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The New Frontier
Politics and Social Change in the 1960s
The New Frontier
1960 election Nixon-”Tricky Dick”-”Nixon doesn’t know who he
is” (Rep.); Congressman; Eisenhower’s VP 8 yrs; intelligent, combative
Kennedy-(Dem.) Young, bright, the look, wealthy family, suffered from physical ailments, but masked them; inexperienced
Kennedy-slogan-”We stand today on the edge of a New Frontier-the frontier of unknown opportunities and perils-a frontier of unfilled hopes and threats.”
Kennedy vs. Nixon
3 events shaped the campaign:
-Religious ?-Kennedy Catholic-Nixon agreed to debate on tv-1st ever televised debates (style)-civil rights-needed to increase minority voters (MLK arrest for trespassing in an all-white restaurant, R. Kennedy, campaign manager, phoned the judged and MLK was released on bail)
Kennedy vs. Nixon
Closest presidential election since 1888 Kennedy and LBJ won (303 to 219 electoral;
only 118,574 vote diff. in popular) Nixon actually carried more states
Kennedy vs. Nixon
Youngest elected; brought best and brightest
minds in Dean Rusk-sec. of state Robert McNamara-Dept. of Defense C. Douglas Dillon-Sec. of the Treasury McGeorge Bundy-asst. for national security affairs“ Inaugural address: p. 1231, “ask not what your
country can do for you-ask what you can do for your country”
Fresh promise, youthful energy
Kennedy/Admin.
Congress controlled by a conservative southern coalition that blocked many efforts
to increase fed. Aid to educ., health ins. For the aged, est. a Dept. of Urban affairs; initiatives to help unemployed youth, migrant workers and mass transit; tax cuts
Victories:-Alliance for Progress programs to help Latin America-Peace Corps (1961)-Trade Expansion Act (1962)-tariff cuts avg. 35% on goods b/w U.S. and Euro. Common Market-Housing Act-$5b to urban renewal/4 years-min. wage up; 3m additional workers-Area Redevelopment Act (1961)-$400m in loans to “distressed” areas-Social Sec. benefits up-$ for sewage-treatment plants-$ for accelerated space program (goal-land on the moon)
Kennedy Record
Engel v. Vitale (1962)-School prayer adopted by
NY State Board of Regents is unconstitutional (1st amend.)
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)-every felony defendant be provided a lawyer regardless of defendant’s ability to pay
Escobedo v. Illinois (1964)-person accused is entitled to a lawyer before interrogation
Miranda v. Arizona (1966)-in custody, must be informed of certain basic rights (Miranda rights)
Warren Court
Expansion of the Civil Rights Movement
Most important domestic issue in the 60s JFK entered reluctant to challenge race issues-
celebrated equality but did little to promote it; changed a little with MLK Jr.
His brother, Robert (atty gen.)-more committed
Expansion of Civil Rights Movement
Prior: Montgomery Bus Boycott, desegregation
of schools Greensboro, NC, 2/1/60-4 black college
students sat down at a white-only Woolworth’s lunch counter-led to sit-in movement
Led to wade-ins, kneel-ins, read-ins, etc. During the year after, over 3600 black and
white activists would spend time in jail
Civil Rights
1960-SNCC formed (Student Non-Violent Coordinating
Committee)-student activists Worked with King’s SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership
Conference) to broaden the movement Most activists practiced King’s concept of nonviolent
protest-refused to retaliate May 1961-Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) sent freedom
riders on buses to test a fed. Ruling that banned segregation on buses, trains and terminals; they were attacked at Anniston, AL-buses burned, attacked/beaten as they exited (John Lewis)
Kennedy, not inspired-wanted to tell them to “call it off”; R. Kennedy had to use fed. Marshals to protect the riders
Civil Rights
1962-Gov. Barnett of MS. Refused to allow James Meredith, an
African-Amer. Student to enroll at Univ. of Miss. Robert Kennedy dispatched federal marshals who were
assaulted; federal troops intervened (2 dead, many injured); finally admitted
In B’ham, AL.-series of demonstrations by Police Comm. Eugene “Bull” Connor-dogs, tear gas, cattle prods, fire hoses (seen on tv)
King’s Letter from a Birmingham Jail-1963-to AL. white clergy (urging him to be moderate)-struggle too long, civil disobedience vs. unjust laws are needed to achieve social justice; need to educate southern whites about the injustice; focus on gaining more federal attention by provoking racists to display their hatred in public
Concept of confrontational civil disobedience outraged J. Edgar Hoover, head of FBI, agents followed King, bugged his phones/rooms, tried to discredit him
Civil Rights
1964-King awarded the Nobel Peace Prize JFK finally decided new legislation was needed
to deal with race issue, discrim. “has no place in American life or law”
Endorsed bill to end discrim. In public facilities, deseg. Schools, protect voters-blocked in Congress by southern conserv.
Civil Rights
AL. Gov. George Wallace-stood in door of Univ.
of AL.-to block enrollment of black students; stepped aside with federal marshals
NAACP official Medgar Evers shot in Jackson, MS. After civil rights speech by Kennedy
Civil Rights
High point-March on D.C.; Aug. 28, 1963 Over 200,000 Lincoln Memorial “We shall overcome” “I have a dream” speech; MLK Jr. 2 weeks later-B’ham bombing at church-killed
4 girls
Civil Rights
Foreign Frontiers
Bay of Pigs Invasion-Cuba; 4/17/61 No missile gap anymore; in the works, a CIA
operation training 1500 anti-Castro Cubans for an invasion of Cuba
Brutally subdued in 2 days 1100 men captured JFK-”colossal mistake” Underestimated Castro’s popularity, poor
communication, inaccurate maps, faulty equipment, ineffective leadership
Invaders defenseless-no American air cover
Early Setbacks
JFK met with Khrushchev 2 mos. Later-Khrus.
Was volatile, bullied the young, inexperienced JFK
Soviet aggressive stance; JFK responds with calling up army reserve and national guard units
Soviets erect Berlin Wall-Soviet willingness to challenge American resolve in Europe
Early Setbacks
Cuba feared another American-backed invasion; Soviets could
address the strategic imbalance caused by U.S. missiles in Turkey (aimed at Soviets); could demonstrate Soviet toughness
Americans see as a threat to security; Soviets in Cuba might demoralize anti-Castro efforts
10/14/62-U.S. intelligence discovers Soviet missile sites under construction in Cuba
JFK-naval quarantine (blockade) Closest encounter with nuclear war 13 days-talks, Soviet ships just short of the quarantine Soviet missiles removed from Cuba; obsolete missiles removed
from Turkey, Italy and Britain Sept. 1963-treaty: w/ Soviets and Britain-end nuclear testing in the
atmosphere, oceans and outer space
Cuban Missile Crisis
Geneva Accords Laos-struggle for power b/w Comm. Pathet Lao and Royal
Laotian Army; agreed to a neutral coalition Ho Chi Minh Trail-through e. Laos to supply Vietcong Diem-failure to deliver promised social and econ. Reforms, vs.
Comm. And Buddhist majority JFK continued to dispatch military advisors in hopes of
stabilizing the situation Ineffective; protests-Buddhist monks/fire Fall ‘63-Diem a lost cause; dissident generals propose a coup-
U.S. not to stand in the way Nov. 1-seized govt., Diem murdered, but the rebel generals
provided no more stability
Vietnam
Had announced intent to withdraw from S. Vietnam by
end 1965 Nov. 22, 1963 Dallas, Texas Shot in the back of the head, presence of wife Lee Harvey Oswald Motives unknown; fed. Comm. Advise he acted alone-
debate Jack Ruby (nightclub owner)-murders Oswald Televsion Arlington National Cemetary
Kennedy’s Assassination
LBJ & the Great Society
Conflicting character-not elegant, idealistic,
insecure, domineering-felt Kennedy/aides ignored him as VP, compassionate, ruthless; craved political power and public affection; had to be at the center of things-from TX.
Long-standing admiration for FDR-concern for the poor, civil rights
Foreign affairs-like Wilson-a novice Wanted to be the greatest American president-
promised more than he could accomplish in the end
LBJ
Domestic policy-1st priority Under LBJ, his forceful leadership broke the
legislative blocks Kennedy faced 9.3m families (20%)-below poverty line-”live on
the outskirts of hope”-poverty, color barriers Tax cuts tried under JFK; skeptical due to increase
in budget deficit; Revenue Act 1964-provided boost
Civil Rights Act 1964 (tried in ’63)-prohibited racial segregation in public facilities, outlawed discrim. In regis. Of voters and hiring employees
Politics and Poverty
Legislative program of his own-”war on
poverty” Expose-”The other America” (1962)-”culture of
poverty” Anti-poverty package $ would come from tax
revenues generated by corporate profits due to tax reduction in ’64 (1 of the longest sustained econ. Booms)
Politics and Poverty
Job Corps-16-21 age; for inner-city Head Start-disadvantaged preschoolers Work study-college students Grants-farmers, rural bus. Loans to employers-to hire long-term unemployed Volunteers in Service to America (domestic peace
corps) Community Action Program-poor directed neigh.
programs “Great Society”-end to poverty and racial injustice
Politics and Poverty
Program received a Rep. counterattack Barry Goldwater-AZ. Senator-leader of Rep.
right (conservatism) Proposed abolition of some programs (income
tax), drastic overhaul of others Extreme-frightened voters (bomb N. Viet.),
foolishly candid (ex. Questioning value of SS at retirement comm.)
Johnson-centrist; VP-Hubert Humphrey Landslide victory (486 to 52)
Election of 1964
Unparalleled since FDR’s days Medicare-program for the aged Medicaid-disabled, poor Elementary and secondary educ.-to “poverty-
impacted” school districts Carried 435 bills through Congress
Landmark Legislation
Appalachian Regional Development Act
(1966)-$1b to remote mountain areas of poverty
Housing and Urban Development Act (1965)-construction of 240,000 public housing units, $3b for urban renewal
1966-funds for rent supplements New Dept. of Housing & Urban Development-
led by Robert Weaver, the first African-American cabinet member
Landmark Legislation
Immigration & Nationality Services Act (1965)-
originated under JFK Abolish the discriminatory quotas based on national
origin (since 20s) Treated all nationalities and races equally Hemisphere ceilings: 170,000 from E. Hemis.,
120,000 from W. Hemis.; no more than 20,000 from 1 country/year
Immediate family members of American residents allowed w/o limit
1960s-Asians and Latin Americans-largest new group
Immigration Act
Successes: Highway Safety Act, Traffic Safety Act,
Higher Educ. Act Aimed to improve health, nutrition, educ.; clean up
environ. Many were mismanaged, underfunded, ill-conceived Medicare-costs skyrocketed Provided welfare programs, but productive jobs? Bureaucracy Welfare fraud Helped to generate a conservative backlash that
fueled Rep. resurgence
Assessing the Great Society
Civil Rights to Black Power
1965-drive to enroll African American voters March from Selma to Montgomery-met by
state troopers, but Johnson provided troops for protection
Voting Rights Act of 1965-suspended literacy tests, fed. Govt. to oversee registration and elections
Nearly 250,000 newly registered
Civil Rights Legislation
Race riots-LA, Chicago, Cleveland, etc.-people
killed, many in jail, property damage; in cities; initiated by blacks
“black power”-1966-Stokely Carmichael (head of SNCC)-made it the objective
H. Rap Brown-succeeded Carmichael-”get you some guns” and kill
Carmichael moved to Black Panther Party-Oakland, CA., 1966; headed by Huey Newton & Eldridge Cleaver (terrified public, spasms of violence)
Black Power
Spokesman for black power-Malcolm X, voice of
urban black militancy Disciple of Elijah Muhammad-black Muslim leader Extremist Broke from Muhammad; committed to an est. of
alliances between blacks and non-white people Autobiography, 1964 Gunned down in Harlem by rival faction of black
Muslims (just before had started to abandon anti-white rhetoric)
Black Power
Only about 15% were attracted MLK-”we can’t win violently” 2 accomplishments of black power: helped
African Americans take greater pride in their racial heritage; forced others to focus attention on the plight of poor inner-city blacks
Black Power
Vietnam
JFK-over 16,000 military “advisers” Johnson-doubted Vietnam was worth the military
involvement, but didn’t want to appear weak 1965-184,000; ‘66-385,000; ‘69-542,000 About 58,000 dead; 300,000 wounded Cost-about $150b (money away from Great
Society programs) About 570,000 draft offenders; 563,000 less-
than-honorable military discharges Divided the country and toppled admin.
Vietnam
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution-following 2
“attacks?” on U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin (off N. Viet.)-authorized the president to “take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the U.S. and to prevent further aggression”
2/5/65-Pleiku, SV-Vietcong killed 8, wounded 126 Americans; response: Operation Rolling Thunder-1st sustained bombing of NV
“search and destroy” operations throughout SV
Escalation
“Americanize” the Vietnam War-consistent with
containment theory, domino theory Johnson-didn’t want to have military involvement
reach levels that would involve Soviets or Chinese-just wanted to force a negotiated settlement
Opposition to the war, “living room war”-tv Senate Foreign Relations Committee-to investigate
American policy in Vietnam Even Sec. of Defense Robert McNamara was
wavering Underestimated the tenacity/will of the NV
Context for Policy
Tet (Vietnamese New Year)-1/31/68-Tet Offensive-
coordinated attack by the North in to the South-attack cities, embassies
General Westmoreland-proclaimed a major defeat for the Vietcong-casualties enormous
Effect on American society more telling-War was going well? NV not going to give up
LBJ’s popularity down to 35%, civil rights leaders felt betrayed, money toward war-$322,000 for every Communist killed, $53 for each person w/ poverty programs
Turning Point
LBQ-embittered, isolated, depression, paranoia Vietnam war a stalemate?, Great Society programs
fragmented 1968-relection? All candidates were challenging
LBJ’s Vietnam policy (Robert Kennedy, NY senator, announced a run; Sen. Eugene McCarthy)
Predicted a humiliating defeat for LBJ March 31-speech on tv-announced a limited halt to
NV bombing and new initiatives for a cease-fire; also, that he wouldn’t seek a nomination
Turning Point
Sixties Crescendo
April 4, 1968-MLK Jr. Memphis, TN. James Earl Ray-hostile toward blacks, organized conspiracy? Ignited riots in over 60 cities
June 5, 1968-Robert Kennedy In the head by Sirhan Sirhan-resented Kennedy’s support of
Israel (Jordanian) Had convincingly defeated McCarthy for presidential
nomination
JFK, Malcolm X, MLK Jr., Robert Kennedy-marked the decade
Traumatic Year
Chicago-Aug. ‘68-gathering of Democ. Delegates outside Chicago
convention hall to call for nomination of Hubert Humphrey (LBJ’s VP); About 20,000 police/national guard stood watch over protesters; Chicago mayor Richard Daley-warned he would not tolerate disruptions; Riots broke out-tear gas and clubs struck demonstrators (televised)
Disarray of Democ. Led to Rep.-gathered in Miami Beach to nominate Richard Nixon; became the spokesman for “Middle America”-offered vision of stability and order that appealed to a majority of Americans (silent majority)
American Independent Party-AL. Gov. (Democ.) George Wallace –maintained race position; reactionary to riots, welfare; never a possible winner but could throw off electoral vote
Chicago & Miami
Election of 1968-Nixon started with a large lead,
but narrowed as the election approached statements by others hurt their chances Narrow popular victory-diff. of approx. 500,000;
electoral vote 301 to 191; Wallace received approx. 13.5% of the votes-best showing by 3rd party since La Follette w/ the Progressives
Nixon’s promise-”peace with honor” in Vietnam and a middle ground on which a majority of Americans, silent or otherwise, could come together
Nixon Again