political science: an introduction electoral system first past the post and proportional...

Political Science: An IntroductionPolitical Science: An Introduction

Electoral system first past the post and proportional representation Electoral system first past the post and proportional representation Proportional Representation:Proportional Representation:

An argument for representative democracyAn argument for representative democracyEach minor party gets a say. Each minor party gets a say. Proportional representation leads to instability.Proportional representation leads to instability.

Example of PR when you vote for party and if one party gets 55% of vote that party gets 55% of seats in legislature Example of PR when you vote for party and if one party gets 55% of vote that party gets 55% of seats in legislature so small parties get some representation France so small parties get some representation France Party Lists (Closed List or Open List)Party Lists (Closed List or Open List) Examples: Israel, The Netherlands, Finland Examples: Israel, The Netherlands, Finland

This system of PR works in a very simple way. Voters cast a vote for a party - not an individual candidate - and their This system of PR works in a very simple way. Voters cast a vote for a party - not an individual candidate - and their vote is counted towards that party's total. The totals are then tallied and seats are distributed based on the vote is counted towards that party's total. The totals are then tallied and seats are distributed based on the percentage of the popular vote. So for example, in Israel the Knesset has 120 seats. A party winning 23% of the percentage of the popular vote. So for example, in Israel the Knesset has 120 seats. A party winning 23% of the vote would be entitled to 23% of the seats, or roughly 27 or 28 seats (the actual number being determined vote would be entitled to 23% of the seats, or roughly 27 or 28 seats (the actual number being determined mathematically in comparison to all the other results). mathematically in comparison to all the other results).

In this system, there is usually some sort of threshold which a party must meet in order to qualify for representation In this system, there is usually some sort of threshold which a party must meet in order to qualify for representation - such as a party must win at least 4% of the vote to qualify for seats. The actual occupants of those seats are - such as a party must win at least 4% of the vote to qualify for seats. The actual occupants of those seats are determined by party lists, drawn up before the election. So each party fields a list of candidates - presumably with determined by party lists, drawn up before the election. So each party fields a list of candidates - presumably with their leader at the top of that list - and those members take seats in that order. In the case of a party winning 28 out their leader at the top of that list - and those members take seats in that order. In the case of a party winning 28 out of 120 seats, the first 28 people on that list would be elected. This is known as closed list. of 120 seats, the first 28 people on that list would be elected. This is known as closed list.

Chapter 13Chapter 13

LegislaturesLegislatures

Copyright @ 2010, 2008, 2005 Pearson Education, Inc.

Single Member district Single Member district electoral systemselectoral systems

The most common system, used in Canada, the lower house (Lok Sabha) in India, the United Kingdom, and some United States elections, is simple plurality, first-past-the-post or winner-takes-all. In this voting system the single winner is the person with the most votes (plurality); there is no requirement that the winner gain an absolute majority of votes. France

France France

In France, proportional In France, proportional representation was adopted at the representation was adopted at the end of World War II, discarded in end of World War II, discarded in 1958, then used once more for 1958, then used once more for parliament elections in 1986 and parliament elections in 1986 and terminated immediately afterwards.terminated immediately afterwards.

Germany proportional representation minor Germany proportional representation minor parties radicalparties radical

InstabilityInstability Proportional representation is the Proportional representation is the

dominant electoral system in Europe. It is dominant electoral system in Europe. It is in place in Germany. in place in Germany. Methods of Methods of proportional representation proportional representation

There are different methods of There are different methods of proportional representation, which achieve proportional representation, which achieve either a greater degree of proportionality either a greater degree of proportionality or a greater degree of determinate or a greater degree of determinate outcome.outcome.

Electoral SystemsElectoral Systems Party list system in a multi-member constituency Party list system in a multi-member constituency The parties each list their candidates according to that party's determination of The parties each list their candidates according to that party's determination of

priorities. In a priorities. In a closed listclosed list, voters vote for a list, not a candidate. Each party is allocated , voters vote for a list, not a candidate. Each party is allocated seats in proportion to the number of votes, using the ranking order on its list. In an seats in proportion to the number of votes, using the ranking order on its list. In an open listopen list, voters may vote, depending on the model, for one person, or for two, or , voters may vote, depending on the model, for one person, or for two, or indicate their order of preference within the list.indicate their order of preference within the list.

This system is used in Israel (where the whole country is one closed list constituency), Brazil (open list), the Netherlands (open list) and for elections to the European Parliament in all European Union countries (closed list) as well as in Finland using multi-member districts and open lists.

Additional-member system, mixed-member system Additional-member system, mixed-member system Mixed member proportional representation combine a proportional system and a single Mixed member proportional representation combine a proportional system and a single

seat district system, attempting to achieve some of the positive features of both of seat district system, attempting to achieve some of the positive features of both of these. Mixed systems are often helpful in countries with large populations, since they these. Mixed systems are often helpful in countries with large populations, since they balance the mechanisms of elections focusing on local or national issues. They are used balance the mechanisms of elections focusing on local or national issues. They are used in nations with widely varying voting populations in terms of geographic, social, cultural in nations with widely varying voting populations in terms of geographic, social, cultural and economic realities, including Bolivia, Germany, Lesotho, Mexico and the United and economic realities, including Bolivia, Germany, Lesotho, Mexico and the United Kingdom.Kingdom.

Such systems, or variations of them, are used in Germany, Lesotho, Mexico, Bolivia, New Zealand, the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Assembly. Italy has changed between sub-systems.

LegislaturesLegislatures

Westminster, mother of parliamentsWestminster, mother of parliaments


Impact of FeudalismImpact of Feudalism The Middle Ages feudal period provides an early example The Middle Ages feudal period provides an early example

of “balance of power” – a limit on government’s powerof “balance of power” – a limit on government’s power Kings had to acknowledge rights and privileges of nobles Kings had to acknowledge rights and privileges of nobles

and of the Churchand of the Church Medieval assemblies such as Britain’s Parliament and Medieval assemblies such as Britain’s Parliament and

Sweden’s Sweden’s RiksdagRiksdag gained some governing input by their gained some governing input by their control of raising new taxes for the king – centralizing control of raising new taxes for the king – centralizing French kings managed to do without such assembliesFrench kings managed to do without such assemblies

The English parliament continued its growth in power by The English parliament continued its growth in power by partnering with Henry VIII in his break with Rome, and by partnering with Henry VIII in his break with Rome, and by winning the English Civil War by beheading Charles Iwinning the English Civil War by beheading Charles I

John Locke at this time extolled the legislative power in John Locke at this time extolled the legislative power in society, and Montesquieu declared liberty safe only by society, and Montesquieu declared liberty safe only by dividing government functions into distinct branches: dividing government functions into distinct branches: legislative and executivelegislative and executive


Presidential and Parliamentary SystemsPresidential and Parliamentary Systems Presidential systems have clearest separation of power Presidential systems have clearest separation of power

between executive and legislative branchesbetween executive and legislative branches President is elected by the people, has much power, and President is elected by the people, has much power, and

can’t easily be removed from power by the legislaturecan’t easily be removed from power by the legislature In a parliamentary system, the executive is selected In a parliamentary system, the executive is selected

from the legislature by the majority party or majority from the legislature by the majority party or majority coalition – voters can’t split tickets between legislative coalition – voters can’t split tickets between legislative and executiveand executive

In parliamentary systems the prime minister chooses In parliamentary systems the prime minister chooses cabinet members from the legislature; presidents cabinet members from the legislature; presidents choose their cabinet from any able individuals who share choose their cabinet from any able individuals who share their policy from outside the legislaturetheir policy from outside the legislature

Prime ministers are answerable to parliament and can Prime ministers are answerable to parliament and can be removed from office by a “no confidence” votebe removed from office by a “no confidence” vote

Presidents serve a fixed term of office; the branches of Presidents serve a fixed term of office; the branches of government cannot dissolve or control one anothergovernment cannot dissolve or control one another


Presidential and Parliamentary Systems - Presidential and Parliamentary Systems - DiagramDiagram


Separation and Fusion of PowersSeparation and Fusion of Powers

The Founding Fathers wrote the US Constitution to The Founding Fathers wrote the US Constitution to make policymaking deliberative – sometimes the make policymaking deliberative – sometimes the separation of powers between president and Congress separation of powers between president and Congress results in deadlocks on key legislation such as health results in deadlocks on key legislation such as health care reformcare reform

Members of Congress are forbidden to hold executive Members of Congress are forbidden to hold executive jobs as part of separation of powersjobs as part of separation of powers

In the parliamentary system, the majority party controls In the parliamentary system, the majority party controls the legislature, but also the cabinet officials of the the legislature, but also the cabinet officials of the executive – hence, laws cannot be held up if the executive – hence, laws cannot be held up if the majority is determined to pass themmajority is determined to pass them

Cabinet members have to answer to the whole Cabinet members have to answer to the whole parliament at Question Hour on their governanceparliament at Question Hour on their governance

The president’s cabinet officials testify to committees of The president’s cabinet officials testify to committees of Congress on their governanceCongress on their governance


Advantages of Parliamentary SystemsAdvantages of Parliamentary Systems

No executive-legislative deadlocks as the majority No executive-legislative deadlocks as the majority party controls both branchesparty controls both branches

If governing party members disagree with their If governing party members disagree with their cabinet leaders, they can vote “no confidence” cabinet leaders, they can vote “no confidence” and the government must be replaced by new and the government must be replaced by new leadership, though this rarely occursleadership, though this rarely occurs

But Americans must wait until the next election But Americans must wait until the next election before they can change president and cabinetbefore they can change president and cabinet

When a different party wins an election, the old When a different party wins an election, the old cabinet resigns and is replaced by leaders of the cabinet resigns and is replaced by leaders of the winning party, thus no long disagreements winning party, thus no long disagreements between the two branchesbetween the two branches


Disadvantages of Parliamentary SystemsDisadvantages of Parliamentary Systems There’s little give and take with the opposition, as There’s little give and take with the opposition, as

they’re not needed to pass legislationthey’re not needed to pass legislation Party discipline is so strong that individual members Party discipline is so strong that individual members

must vote as instructed by their party’s must vote as instructed by their party’s whipswhips – you – you can’t vote against something you don’t like if you can’t vote against something you don’t like if you want to stay in the party; members are rubber stampswant to stay in the party; members are rubber stamps

Passage of legislation is rational, speedy, and Passage of legislation is rational, speedy, and efficient, but parliament can’t make independent efficient, but parliament can’t make independent inputs to the legislation approved by the cabinetinputs to the legislation approved by the cabinet

Parliamentary systems may have several parties with Parliamentary systems may have several parties with none having a majority – coalitions are needed to none having a majority – coalitions are needed to govern an unstable situation when partners quarrel, govern an unstable situation when partners quarrel, which can cause frequent falls of government (Italy which can cause frequent falls of government (Italy has had more than 60 since World War II), has had more than 60 since World War II), immobilizing government from taking determined immobilizing government from taking determined actionaction


The Committee SystemThe Committee System

Much legislative work resides in committees – in the US Much legislative work resides in committees – in the US Congress, most work occurs in committees which hold Congress, most work occurs in committees which hold hearings and get expert testimonyhearings and get expert testimony

British parliamentary committees exist but are less British parliamentary committees exist but are less important because of fusion of legislative and executive important because of fusion of legislative and executive branchesbranches

A government bill is critically important in parliamentary A government bill is critically important in parliamentary systemsystem

US committee chairpersons used to be very powerful as US committee chairpersons used to be very powerful as they obtained, and kept, chairs on seniority systemthey obtained, and kept, chairs on seniority system

1970s reform chose chairs by secret ballot, giving 1970s reform chose chairs by secret ballot, giving committee members more powercommittee members more power

Congressional members specialize, serving on 2 or 3 Congressional members specialize, serving on 2 or 3 committeescommittees

Standing congressional committees balanced by region and Standing congressional committees balanced by region and with members from both partieswith members from both parties


LawmakingLawmaking

While legislatures While legislatures passpass laws, few laws, few originateoriginate laws: in laws: in parliamentary systems the cabinet originates laws; parliamentary systems the cabinet originates laws; in the US the executive originates much legislationin the US the executive originates much legislation

Party discipline assures that parliamentary Party discipline assures that parliamentary members vote for the legislationmembers vote for the legislation

US congressional discipline is more lax; sometimes US congressional discipline is more lax; sometimes members buck their own party because they know members buck their own party because they know their constituents dislike the legislation, e.g., their constituents dislike the legislation, e.g., members from tobacco-growing states seldom members from tobacco-growing states seldom support laws to curb smokingsupport laws to curb smoking

Even regarding budgets where Congress has Even regarding budgets where Congress has “power of the purse,” Congress reacts to the “power of the purse,” Congress reacts to the president’s budget requests, adding their “pork” in president’s budget requests, adding their “pork” in the processthe process


Constituency WorkConstituency Work

Legislators and their staffs spend much time Legislators and their staffs spend much time helping constituents, answering their letters, helping constituents, answering their letters, showing they careshowing they care

Often this involves helping constituents get a Often this involves helping constituents get a government benefit, such as a disability check, by government benefit, such as a disability check, by acting as an intermediary or acting as an intermediary or ombudsmanombudsman with an with an agencyagency

Many legislators are so consumed with Many legislators are so consumed with constituency services, they do little legislative constituency services, they do little legislative work, which helps give the initiative to the work, which helps give the initiative to the executive branchexecutive branch

Constituency service is a major help to getting Constituency service is a major help to getting legislators reelected; they use their office to legislators reelected; they use their office to maintain contact with voters back homemaintain contact with voters back home


Supervision and Criticism of GovernmentSupervision and Criticism of Government

A major role of legislatures is oversight of A major role of legislatures is oversight of executive branch actionsexecutive branch actions

Such monitoring can protect the national interest, Such monitoring can protect the national interest, fight corruption and inefficiencyfight corruption and inefficiency

The British Question Hour allows members to grill The British Question Hour allows members to grill ministers, sometimes pointing up serious errors, ministers, sometimes pointing up serious errors, which can damage the majority for the next which can damage the majority for the next electionelection

Investigation by the US Congress can raise Investigation by the US Congress can raise questions about executive policies and potentially questions about executive policies and potentially force the executive to change them, as critiques force the executive to change them, as critiques about the chaos in Iraq helped bring about the about the chaos in Iraq helped bring about the “surge” approach“surge” approach


EducationEducation

Legislatures inform citizenry about the operations Legislatures inform citizenry about the operations of governmentof government

They may create mass demands for change by They may create mass demands for change by calling public attention to problems, as did calling public attention to problems, as did televised hearings on the Vietnam Wartelevised hearings on the Vietnam War

In democratic countries, the press attends In democratic countries, the press attends hearings and holds interviews with legislators, hearings and holds interviews with legislators, giving feedback to the American public – the giving feedback to the American public – the executive becomes very responsive when it executive becomes very responsive when it perceives attitude changes by the publicperceives attitude changes by the public


Representation Representation

The most elemental function of legislatures is to The most elemental function of legislatures is to represent the peoplerepresent the people

Legislators in democracies place great Legislators in democracies place great importance on protecting the interests of importance on protecting the interests of constituentsconstituents

If people don’t feel represented, they resent the If people don’t feel represented, they resent the government, which loses legitimacygovernment, which loses legitimacy

Apartheid Apartheid laws in South Africa were passed by laws in South Africa were passed by the whites-only legislature, and so had no support the whites-only legislature, and so had no support among the black majority, and couldn’t be among the black majority, and couldn’t be sustainedsustained


Structural DisadvantagesStructural Disadvantages

Because of strong party discipline in parliamentary Because of strong party discipline in parliamentary systems, members obey their leadership almost systems, members obey their leadership almost completely, and legislating is very efficientcompletely, and legislating is very efficient

This means members do little, and parliament conveys little This means members do little, and parliament conveys little excitement and becomes less powerfulexcitement and becomes less powerful

The US Congress, with weak party discipline, has a The US Congress, with weak party discipline, has a tendency to deadlock with executive, and is thus inefficienttendency to deadlock with executive, and is thus inefficient

But Congress is also more lively and important, since the But Congress is also more lively and important, since the executive has to negotiate with itexecutive has to negotiate with it

Still, power has drifted to the executive, as power in Still, power has drifted to the executive, as power in Congress is fragmented into committees and Congress is fragmented into committees and subcommitteessubcommittees


Lack of ExpertiseLack of Expertise

Few legislators are expert on the myriad topics they Few legislators are expert on the myriad topics they deal with – they tend to rely on executive branch deal with – they tend to rely on executive branch experts, giving advantage to the executiveexperts, giving advantage to the executive

With so much executive branch input, resulting With so much executive branch input, resulting legislation gives the executive much discretion in legislation gives the executive much discretion in applying the lawapplying the law

Most parliaments have virtually nothing in the way of Most parliaments have virtually nothing in the way of independent research capabilitiesindependent research capabilities

The US Congress, though, is served by special The US Congress, though, is served by special agencies: Congressional Research Service, General agencies: Congressional Research Service, General Accountability Office, and the Congressional Budget Accountability Office, and the Congressional Budget Office, which give it independent advice to offset Office, which give it independent advice to offset somewhat the executive branch’s advantage in somewhat the executive branch’s advantage in informationinformation


Psychological DisadvantagesPsychological Disadvantages

A president can have charisma, but a legislature A president can have charisma, but a legislature cannotcannot

Thus, the public tends to have much more respect Thus, the public tends to have much more respect for the president, and disdain for Congressfor the president, and disdain for Congress

Television gives much more air time to the Television gives much more air time to the president than Congress, enhancing the president’s president than Congress, enhancing the president’s image of being powerful and effectiveimage of being powerful and effective

Some political scientists see the president or prime Some political scientists see the president or prime minister as viewed as a parental figure, guiding the minister as viewed as a parental figure, guiding the nation, particularly when times are perilousnation, particularly when times are perilous

At the same time legislators are seen as continually At the same time legislators are seen as continually squabblingsquabbling


The Absentee ProblemThe Absentee Problem Members of parliament or Congress are seldom in the Members of parliament or Congress are seldom in the

chamber unless there’s a critical vote – they’re probably chamber unless there’s a critical vote – they’re probably in committee session, or dealing with constituent issuesin committee session, or dealing with constituent issues

Speeches in Congress are usually made to a near empty Speeches in Congress are usually made to a near empty chamberchamber

Some parliaments don’t even require members to be Some parliaments don’t even require members to be present for a vote; in the French National Assembly a present for a vote; in the French National Assembly a few members will flip the voting switches for the few members will flip the voting switches for the multitude of absent membersmultitude of absent members

This absence, especially in parliamentary systems, may This absence, especially in parliamentary systems, may imply legislating no longer important, although in the imply legislating no longer important, although in the US Congress most of the key legislative work is done in US Congress most of the key legislative work is done in committeecommittee

Weakening party discipline may rejuvenate the Weakening party discipline may rejuvenate the legislative process, but legislating would become more legislative process, but legislating would become more chaotic and unpredictablechaotic and unpredictable


Lack of TurnoverLack of Turnover

In democratic legislatures, members tend to make a career In democratic legislatures, members tend to make a career as a legislator, meaning little fresh young blood enters the as a legislator, meaning little fresh young blood enters the systemsystem

In US House contests, usually over 90% of incumbents get In US House contests, usually over 90% of incumbents get reelected unless there’s a scandal; because of reelected unless there’s a scandal; because of gerrymandering, only a handful of seats are competitivegerrymandering, only a handful of seats are competitive

Many US seats don’t even have an opposition candidateMany US seats don’t even have an opposition candidate Parliaments have similar problems: more senior party Parliaments have similar problems: more senior party

members are at the top of the electoral lists, and so they members are at the top of the electoral lists, and so they almost always get returned to office, while younger almost always get returned to office, while younger members lower on the lists may lose their seats from one members lower on the lists may lose their seats from one election to the nextelection to the next

But proportional representation allows new parties (with But proportional representation allows new parties (with younger politicians) to gain seats that may be held by fresh younger politicians) to gain seats that may be held by fresh facesfaces

First past the post FPTP First past the post FPTP


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