PoliticsPolitics

Concepts for comparative Concepts for comparative studystudy

Goals of this presentationGoals of this presentation You should be able to identify the study of politics and distinguish it from You should be able to identify the study of politics and distinguish it from

other social scientific fields of studyother social scientific fields of study You should understand how comparative political scientists approaches the You should understand how comparative political scientists approaches the

study of “politics as institutions”. You will learn what the oldest and most study of “politics as institutions”. You will learn what the oldest and most common approach is, and we will use this approach later in the course.common approach is, and we will use this approach later in the course.

You should understand how comparative political scientists approaches the You should understand how comparative political scientists approaches the study of “politics as processes”. You should be able to distinguish study of “politics as processes”. You should be able to distinguish between institutional and process-oriented studies.between institutional and process-oriented studies.

A fourth goal is to define and distinguish the study of “politics as goals”. A fourth goal is to define and distinguish the study of “politics as goals”. The fifth goal is to be able to describe what we mean by studying “politics The fifth goal is to be able to describe what we mean by studying “politics

as conflict”.as conflict”. Finally, you will learn, as an example from the text, how comparative Finally, you will learn, as an example from the text, how comparative

political scientists use a powerful conceptual tool like the Gini Index. We political scientists use a powerful conceptual tool like the Gini Index. We will look at how the Index is calculated, how it is used, and what kinds of will look at how the Index is calculated, how it is used, and what kinds of understanding it brings to the question of poverty.understanding it brings to the question of poverty.

The Study of PoliticsThe Study of Politics It is often useful to start any conceptual discussion with a It is often useful to start any conceptual discussion with a

definition. We might disagree a bit about these definitions, and definition. We might disagree a bit about these definitions, and indeed we need to discuss them together to reach some sort of indeed we need to discuss them together to reach some sort of consensus. But in the end, it does not matter too much whether consensus. But in the end, it does not matter too much whether we would prefer a slightly different definition; the purpose of we would prefer a slightly different definition; the purpose of adopting a common definition is so that, when we come to work adopting a common definition is so that, when we come to work together and to discuss our findings as social scientists, that we together and to discuss our findings as social scientists, that we know that we are talking about the same things.know that we are talking about the same things.

Politics (as noted by Aristotle) is supremely Politics (as noted by Aristotle) is supremely human human and and socialsocial, , and can only exist as one facet of societyand can only exist as one facet of society

One of the earliest and most famous definitions of politics was that One of the earliest and most famous definitions of politics was that proposed by Harold Lasswell, an early political scientist, in 1936: proposed by Harold Lasswell, an early political scientist, in 1936: “Politics is who gets what, when, and how”“Politics is who gets what, when, and how”

In the text, Sodaro proposes the definition of politics as “the In the text, Sodaro proposes the definition of politics as “the process by which communities pursue collective goals and deal process by which communities pursue collective goals and deal with their conflicts authoritatively by means of government” (Text, with their conflicts authoritatively by means of government” (Text, page 30)page 30)

Politics as Politics as InstitutionsInstitutions – How are – How are governments organized?governments organized?

When we look at “politics as institutions”, the focus is on what we classically think of When we look at “politics as institutions”, the focus is on what we classically think of as government; institutions like legislatures, executives, judiciaries, bureaucracies, as government; institutions like legislatures, executives, judiciaries, bureaucracies, and the like. As we will see, the range of political institutions is quite great.and the like. As we will see, the range of political institutions is quite great.

A very powerful (and old) method to study politics as institutions is to develop A very powerful (and old) method to study politics as institutions is to develop schemes by which we can classify types of government. The classic distinction that schemes by which we can classify types of government. The classic distinction that is made is between democracy and authoritarianism, although theorists through the is made is between democracy and authoritarianism, although theorists through the ages, from Aristotle to Locke to Montesquieu and up to the present day, have ages, from Aristotle to Locke to Montesquieu and up to the present day, have proposed different classification schemes. Nonetheless, in the contemporary world, proposed different classification schemes. Nonetheless, in the contemporary world, the distinction between democratic and non-democratic governments is a very the distinction between democratic and non-democratic governments is a very powerful one and a matter of intense interest and debate.powerful one and a matter of intense interest and debate.

However, democracy can take many forms, and is in many ways a “contested However, democracy can take many forms, and is in many ways a “contested concept” (meaning that there is actually little agreement).concept” (meaning that there is actually little agreement).

For example, the core of democracy is… what? Self government? Accountability? For example, the core of democracy is… what? Self government? Accountability? Constitutional limitations on government? Can you say what distinguishes a Constitutional limitations on government? Can you say what distinguishes a democracy from a non-democracy? Look at the ‘checklist’ proposed by Freedom democracy from a non-democracy? Look at the ‘checklist’ proposed by Freedom House (page 33). What do you think of this? As we will see later in the course, these House (page 33). What do you think of this? As we will see later in the course, these are not easy questions to answer. Thus, it is useful to think about different types of are not easy questions to answer. Thus, it is useful to think about different types of democracy.democracy.

Equally so, there are many different forms of authoritarian regimes, as discussed in Equally so, there are many different forms of authoritarian regimes, as discussed in the text (monarchies, dictatorships, theocracies, etc.).the text (monarchies, dictatorships, theocracies, etc.).

We will be concerned with the classification of governments, and more profound We will be concerned with the classification of governments, and more profound questions such as; why are particular regimes the way they are? What are the questions such as; why are particular regimes the way they are? What are the consequences of the way in which institutions are organized?consequences of the way in which institutions are organized?

Politics as Politics as ProcessesProcesses If politics is essentially about power, we should note that power can be wielded If politics is essentially about power, we should note that power can be wielded

in many different ways can be wielded in many ways.in many different ways can be wielded in many ways. For example, we may make a distinction between bargaining and coercion (see For example, we may make a distinction between bargaining and coercion (see

pages 34-35)pages 34-35) Democracies are generally associated with bargaining as the primary form of the Democracies are generally associated with bargaining as the primary form of the

use of power; but we should note that they routinely engage in the use of use of power; but we should note that they routinely engage in the use of coercion (for example, you can go to jail for not paying taxes!).coercion (for example, you can go to jail for not paying taxes!).

One question that we will be firmly interested in is, under what conditions do One question that we will be firmly interested in is, under what conditions do they do so? What makes the use of coercion acceptable?they do so? What makes the use of coercion acceptable?

This pushes us towards the study of the behavior of individuals, both at the elite This pushes us towards the study of the behavior of individuals, both at the elite and mass levels. Why do people behave the way they do? Why do we accept and mass levels. Why do people behave the way they do? Why do we accept coercion, under certain circumstances, in democratic societies? We need to coercion, under certain circumstances, in democratic societies? We need to understand what pushes people to do what they do in the political arena.understand what pushes people to do what they do in the political arena.

In order to do this, we will examine so-called “rational choice theory” (RCT), In order to do this, we will examine so-called “rational choice theory” (RCT), which is explained on pages 35 and 36 of the text. We will come back more which is explained on pages 35 and 36 of the text. We will come back more closely to this question in a later unit, but right now you might think; do you closely to this question in a later unit, but right now you might think; do you believe that the way that people behave is essentially driven by the kind of believe that the way that people behave is essentially driven by the kind of rational calculations described by Sodaro.rational calculations described by Sodaro.

To understand why people accept authority, we will also look at the question of To understand why people accept authority, we will also look at the question of political culturepolitical culture (which is defined as “widely shared attitudes towards politics”, (which is defined as “widely shared attitudes towards politics”, text, page 37).text, page 37).

Politics as Politics as GoalsGoals Can we talk about entire countries holding goals? Does it Can we talk about entire countries holding goals? Does it

make sense? Or are goals really held by individuals? make sense? Or are goals really held by individuals? Nonetheless, it is important to note that we often use the Nonetheless, it is important to note that we often use the language, in everyday conversations, of national goals (for language, in everyday conversations, of national goals (for example, “the goal of China in the next few years is to be example, “the goal of China in the next few years is to be fully integrated into the World Trade Organization”).fully integrated into the World Trade Organization”).

Over time, the political culture of a country may reflect Over time, the political culture of a country may reflect certain preferences. For example, it is clear that the certain preferences. For example, it is clear that the political culture of the United States expresses preferences political culture of the United States expresses preferences for capitalism as an economic system and individualism as for capitalism as an economic system and individualism as a basis for political actions.a basis for political actions.

A central question that we will address is: from where do A central question that we will address is: from where do these goals come?these goals come?

Politics as Politics as ConflictConflict If we keep thinking about politics as primarily about the use of power, then obviously If we keep thinking about politics as primarily about the use of power, then obviously

one of the primary sources of conflict may be between those who have it and those one of the primary sources of conflict may be between those who have it and those who do not. As noted in the text, much conflict in the world is generated by a who do not. As noted in the text, much conflict in the world is generated by a struggle for the control of the institutions of the state (government).struggle for the control of the institutions of the state (government).

Conflict may also be about resources. Economists primarily assume that resources Conflict may also be about resources. Economists primarily assume that resources are distributed through the marketplace, yet much of the allocation of resources are distributed through the marketplace, yet much of the allocation of resources takes place as a result of power relationships. Thus we often ask the question: what takes place as a result of power relationships. Thus we often ask the question: what is the role of government in the distribution of resources? (this is the field of study is the role of government in the distribution of resources? (this is the field of study that is called that is called political economy. political economy. When we compare it across nations, we call it When we compare it across nations, we call it comparative political economy)comparative political economy)

Identity may also generate conflicts. The central question for us here is, how are Identity may also generate conflicts. The central question for us here is, how are individuals and groups defined in society? (this is the branch of study known as individuals and groups defined in society? (this is the branch of study known as political sociologypolitical sociology). Examples of “identity politics” may include:). Examples of “identity politics” may include:

• Class, ethnicity, religion, gender, ageClass, ethnicity, religion, gender, age• Cross-cutting versus polarizing cleavages (text, page 47)Cross-cutting versus polarizing cleavages (text, page 47)

Conflict also occurs over ideas and ideology. In terms of the latter, we should note Conflict also occurs over ideas and ideology. In terms of the latter, we should note that there are democratic and less-democratic variants (liberalism and conservatism, that there are democratic and less-democratic variants (liberalism and conservatism, for example, versus fascism and anarchism). It is useful to place ideologies on either for example, versus fascism and anarchism). It is useful to place ideologies on either the “left” or the “right”.the “left” or the “right”.

Conflict occurs, even in democratic societies, over basic values. Common ones in Conflict occurs, even in democratic societies, over basic values. Common ones in democratic societies include democratic societies include freedom, justice, equality, security, order, and freedom, justice, equality, security, order, and communitycommunity. We should note that these do not always perfectly co-exist, and trade-. We should note that these do not always perfectly co-exist, and trade-offs often need to be made.offs often need to be made.

Focus: The Focus: The Gini Index Gini Index (see page (see page 41)41)

The Gini Index is a powerful tool that allows us to measure The Gini Index is a powerful tool that allows us to measure relative inequality across societies. Comparative political relative inequality across societies. Comparative political scientists, especially those who do scientists, especially those who do cross-national cross-national (statistical) studies use it all the time and find it a very (statistical) studies use it all the time and find it a very useful predictor of certain outcomes in societies around the useful predictor of certain outcomes in societies around the world. The purpose of this focus section is to look in more world. The purpose of this focus section is to look in more detail at how the index is calculated and how it may be detail at how the index is calculated and how it may be used to answer fundamental questions about politics.used to answer fundamental questions about politics.

The standard measure of the wealth of a society is The standard measure of the wealth of a society is expressed by the total value of goods and services expressed by the total value of goods and services produced in that country (produced in that country (Gross Domestic Product, or GDPGross Domestic Product, or GDP), ), divided by the total number of people in that society.divided by the total number of people in that society.

The resulting figure is referred to as The resulting figure is referred to as per capita incomeper capita income.. Per capita income can provide useful information, for Per capita income can provide useful information, for

example allowing us to compare the relative prosperity of example allowing us to compare the relative prosperity of different countriesdifferent countries

Per capita income, 1998Per capita income, 1998

Relative changes in per capita income across high Relative changes in per capita income across high income and low income countriesincome and low income countries

The Gini IndexThe Gini Index However, per capita income tells us nothing However, per capita income tells us nothing

about the about the relative distribution of wealthrelative distribution of wealth within a within a society (i.e. the gap between the rich and the society (i.e. the gap between the rich and the poor). It assumes all wealth is poor). It assumes all wealth is divided equallydivided equally among members of a society. This, of course, is among members of a society. This, of course, is an unrealistic assumption.an unrealistic assumption.

The Gini Index attempts to provide a corrective to The Gini Index attempts to provide a corrective to this, by measuring this, by measuring what percentage of a what percentage of a population hold how much of the wealth of that population hold how much of the wealth of that society.society.

It is based on the principle of analysis by ‘-It is based on the principle of analysis by ‘-tiles’. tiles’. This is very familiar to anyone who has taken This is very familiar to anyone who has taken their SAT’s! Let us examine this further…their SAT’s! Let us examine this further…

How is the index calculated?How is the index calculated?

Let us ask the question; how much of the Let us ask the question; how much of the wealth of the US does the richest 20% of wealth of the US does the richest 20% of the population own?the population own?

46.9 % (in 1992)46.9 % (in 1992) How much does the poorest 20% own?How much does the poorest 20% own? 3.8% (in 1992)3.8% (in 1992) In fact, we can construct a table of such In fact, we can construct a table of such

data; it is shown on the next slide, for both data; it is shown on the next slide, for both 1968 and 1992.1968 and 1992.

The Lorenz curveThe Lorenz curve Now, we are going to combine this information with a Now, we are going to combine this information with a

theoretical construct to produce the Gini Index.theoretical construct to produce the Gini Index. We could ask ourselves; what, in principle, would a We could ask ourselves; what, in principle, would a

perfectly equal society look like (perfectly equal society look like (of course, such a thing is of course, such a thing is considered impossible and has never existed in factconsidered impossible and has never existed in fact)?)?

The answer is obvious; each The answer is obvious; each quintilequintile would own exactly would own exactly 20% of the wealth!20% of the wealth!

We could plot this on a graph as what we will term “the We could plot this on a graph as what we will term “the theoretical line of perfect equality”theoretical line of perfect equality”

Then we could add our Then we could add our actualactual data (from the previous table) data (from the previous table) and and measure the difference between the two. measure the difference between the two. The actual The actual data forms what we call the data forms what we call the Lorenz curveLorenz curve. This is shown on . This is shown on the next slide. The 45 degree line is the the next slide. The 45 degree line is the theoretical line of theoretical line of perfect equalityperfect equality..

Calculating the Calculating the Gini IndexGini Index If we take the difference between the area If we take the difference between the area

beneath our line of actual equality and that beneath our line of actual equality and that beneath our line of theoretical equality, we can beneath our line of theoretical equality, we can express this as a express this as a ratioratio

If there is no difference, the ratio would be 0.0 If If there is no difference, the ratio would be 0.0 If there is complete difference, it would be 1.0there is complete difference, it would be 1.0

Thus a gini index of 0 represents perfect equality, Thus a gini index of 0 represents perfect equality, while 1 represents perfect inequalitywhile 1 represents perfect inequality

The gini index is sometimes represented as a The gini index is sometimes represented as a percentage (simply that ratio multiplied by 100), percentage (simply that ratio multiplied by 100), as in the table on page 41 of the text.as in the table on page 41 of the text.

Using the Gini IndexUsing the Gini Index Once we have constructed the index, we may ask Once we have constructed the index, we may ask

questions about the relationship between (as questions about the relationship between (as examples)examples)• Democracy and inequalityDemocracy and inequality• Different kinds of democracy (liberal, social) and Different kinds of democracy (liberal, social) and

inequalityinequality• Globalization and inequalityGlobalization and inequality• Transitions to democracy (from communism) and Transitions to democracy (from communism) and

inequality.inequality. Let us look at this last question for a moment. Let us look at this last question for a moment.

The next slide shows the gini index for several The next slide shows the gini index for several former soviet and eastern bloc countries. Note former soviet and eastern bloc countries. Note that in every case, the gini index has risen since that in every case, the gini index has risen since the collapse of communism; i.e. inequality, as the collapse of communism; i.e. inequality, as measured by the distribution of wealth, has risen.measured by the distribution of wealth, has risen.

The Normative (Value-Oriented) The Normative (Value-Oriented) ComponentComponent

In case you are beginning to think that I am arguing that we should return these In case you are beginning to think that I am arguing that we should return these countries to communism, think about the following issues.countries to communism, think about the following issues.

First, just because more inequality exists in one society than another, it does not tell First, just because more inequality exists in one society than another, it does not tell us (a) why, or (b) whether this is a good or bad thing. Let me illustrate. I don’t think us (a) why, or (b) whether this is a good or bad thing. Let me illustrate. I don’t think any of us would like to live in a perfectly equal society, even if it were possible; after any of us would like to live in a perfectly equal society, even if it were possible; after all, what would be the incentive to work, if everyone were guaranteed equality? all, what would be the incentive to work, if everyone were guaranteed equality? Similarly, none of us would like to live in a perfectly unequal society (which, again, is Similarly, none of us would like to live in a perfectly unequal society (which, again, is actually theoretically impossible). So how much inequality is desirable? How much is actually theoretically impossible). So how much inequality is desirable? How much is tolerable? The gini-index does not answer these questions; it just gives us the tool tolerable? The gini-index does not answer these questions; it just gives us the tool with which we can make comparisons and generate information and knowledge.with which we can make comparisons and generate information and knowledge.

But now, for example, we can understand why there was initially so little support for But now, for example, we can understand why there was initially so little support for democracy in former communist countries and why there is a nostalgia among many democracy in former communist countries and why there is a nostalgia among many for the communist days; after all, many people became, relatively speaking, more for the communist days; after all, many people became, relatively speaking, more unequal! How do you think they felt?unequal! How do you think they felt?

Ultimately, no matter how much we gain knowledge about political phenomena, and Ultimately, no matter how much we gain knowledge about political phenomena, and their relationship to economic and social outcomes, our evaluation of such their relationship to economic and social outcomes, our evaluation of such phenomena always begins and ends in normative (or value-oriented) concerns. phenomena always begins and ends in normative (or value-oriented) concerns. In In other words, how we answer the question depends upon our own individual values, other words, how we answer the question depends upon our own individual values, preferences, and philosophy.preferences, and philosophy.

We are now going to turn to this question in the next set of slides (chapter three of We are now going to turn to this question in the next set of slides (chapter three of the text).the text).