomaketheaprioriassumptionthattheaffluentlivedincitieswhilethechorawasinhabitedbypenestaiandsmalllandholders.

Therearesomedifferences,however,betweenthefindsfromthevotivedepositsatruralAmbeliaandthoseontheacropolisofPharsaloswhichinvitefurtherconsideration.Tostartwithhorsefigurines,hundredsofwhichwerefoundatAmbelia,theseseemnottohavebeenfound,atleastinsignificantnumbers,atthesanctuaryontheacropolis.ThesituationisnotveryclearbecausethreedifferentvotivedepositshavebeenexcavatedontheslopesofthePharsalianacropolisanditisnotcertainthatweshouldassociatethemallwithasinglesanctuary.126Onlythefindsfromdeposit1havebeenfully(p.123)published:theywerecontemporarywiththosefoundatruralAmbeliaandincludedmanysimilarfinds,suchasprotomesandotherseatedandstandingfemalefigurines,buttherewerenohorses,orotheranimalfigurines.Therewerealsootherdifferencesinthevotivematerial.Nominiaturehydriaeorhydriaphoroifigurineswerefoundindeposit1,althoughtheyoccurinlargenumbersatruralAmbelia.Horsefigurinesandhydriaphoroihave,however,beenreportedfromdeposit2andminiaturehydriaefromdeposit3,butwedonotknowinwhatnumbers,andthefindsfromthesetwodepositsseemtohavebeenmuchlater.127Moreover,theprotomesfoundontheacropolisweresignificantlylargerthanthosefromAmbelia.128Letusaccept,forthemoment,thatthereweredifferencesbetweenthevotivesofferedatanyonetimeinthetwosanctuariesofDemeter,theoneinthecountryside,theotherontheacropolis.Itwouldbetemptingtointerpretthesedifferencesbyappealingtothedifferentsettingofthetwocults.Dedicationsrelatedtotheanimalworldandthefertilityoftheland(hydriaeareoftenthoughttoberelatedwithsomekindoffertilityrite)wereathomeinruralAmbelia,whilethemoremonumentalofferingswerebroughttothesanctuaryinthecity.Whetherthedifferencesinthevotivematerialofthetwosanctuariesreflectedthedifferentclienteleof

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thetwocultsislessclear.Thereisnoreasontosupposethatasanctuaryinthecountrysidenecessarilyservedaclienteleoflowerstatusthanoneontheacropolis.129Butifweacceptthatthesevotivedepositsrepresentthesamecult,i.e.theThesmophoria,undertakenbywomenintwodifferentsettings,thenwemustnaturallyconcludethatthedifferencesbetweenthemrepresentdifferencesintheinterestsofwomeninthecountrysideasopposedtothecity.Thisconclusionwilltendtoleadustosupposethatthesedifferinginterestsrepresentdifferentlifestylesand,therefore,differentstatuses.

ThecultofHeracles,whomighthavebeenworshippedontheslopesofthePheraianacropolis,offersusadifferentviewofthecountryside.Tothewell-born(andperhapsnotsowell-born)ladiesofDemeterwecannowjuxtaposeHeraclesvirileworshippers.Asecond-centurydedicationrevealedduringtheexcavationsofthefortificationwallonHagiosAthanasioshillwasofferedto(p.124) theherobythetwelvehylouroi.130Thehylouroi,thatisthewardensoftheforests,were,accordingtoAristotle,themagistratesresponsibleformaintainingorderinthechora.131Patrollingthecountrysidewas,ithasbeensuggested,adutywhichinseveralplacesfellontheshouldersoftheephebes,oryoungmen,132anditisthuspossiblethattheroleofHeraclesasapatronheroofmen,andespeciallyyoungmen,washereatplay.133Thenameoftheofficials,hylouroi,seemsappropriateforHeracles,whowasoftenconnected,notleastthroughhissonHylas,withnamesofyoungmenformedwiththeroothyl-.134ButweshouldcertainlybringforwardanotherprominentpersonaofHeraclesinmyth,thatofthecivilizinghero.ThestorieswhichtoldhowHeracleswithhisdeedscleansedthecountrysidefromitsdangersandspread,whereverhepassed,thebenefitsofcivilizationarewellknown.135TostayinThessaly,alocaltraditionattributedtotheherothedrainingoftheThessalianplains.136

HeraclescultseemstohavebeenquitepopularinThessaly,knownfrominscribeddedicationsfromseveralThessaliancities,allofferedbymen,andusuallybygroupsofmen.137Wecanguessatthecontextofmanyofthesededications,associatingthemwithsomeofHeracleswell-knownfunctions:atPythion,ithasbeententativelysuggested,thegroupsoftwelveandfifteenmenmighthavehonouredtheherointhecontextofthegymnasium;138theHerakleistaiofAtraxandSouidaiofLarisamighthavebeenreligiousassociationsdininginhonourofthebanquetingheroparexcellence.139ButHeraclescultinThessalyseemstohavesteppedbeyondtheconfinesofthe(p.125) gymnasiumortheprivatedinersofhisculticassociations.AtKierion,inwestThessaly,hissanctuaryservedastherepositoryofcivicdecrees.140ScotoussahadanimportantcultofHeracles.Thegodsclubandheadweredepictedonfifth-andfourth-centuryciviccoinage,andoneoftheearliestdedicationswehavefromThessaly,asixth-centuryinscribedbaseofferedtoHeraclesKraterophroun,seemstohavesupportedtwokourosstatues,ararefindfromThessaly.141Asecond-centuryinscriptionreferstoaHerakleionclosetothecitywalls,whichmayormaynothavebeenthesamesanctuaryastheonewherethebasewassetup.142AnotherimportantandoldsanctuaryofHeracles,whichseemstoalsohavehadanEarlyArchaictemple,hasbeenrecentlyrevealedatthelocalitycalledLatomeio,tothesouthofPherai.Itisashamethatwebarelyunderstandthetopographyoftheareaandhavethustoleaveopenthequestionofwhichsettlementthe

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sanctuarybelongedto.143Here,too,theheroreceivedoneofthoserarededicationsofakourosstatue.Otherofferingsincludedbronzebowls,oneofwhichcarriedanArchaicdedicatoryinscription.Weaponswerealsofound,bringingtomindtheotherwiseknownassociationbetweenHeraclesandwar.144

ThefunctionsofHeracleswehavefoundinThessaly,themilitary,athletic,dining,andeventheprotectionofthecountryside,areallwellattestedelsewhere.Butincomparisontosomeotherplaces,suchasAthens,wherehiscultseemstohavebeenmostlyobservedbysmallgroups,andtohavebeenparticularlyimportantonthepersonalorprivatelevel,inThessaly,whilewestillhaveevidenceforthiskindofactivityrelatedtohiscult,hisworshipseemstohavetranscendedthis,enteringthemoremonumental,stateorpublicsphere.

3.3.CultsintheAgoraWecannowpasstothecultsintheagorasofThessaliancities.Butbeforeturningourattentiontomattersofreligion,weneedtodiscusswhatweknow(p.126) abouttheplacingandfunctionofThessalianagoras.Thessaliancities,Aristotlementions,hadanagoracalledthefreeagora().Init,hetellsus,notradewasallowed,norwasentrancepermittedtocraftsmen,traders,orlandlabourers,unlesstheyhadbeensummonedbythemagistrates.145Thebanningofcommercialexchangesfromtheagora,R.Martinassuresus,wasacommonfeatureofoligarchiccities.146Nevertheless,withtheexceptionoftheThessalianfreeagoras,knowntousthroughthissinglereferenceinAristotle,Iknowofnootherconcreteexampleofanoligarchicagora.Bethatasitmay,thereisnocompellingreasontodoubtAristotlestestimonyconcerningthefreeagorasofThessaliancities,althoughonemaypondervariousuncertainties,suchastheageoftheinstitution,howlongitlastedandwhetheritwastobefoundinallThessaliancities.Aristotledoesnotexplicitlymentionwhichactivitiestookplaceinthefreeagora,butthereferencetomagistrateswouldseemtoindicatethatatleastsomepoliticalactivitiestookplacethere.TheinformationthattheThessaliansusedthewordagoratodescribetheirpoliticalassembliesconfirmsthispoint.147

HesychiustellsusthattheThessalianshadanotherwordwhichmeantagora,theword,whichliterallymeansport.Unlikemostmoderninterpretations,whichtakethewordtomeanthefreeagora,148IfinditfarmorelikelythatthewordwasinsteadusedbytheThessalianstodesignatethecommercialagora.Wecouldstartfromtheassumptionthatthewordwouldhavebeenusedmetaphorically,todescribealocationwhichhadintheinlandThessaliancitiesatleastsomeofthecharacteristicsofaport.Whilethereisnoobviousreasonwhythewordportwouldhavebeenusedtodesignateaspacelikethefreeagora,149anargumentcanbeconstructedfortheuseofthewordtodesignateaplacewheremarkettransactionstookplace.Martinhasnotedaconsistentassociationbetweenportsandmarketplaces.150TheargumentgainsfurtherstrengthifthewordmentionedinaveryfragmentarydecreefromwestThessaly,whichregulatesthesympolitybetweenGomphoiandThamiai,referredtothetaxescollectedonvariousproducts.151

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Thewordisalsofoundinalatethird-centuryLariseandocument,whichconcernsthedecisionoftheLariseanstoenrol,followingPhilipVs(p.127) orders,newcitizensinthecivicbody.152Theprocessdidnotgoverysmoothly.WhilethekinghadoriginallyadvisedtheLariseanmagistratestobestowcitizenshiponallforeignerslivingintheterritoryofthecity,andthetagoihadoriginallydoneso,theylaterchangedtheirminds,andwithdrewcitizenshipfromthosewhomforsomereasontheydeemedtobeunworthy.Followingasecondmissivefromtheking,urgingthemtoreinstatecitizenshiptoall,andpromisingtohearanddecidepersonallyanydubiouscases,thetagoiofLarisachoseaslightlydifferentsolution.Theydecidedtowritedowntwolists,oneonastelewiththenamesofthoseacceptedtocitizenship,whichwastobesetupinthesanctuaryofApolloKerdoos,andasecondoneonawhiteboard()withthenamesofthosedeprivedofcitizenship,whichwastobesetupinthe.Thereisnoreasontobelieve,ashasbeendonesofar,thatboththesteleandtheweresetupinthesameplace,thatisinthefreeagora/ofthecityofLarisa.InsteadthedocumentseemstoindicatethatthesanctuaryofApolloKerdoosandtheweretwodifferentplaces.Moreover,thefactthatdifferentkindsofdocumentweresetupineachunderlinestheirdifference.Thepermanentpublicrecordwiththenamesofthoseawardedcitizenship,andindeedallcivicdecrees,weredisplayedinthesanctuaryofApolloKerdoos,whichwasclearlytheepiphanestatostoposofthecity,andmayhavebeenlocatedinthefreeagoraofthecity(foritslocationandthecultseemorelaterinthissection).Incontrast,thetemporarypublicrecordwiththenamesofthosewhowerenotdeemedworthyofcitizenship,whomaynothavebeenallowedaccesstothefreeagora,wasdisplayedintheunderliningtheirmarginalityandthemarginalityofthearea.153

ThelimitedexplorationofThessaliancitiesdoesnotallowustogroundthesesuggestionsconcerningthefreeandcommercialagorasmorefirmly.Noagorahasbeensecurelylocated.Oftenthestrongestargumentfortheidentificationofanareaasthefreeagoraisarchaeologicalinstinct.Arelativelyflatarea,inthecentreofthecity,closetotheacropolisisusuallydubbedasthefreeagora.Arvanitopouloslocated,onsuchcriteria,theagoraofGonnoisomewhereclosetothesouthwallsofthecity.154InthecasesofPharsalos,Pherai,andLarisatheexistenceofmonumentalarchitecture,revealedinrescueexcavations,isstrongsupporting,butnotunequivocal,evidence.155Similarly,(p.128) aperipherallocation,andamuchhumblerappearance,isusuallyassumedforthecommercialagora.Thereissomeslightevidenceforworkshopslocatedontheoutskirtsofthecity.156Acomplexofbuildingsinterpretedasapottersquarterhasbeenunearthedinthesouth-eastpartofthecityofPheraiandafewpotterykilnshavebeenfoundoutsidethecityofMetropolisalongoneofitsmainroads.157ThecityofAtraxfurnishesonerareexamplewherewecantalkwithmoreconfidenceabouttheagoraanditscults.158

3.3.1.CultsintheAgora(s)ofAtrax:ThemisAgoraia,AthenaAgoraia,andOthers?AtraxhasbeensecurelyidentifiedwiththesiteofPaliokastro,atthebordersofthevillagesPeneiadaandKastroonthebanksofthePeneusriver,betweenLarisaandTrikka.Thelayoutofthecityisknownonlythroughsurfacesurvey.Habitationseemsto

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havestartedintheArchaicperiod,anduntilthefifthcenturyitwasrestrictedtotheeastslopesoftheKastrohill,theareawhichhasbeenidentifiedwiththeacropolisofthecity.AftertheMacedonianconquestthecityflourished:habitationexpandedtothelowlands,anewcarefullymadewallwasconstructed.Thelocationoftheagora,accordingtoTziafalias,alsochanged.TheareaenclosedintheClassicalwallwasnowallincorporatedintotheacropolis,andtheagoramovedfurthertothesouth,closetothewallsandtheso-calledareaofthesanctuaries.159InhisbriefreportsTziafaliasdoesnotmakeexplicithisreasonsforthesesuggestions,butitseemsthattheywere,partlyatleast,basedonthediscoveryoftwofifth-centuryinscriptions,onerecordingadedicationtoAthenaAgoraiabythearchons,andtheothera(p.129) dedicationtoThemisAgoraiabythetagoi.BothwerecollectedfromthepropertyofZarimbas,butwearenottoldwhetherthisplotoflandliesintheareaidentifiedastheClassicalagoraorintheoneidentifiedastheHellenisticone.160Otherdedicatoryinscriptionswerealsofoundinthewiderarea,butthereisalsomuchconfusioninthereportsconcerningtheirexactfindspots.TwostelaidedicatedtoZeusTritodios,onedatedtothefifthandtheothertothethirdcentury,havebeenfound,accordingtotheinformationprovidedintheDeltion,inthesameproperty.161Helly,however,whopublishedtheinscriptions,locatedthesanctuaryofZeuscautiouslyjustassomewhereinthegeneralareabetweentheupperandlowercity.162And,accordingtoChrysostomou,theinscriptionscamefromthesanctuaryofZeusThaulios,whichisnoteveninthecity,butseemstohavebeenoutsidethecitywalls.163Moreover,aphallusdedicatedtoDionysusandanotherinscriptionmentioningthewerefoundinthepropertyZachares,alsodescribedonceaslyinginthesupposedareaofthesanctuaries,andelsewhereaslyingintheareaoftheagora.164

Thecultofthegodscalledagoraioiiswellattested.ZeusandHermesweremostoftentheagoraioigodsoftheGreekcities.165OutsideThessaly,acultofAthenaAgoraiaisattestedonlyatSparta.166ThecultofThemisAgoraiaisalsoattestedexplicitlyonlyinThessaly.167ButtheassociationofThemisandagorasiswellknownthroughliterature.Theepithetfitswellwiththegoddesswhowasthepersonificationofrightandsocialorder,thegoddessofwisecounsel.InHomer,Themiswasoftenthesummonerofassemblies.168ApartfromAtrax,ThemisAgoraiareceivedanearlyfifth-centurydedicationatChortoinMagnesia.169ShemightwellhavebeenworshippedintheagorasofmanyotherThessaliancities.Hercultseemstohavebeenquiteprominentinthearea.170AmonthinthecalendarsofseveralThessalianpoleisandinthefederalcalendarwascalledThemistios.171StraboknewofafamoussanctuaryofThemisIchnaiainwestThessaly.172Thegoddessalsoreceiveddedications(p.130) atStomioinMagnesiaandatTyrnavos.173AndthecityofMondaiahadaflourishingcultofthegoddess.Publicdecreesweresetupinhersanctuary,andthegoddesstreasureseemstohavebeenwealthyenoughfortheMondaianstoconsultDodonaaboutit.174

ItisdifficulttotellwhetherinthesecultsThemisputasideherpoliticalroleandacquiredotherfunctions.Inmanycasestheagoraioitheoiseemtohavesupervisedalsothecommercialactivitiesoftheagora,althoughthiswouldbeproblematicinthecaseofThessaly,giventhedivisionbetweenthefreeandthecommercialagora.InanycasethereisnoevidenceforThemishavinganycommercialfunctionsinThessaly.175Itisalso

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oftenstatedthatThemistooktheplaceofHerainThessaly.AswehaveseenthereisambiguousevidenceforthecultofthelatterinThessaly.176Andontheso-calledaltarofthesixgoddessesatPherai,whichseemstohavebeenpartofalargermonumentofferedtothetwelvegods,ThemistooktheplaceofHera.Moreover,thecultofThemisIchnaiamighthavebeenconnectedwithamythwhichrelatedhereroticpursuitbyZeus,stressingThemisconjugalrelationswiththekingofthegods.177Whether,however,thismeansthatshealsotookupthemaritalfunctionsofthespouseshereplacedisfarlesscertain.Inall,thereis,then,littleevidenceforThemishavingfunctionsotherthanthepoliticalinThessaly.178Nevertheless,thefameofhercultasIchnaiainwestThessalyandthewealthofherMondaiansanctuarymightsuggestthatcelebrationsinherhonourwere,atleastinsomecities,largerpubliceventsandnotjustconfinedtoafewmagistrates.179

ThededicationstoThemisAgoraiaandAthenaAgoraiashareapeculiarfeature.Thefirstlineoftheinscription,whichmentionsthedeity,wasinscribedalmostacenturylaterthanthenamesofthededicants,thatisinthefirsthalfofthefourthcentury.Gallishassuggestedthatthiswasdonebecausetheareawasbeingpopulatedwithnewcults,anditwasnolonger(p.131) self-evidenttowhomthestelaiwerededicated.180Hellysmoreprosaicsuggestion,thatoriginallythenameofthedeity,andpossiblyherfigure,hadbeenpainted,cannot,ofcourse,beexcluded.181Bethatasitmay,thepossiblepresenceofseveralothercultsinwhatseemstohavebeentheHellenisticagoraofthecity,includingacultofDionysus,posesthequestionofwhetherthecultshousedinthefreeagorawerenotasonemightoriginallyhaveassumedstrictlypolitical,orwhetherchangesindeedoccurredintheuseoftheareainHellenistictimes.

3.3.2.Hestia,PrivateClaimsattheCommonHearthWeshallcontinuewithtwocultswhichwehavereasontobelievemighthavebeenlocated,insomecitiesatleast,intheagoraandwhoseimportanceforthecityisinanycaseundeniable.WestartwithHestia,thegoddesswhohadthehonourofsittingatthecentreofhouses,butalsoatthecentreofcities.ItispossiblethatthecommonhearthinThessaly,aswascommonpracticeintheGreekworld,waslocatedintheprytaneion,orsomeotherpublicbuildingalthoughourinformationforThessalianpublicbuildings,andtheinstitutionstheyrepresented,ismeagre.182Thereareacoupleofreferencestothecommonhearthofthecityinsecond-centuryproxenydecreesfromthePerrhaibiancitiesGonnoiandPhalanna,whichinvitetheforeignjudgeshonouredfortheirservicestodineinthekoinehestia.183

Thecircleofthosewhodinedaroundthecommonhearthwasalwayslimited:themagistrates,whooftentookcareofthecult,togetherwiththosewhohadbeenawardedthehonour.184Buteveninanoligarchy,wherethepoliticalcultofHestiamusthavebeenthebusinessoftheprivilegedfew,weshouldnotrushtoconcludethatthecultwasdeprivedofanywidercivicimportance,andwasnotperceivedtohavebeenperformedforthecityatlarge.185Somuch,however,has(p.132) recentlybeenclaimed,atleastforClassicalThessaly.Fearn,inadiscussionofthecultofHestiainoligarchicLarisa,hasputforwardthesuggestionthattherewaslittledifferencebetweendiningatthehallsof

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HestiainthecentreofthecityandsharingintheproverbialsymposiaattheprivatehousesoftheLariseannotables.186CrucialisthetestimonyofanodecomposedbyBacchylidesforaLariseancalledAristotle.187TheodestartswithaninvocationtoHestiaonhergoldenthrone,whobroughtwealthandfortunetothefamilyofAristoteles,theso-calledAgathokleadai:/[//.ThevariousvictoriesthatAristoteleshadwoninthePythiangames,andwhichbroughtfameandglorytothecityofLarisa,arethenlisted.Nevertheless,theeventwhichtheodecelebratedwasperhapsnotsomeathleticvictorytheseseemtohavebeenfeatsofthepastbuttheinaugurationofAristotelesasahipparch.Thecelebrationoftheode,ithasfurtherbeensuggested,accordinglytookplaceinsomepublicbuildingofthecity.Therhetoricoftheode,whichstressestheprosperitythatthegoddess(HestiaPrytaneiasupposedly)hasbroughttothefamilyofthevictor,comesclosetomaking,inFearnswords,theciviccultofHestiathepersonalcultofthisonefamily.WhilewecanhardlyimaginesuchaboldclaimbeingmadeinademocraticcitylikeAthens(orinawell-orderedandmoderateoligarchy),itsquareswellwithstandardportraitsofThessalianpoliticallife,wherethewhimsofindividualaristocratscouldoverridenotonlythewillofthemasses,butoftenalsothedesiresoffellownoblemen.188

Thefirstobstacletothistheoryisthatnotallscholarswouldagreethattheodewascomposedforamagistracyandnotanathleticvictory.189Mostimportantly,wecanquestionthecontextoftheperformanceoftheode.190Hestiasgoldenthroneisnotexplicitlyinvokedintheodeasbeinglocatedintheprytaneion.Surprisingly,toanyonewithstructuralistsensibilities,wearetoldthatthegoddesssitsinthemiddleofthestreets(agyiais).191Thepoeticwordagyia,whoseprimarymeaningwascity-streetoralley,could,however,onsomeoccasionsbetakentomeanthecityasawhole.InalltheexamplesthatIamawareof,however,themeaningstreetremainedprimary,anditwasonlymetaphoricallyandsecondarilythatthetermcouldmeancity,orevenbetter,neighbourhood.192Evenifthephrasinginthemiddleoftheagyiai(p.133) wouldinvokeHestiainherpolis-embracingcapacity,IamnotsurethatthisisthesameastakingthephrasetomeanHestiainthemiddleoftheprytaneion,butitshouldcontinuetobeHestiaofthealleysorofthecityneighbourhoods.

ItistemptingtopursuefurtherthisalternativesuggestionsincethereisevidencefromThessalyitselfforgroupscalled,atermwhichaccordingtoHesychiuswasequivalentto,(neighbours).Weknowaboutthemfromtwofourth-centurydedicatoryinscriptionsfromPharsalos.193Thefirst,datedtothefirsthalfofthecentury,recordsadedicationmadebythewhenarchonswereSosandrosandAsandros.Thesecondone,whichisdatedtothesecondhalfofthefourthcentury,recordsthededicationofacertainTrochilos,archonofthe,194afterhisvictoryatthePythia.Wecouldspeculatethattheweretheinhabitantsofaparticularplace,aPharsalianvillage,calledAgyia.Orwecouldfollowthesuggestionthatthewordhadatechnicalmeaning(andthuspotentiallyrevealstousawidespreadThessalianinstitution)denotingtheinhabitantsofastreetorneighbourhood.195Theagyiaiinthiscasewouldbesomethinglikecitydemes.Inanycase,thefactthatTrochilos

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commemoratedhisPythianvictory196inthecontextofhissuggeststousanalternativecontextfortheBacchylidesodewithitsmentionofaHestiaintheagyiai.Itisnottoofancifultosuggestthattheodemayhavebeenmeantforperformanceinthecontextofsuchagroupandthatitmentionsthegroupscult.197

AvotiverelieffromPharsalosaddssomeimagerytotheproblemswehavebeendiscussingsofar,therelationshipoftheprivatedomaintothepoliticalcultofHestia.Therelief,datedtotheearlyfourthcenturyBC,depictsagroupofadorants,threemenandtwowomen,possiblyafamily,approachingafemaledeitywhoisseatedonathroneandisdressedinahimationandpeplos.Herlefthandheldperhapsasceptre.198Nexttoher,ayoungmanstandswearingachitonandchlamysandaccompaniedbyahorse.Afragmentarydedicatoryinscriptioncanbediscernedonthelowerbandofthestele.Agapleftuninscribedbetweenthepartoftheinscriptionengravedunderthetwo(p.134)figuresattheleftandthatontherightindicates,asMillerhaspointedout,thatwehavetorestorethenameofthetwodeitiesontheleftinthenominativeandthatofonededicantontheright.Hesuggestedthefollowingrestoration:[][11.13][].199HefurtherarguedthatthestelewassetupinsomepoliticalbuildingatPharsalos,whereHestiaandtheheroSymmachoswereworshippedtogether.Millerssuggestionhasbeenwidelyaccepted,200withoutmuchattentionbeingpaidtothefactthattheassociationofsuchafamilyreliefwiththeprytaneionwouldbehighlyunusual.201ItwascommontopraytoHestiaPrytaneiaorBoulaiaforthewelfareofwomenandchildren,andofeverybodyinthecity,202butonlyatEphesos,andseveralcenturieslater,dowefinddedicationstoHestiabyherfemaleservants,theprytanides,inwhichthefamilyaspectispronounced.203ShallweinsistthatThessalypresentsanexceptiontothegeneralpatternsinthecultofHestia?IfinditpreferabletodealwiththeissuebysuggestingthatthededicationfromPharsalos,ifitreallywasmadetoHestia,204wassetupinasanctuaryofthegoddesssomewhereelseinthecity.

ThepoliticalaspectsofthecultofHestiawereclearlyimportant.HestiawasinvokedintheoathswornbytheThamiansandGomphaiansinwestThessalyandwasamongthetwelvegodshonouredatPheraiattheiraltarsetupontheacropolis.205Butconcerningthebroaderissuebroughtupinthissection,thequestionofhowthetensionbetweenthepublicgoodandtheprivateinterestsofthepowerfulThessalianoligarchswasplayedout,Hestiascultisalmostsilent.206FearnsuggestedthatthewealththatHestiabroughttotheAgathokleadaireferstotheprestigeandothertangiblegainsthataccruedtothefamilythroughtheirinvolvementinthecityspoliticallife.207ToFearnsstarkclaimwecanjuxtaposeXenophonsportraitoftheruleofPolydamasatPharsalos,whoisdescribedasmegaloprepes,praisedforhandlingthepublicmoneyof(p.135) Pharsaloswell,givingregularreportsofspending,andsubsidizingthetreasuryfromhisownpocket.208

3.3.3.WhoseProfit?TheCultofApolloKerdoosThecultofApolloKerdoos(orKerdoios)isattestedinseveralThessaliancitiesinthenorthpartofThessaly,namelyScotoussa,Larisa,perhapsPhalanna,andatmodernVlachogianni(ancientEreikinion?).209Althoughtheevidenceishardlyconclusive,an

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argumentcouldbemadeforthesanctuaryofthegodatLarisabeinglocatedinthefreeagoraofthecity.WeknowthatallLariseancivicdecreesweredisplayedintheKerdoion.210AcoupleofthemhavebeenfoundduringrescueexcavationsatthemodernsquareofTachydromeio,indicatingthatthesanctuaryofthegodmayhavebeensomewhereinthisarea.211Severalarchitecturalremainsdatingfromthefourthcenturyonwards,includingfoundations,DoricandIoniccolumns,andmarblepedestals,havealsobeenfoundnearby.Theareascentrallocationandthefactthatitwas,atleastfromthefourthcenturyonwards,monumentalizedcouldindicatethatthiswasthefreeagora.212Whetheritwasintheagoraornot,however,thesanctuaryofApolloKerdooscertainlywastheepiphanestatostoposofthecity.

ApollowasoftenworshippedintheagorasofGreekcitiesanditwascommonforhissanctuariestoserveasplacesforthedisplayofcivicdecrees.213Inotherrespects,too,theThessaliancultofApolloKerdoosseemstoconformtowiderpatternsofApollosworship.Heseemstohavehadacloseconnectionwiththeworldofmen,afieldofinterestverymuchstressedinseveralrecentstudiesofthegod.214AllinscribeddedicationstoApolloKerdooswereofferedeitherbymen,orinfavourofmen.ALariseandedicationwasofferedbytwobrothers;thatfoundatVlachogiannibyacouplefortheirson,andone,whichmayhavecomefromPhalanna,byamancalledSousipatros.

(p.136) Thesededicationscanperhapsbeminedtogiveusalittlemoreinformationaboutthecult.Wecouldputforwardacasethattheriteofdaphnephoria,aritewellattestedincultsofApollointheareaofcentralGreece,wascelebratedinsomeThessaliancitiesinhonourofApolloKerdoos.215ThededicantfromPhalannarecordedinhisdedicationthathehadservedasdauchnaphoros,hieromnemon,andthytas.216GiventhattheriteelsewhereintheGreekworldwasperformedbyyoungboys,Sousipatrosmusthavededicatedtothegodyearsafterhehadbeenadaphnephorosandafterhehadalsoservedashieromnemonandthytas.Itisstill,however,possiblethatallofficesweresomehowconnectedwiththecultofApolloKerdoos.ThededicationfromVlachogiannimadeforaboycouldconfirmthatyoungboyshadaroleinthecult.FurthercluesmaybederivedfromtheotherofficethatSousipatrosheld,thatofthytas.Itisobviouslyrelatedwiththeword(tosacrifice).Sousipatrosmust,therefore,havebeensomehowinvolvedinsacrifices.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthetermthytasinsomecasesdenotedtheofficialresponsibleforthecuttinganddistributionofthemeat,whomightalsohavebeeninvolvedinsomekindoforacularpractice.217Herewearetreadingonslipperyground,butweshouldtakesomeaccountofthissuggestion,inviewalsoofarecentargumentwhichclaimsthatthecultofApollodaphnephoros(inBoiotia,butitalsospeaksofawidertradition)wasconnectedwithoracularpractices.218

PerhapsthemostinterestingandperplexingaspectofthiscultistheepithetKerdoos.Thewordfromwhichtheepithetstemsmeantprofit,oftenmaterial,acquiredthroughguileandtrickeryandoftentothedetrimentofthe(p.137) communalinterest.219TheseconnotationsfitveryuncomfortablywiththecommonimageofApolloandwithanimportantstatecult.MostcommonlyweknowitasanepithetofHermes.220InmostbooksonGreekreligiontheepithetKerdoosisthusconsideredasanapposite

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onetodescribethegodprotectoroftrade,butalsoofthieves;thegodofcunningintelligenceparexcellence.221EpigraphicallyitisattestedforApolloonlyinThessalyandinliterarysourcestheepithetisassociatedoncewiththeApolloofDelphi.222

ScholarshavefailedtoengagewiththeproblemposedbytheapparentlynegativeconnotationsofKerdoos.WefindonlyoccasionalremarksonhowtheepithetmighthavebeenunderstoodwhenassociatedwithApollo.SomebelievethatApolloKerdooswasalsoaprotectoroftrade,althoughthereisverylittle,ifany,evidenceforApollosinvolvementinit.223Itwouldbepeculiartofindthegodwhosesanctuarywastheepiphanestatostoposofthecitylookingaftertheaffairsofaclassthatwastreatedwithcontemptin(p.138) Thessaly.Letmerecallherethelatethird-centuryLariseandecreewhichwehavealreadydiscussed,inwhichitappearedasthoughthesanctuaryofApolloKerdoosandthecommercialagorawereverydifferentplaces:theformersuitableforthenamesofthoseallowedcitizenship,thelatterforthosedeniedit.224Otherattemptstounderstandtheepithetareequallyunsatisfactory.Ithas,forinstance,beensuggestedthatApolloKerdooswasthegodtowhomthedekate(thetenpercenttax)wasbrought,aninterpretationwhichmakessenseofthecultbyreferencetowell-knownfunctionsofApollobutwhichpayslittleattentiontotheimportantnuancesofmeaningintheepithetKerdoos.225Wecould,alternatively,seektoassociatetheepithetwithfunctionsthatwehavealreadyidentified.IfApolloKerdooswasindeedagodconnectedwithyoungmenthenonemightbetemptedtoattributetohiscult,followingafashionwhichnowseemstobewaning,aninitiatorycharacter.Personalinterestandtrickery,qualitieswhichwesawwereencompassedinthenotionof,couldfindaplaceinthemirrorworldofephebes.Butfollowingthislinewouldbetogivetotalprioritytoonlyoneveryhypotheticalfunctionofthecult.226

AmoreprofitableapproachmightbetoturntothesmallnumberofPanhellenicsourcesthatconnectApolloandtheconceptof.TheHomericHymntoHermesassociatesApollomoreprominentlywiththeworldofexchangeandthananyothersource.ThehymndealswiththedivisionoftimaibetweenthetwodivinebrothersandonseveralinstanceswearetoldthatApolloloveshistooandthatheisalso(ingenious).227ButwestruggletodescribeinneatstructuralisttermshowtheprofitsofApollomighthavedifferedfromthoseofHermes.228Weshouldalso(p.139) mentionheresomeotherstorieswhichinvolveApollointheworldofexchange.Itwassometimestoldthatthegodhadacquiredhismostfamoussanctuaries,DelphiandDelos,byexchangingthemwithPoseidon.229ItwasperhapsforthisreasonthatPoseidonwasworshippedatDelphiwiththestrangetitleAmoibeus.230ThesePanhellenicstoriescouldperhapshaveimpactedandhelpedshapetheThessaliansunderstandingoftheirgod.ThereisindeedsomeevidencethatseveralThessaliancultsofApollowereconnectedmythicallyandrituallywiththeDelphiccult.231WeshouldalsorecallherethatinLycophronsAlexandratheepithetKerdoosisusedtodescribethegodatDelphi.

IfPanhellenicmythandtheradiantfigureofApolloPythioshelpedshapetheThessaliansperceptionofthelocalcultofApolloKerdoos,wealsohavetoallowthataparallelandmorelocalunderstandingofthegodmightalsohavebeenatwork.Inorderto

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understandhowtheThessaliansmighthavemadesenseoftheepithetKerdooswehavetoexaminehowkerdosinitsvariouspossibleconnotations(thatispersonalprofit,oftenmaterial,andtrickery)mighthavebeenperceivedinThessaliansociety.TheevidenceforthecultofApolloKerdoosinThessalyshowsthatwehavetounderstandthewordkerdosandtheepithetKerdoosnotinthecontextoftheworldoftrade,butinthecontextofanaristocraticsociety.WehavediscussednumeroustimeshowthepowerfulindividualwasattheheartofThessaliansociety.ThewealthandpowerofThessalianaristocratswasproverbialandtheirabilitytoactindependentlyandoftenwithoutanyconsentfromthestatehasoftenbaffledscholars.Menon,whorodewith200privatepenestaitoEion,isusuallyconsideredtheprimeexampleoftheabilityofpowerfulindividualstoactindependently.232AcenturylaterXenophonwouldcommentonanotherMenon,amemberperhapsofthesamefamily,who,hetellsus,lovedandthoughtthatthebestwaytoachieveitwasthroughtrickery.233Thessaliansocietyhasalsobeencharacterizedasdeeplyconcernedwithhorsesandcattle.(p.140) Weshouldnotexpectthissocietyofcavalrymenandpastoraliststohavethesamevaluesasthesmall-holdinghoplitefarmersofsouthernGreece.Inbothcavalrywarfareandpastoralismtheuseofguile,trickery,andprivateinitiativeisveryimportantand,therefore,theybecomevaluedbysociety.234

WiththecultofApolloKerdoosweseemtobefarfromthemischiefandprofitoftradersandmerchants.Insteadweareinthecompanyofcunningcavalrymen,herdsmen,andaristocrats.ThededicationtothegodbytheLariseanbrothersSimiasandEukratidasrefersexplicitlytotheirwealth.SimiasandEukratidasarearistocraticnames(weknowofsimilarnamesbelongingtomembersofthearistocraticfamilyoftheAleuads)andtheirdedication,astatue,wascertainlynotanegligibleoffering.TheotherdedicantstoApolloKerdoosseemalsotohavebelongedtothehigheststrataofsociety.TheofferingofthecouplefromVlachogianniwasalsoastatue,whileSousipatrosfromPhalannaheldprestigiousoffices.Toreturntotheparadoxatthebeginningofthisdiscussionarisingfromaspersonalprofitatthecentreofastatecult,itisworthnotingthatprofitwhenitappearsinthecontextofaristocraticmegaloprepeiacanacquirepositiveconnotations.235TheblessedhappinessofThessalyisinseparablylinkedinsourceswiththatofitsnobility.236ItisthisimageofafortunateThessalyrelyingontheprofitofitsrichandentrepreneurialnoblementhatthecultofApolloKerdooscelebrated.

3.4.AroundtheWallsWecanconjureupaveryhazypictureofthelayoutofThessaliancities.Theremainsofseveralbuildings,usuallyidentifiedashouses,havebeenrevealedduringrescueexcavations,butonlyinahandfulofcasescanwegetapictureoftheplanofwholebuildingsortheirarrangementinthecityplan.Questionsconcerningthedensityofhabitation,theidentityandstatusofcity-dwellers,andtheexistenceofparticularquarterscanonlybedealtwithsuperficially.Athenianfiguredpotteryofhighqualityhasbeenfound,forinstance,inafewofthebuildingsexcavatedatLarisa,pointingperhapstoownersofhighstatus,sharingtheartistictastesofthetime.237Mouldsandkilnsfoundamongthe(p.141) findsofwhatseemstohavebeenaseriesofprivatedwellingsatthesouth-eastpartofPheraimightindicatetheexistenceofapottersquarter.238

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Scatteredpiecesofarchitecture,somedatingbacktotheArchaicperiod,indicatetheexistenceofmonumentalbuildings,perhapstemples.239Andtherewerecertainlymanysimpleprecinctswhichhaveleftnotrace.240Thenumerousinscribeddedications,foundusuallyoutofprecisecontext,allowusaglimpseofthebusyreligiouslifeofThessaliancities,whiletwoimportantinscriptions,onefromScotoussaandtheotherfromLarisa,bothofwhichdescribe,fordifferentpurposes,apartofthecity,andlistanumberofcults,remindushowmuchactuallyeludesus.241ThedecreefromScotoussadatingtothesecondcenturyBCregulateswhichareas,insideandoutsidethewallsofthecity,aretobekeptavailableforpublicuse.Amongtheplacesusedaslandmarksareafountain,acattle-shed,and,inafewcases,sanctuaries.Someofthemwehavealreadymentioned.TherewasaKerdoion,asanctuaryinalllikelihoodofApolloKerdoos,aHerakleion,aHeleneion,andthemoreenigmaticAkerateion,whichmayalsohavebeenasanctuary.242Atline73offaceBtheso-calledPerseiangatesarementioned,namedaftertheheroPerseusandperhapsanindicationthathewasalsoworshippednearby.

ThedocumentfromLarisa,datedtothethirdcenturyBC,givestheaccountofaninspectionofsacredpropertycarriedoutbyaboard,perhapsthatofthehieromnemones.TheareainspectedseemstohavebeenoutsidebutclosetothewallsofthecityandnexttotheroadthatledtoKrannon.Thekindofpropertythatthehieromnemonesrecorded,andthereasonwhytheinventorywasmade,arenotveryclear.Plotsoflandarementionedinacoupleofinstances,theirsizeismeasured,andthepersonwhousesthemnamed.Butthelargestpartoftheinscriptionreferstowhichweresacredtovariousgods.243Theirlocationisoftendescribedinrelationtosanctuaries,suchastheLykeion,thePythion,thatofAthenaPatria,butalsoinrelationtootherbuildingsorlandmarks,suchasthehipparcheion,oragrove.Wehea