pollution seminar

8/8/2019 Pollution Seminar

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Introduction

Pollution and Waste Management aims to facilitate and develop programmes, projects,co-operative management and policy mechanisms, measures and decision-support

systems to ensure integrated pollution and waste management.

Pollution and Waste Management also aims to:

Ensure efficient and effective provision of staff for the new structure and

development of personnel

Collect, analyse and disseminate relevant and current information regarding

pollution and waste management

Promote programmes on pollution and waste management that give effect tointegrated pollution and waste management

Promote public participation in environmental governance and decision-making

with respect to integrated pollution and waste management Provide efficient and effective support to all clients and ensure co-operative

governance to achieve integrated pollution and waste management

Develop and implement pollution and waste management legislation, policies,

norms, standards and guidelines and ensure compliance with relevant environmentallegislation.

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Pollution

What Is Pollution?

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability,

disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or livingorganisms. Pollution can take the form ofchemical substances orenergy such as noise,

heat, or light. Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies

or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants whenthey exceed natural levels. Pollution is often classed as point source ornon point source

pollution. The Blacksmith Institute issues annually a list of the world's worst polluted

places. In the 2007 issues the ten top nominees are locatedin Azerbaijan, China, India,Peru,Russia,Ukraine and Zambia.

Official acknowledgement

The earliest known writings concerned with pollution were Arabic medicaltreaties written between the 9th and 13th centuries. The works covered a number of

subjects related to pollution such as air contamination, water contamination, soilcontamination, solid waste mishandling, and environmental assessments of certain

localities.

King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in

1272, after its smoke had become a problem. But the fuel was so common in England thatthis earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some

shores by the wheelbarrow. Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England,

especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past withthe great Smog Of 1952.This same city also recorded one of the earlier extreme cases of

water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858, which led to

construction of the London Sewerage System soon afterward.

It was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know ittoday. The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities

of coal and other fossil fuels gave rise to unprecedented air pollution and the large

volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human

waste. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuringcleaner air in 1881. Other cities followed around the country until early in the 20th

century, when the short lived Office of Air Pollution was created under the Department

of the Interior. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles andDonora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder.

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Modern awareness

Pollution became a popular issue after WW2, when the aftermath of atomic warfare and

testing made evident the perils of radioactive fallout. Then a conventional catastrophic

event The Great Smog of 1952 in London killed at least 8000 people. This massive eventprompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act of

1956.

Pollution began to draw major public attention in the United States between the mid-

1950s and early 1970s, when Congress passed theNoise Control Act, the Clean Air Act,the Clean Water Act and theNational Environmental Policy Act.

Bad bouts of local pollution helped increase consciousness. PCB dumping in the Hudson

Riverresulted in a ban by the EPA on consumption of its fish in 1974. Long-

term dioxin contamination at Love Canal starting in 1947 became a national news storyin 1978 and led to the Super fund legislation of 1980. Legal proceedings in the 1990s

helped bring to light Chromium-6 releases in California--the champions of whose victimsbecame famous. The pollution of industrial land gave rise to the name brown field, a term

now common in city planning. DDT was banned in most of the developed world after thepublication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring.

The development of nuclear science introduced radioactive contamination, which can

remain lethally radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. Lake Karachay, named by

the World watch Institute as the "most polluted spot" on earth, served as a disposal sitefor the Soviet Union thorough out the 1950s and 1960s. Second place may go to the to

the area of Chelyabinsk U.S.S.R. (see reference below) as the "Most polluted place on the

planet".

Nuclear weapons continued to be tested in the Cold War, sometimes near inhabited areas,especially in the earlier stages of their development. The toll on the worst-affected

populations and the growth since then in understanding about the critical threat to human

health posed by radioactivity has also been a prohibitive complication associatedwith nuclear power. Though extreme care is practiced in that industry, the potential for

disaster suggested by incidents such as those at Three Mile Island and Chernobylpose a

lingering specter of public mistrust. One legacy ofnuclear testing before most forms werebanned has been significantly raised levels ofbackground radiation.

International catastrophes such as the wreck of the Amoco Cadiz oil tanker off the coast

ofBrittany in 1978 and the Bhopal disasterin 1984 have demonstrated the universality of

such events and the scale on which efforts to address them needed to engage. The

borderless nature of atmosphere and oceans inevitably resulted in the implication ofpollution on a planetary level with the issue of global warming. Most recently the

termpersistent organic pollutant (POP) has come to describe a group of chemicals such

as PBDEs and PFCs among others. Though their effects remain somewhat less wellunderstood owing to a lack of experimental data, they have been detected in various

ecological habitats far removed from industrial activity such as the Arctic, demonstrating

diffusion and bioaccumulation after only a relatively brief period of widespread use.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_Control_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Air_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Water_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Environmental_Policy_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenylhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfund_(environmental_law)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexavalent_chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Californiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownfieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_Springhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_contaminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Karachayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldwatch_Institutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Mile_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobylhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_Ban_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_Ban_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoco_Cadizhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_disasterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBDEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PFChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_Control_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Air_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Water_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Environmental_Policy_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenylhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfund_(environmental_law)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexavalent_chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Californiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownfieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_Springhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_contaminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Karachayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldwatch_Institutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Mile_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobylhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_Ban_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_Ban_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoco_Cadizhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_disasterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBDEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PFC


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Growing evidence of local and global pollution and an increasingly informed public over

time have given rise to environmentalism and the environmental movement, which

generally seek to limit human impact on the environment.

Forms of PollutionThe various forms of pollution are

Air Pollution

Water Pollution

Land Pollution

Noise Pollution

Radioactive Pollution

Thermal Pollution

Air Pollution

Air pollution is indication of disturbances to the composition of compounds in the

atmosphere, as it may be summarized as shown:

excess emission of gases/vapors into atmosphere

saturation of chemical compounds/particulates

rate of dissipation < (smaller than) rate of absorption through various cycles (i.e.

carbon and nitrogen cycle)

emergence of new chemical reactions of reactive and non-biodegradablecompounds.

Global warming, acid rain, smog, ozone depletion are some effects of air pollution.

In relation to this, we may observe the cycle which involves in our daily lives: carbon and

nitrogen cycle. These 2 cycles are the most important of all, regulating the composition ofcarbon and nitrogen of Earth. Imagine the reverse is to happen....

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Sources and Methods

We can classify major sources that lead to air pollution to the following categories:

motor vehicle exhaust

heat and power generation facilities industrial processes

auto manufacturing

fertilizers plants building demolition

solid waste disposal

solvent evaporation

volcanic eruption fuel production

roadway construction

electrical components manufacturing

extraction of metals forest fires

agriculture

Water Pollution

Polluted river

Water pollution is contamination of water by foreign matter that deteriorates the quality

of the water. Water pollution covers pollutions in liquid forms like ocean pollution and

river pollution. As the term applies, liquid pollution occurs in the oceans, lakes, streams,rivers, underground water and bays, in short liquid-containing areas. It involves the

release of toxic substances, pathogenic germs, substances that require much oxygen to

decompose, easy-soluble substances, radioactivity, etc. that become deposited upon thebottom and their accumulations will interfere with the condition of aquatic ecosystems.

For example, the eutrophication: lack of oxygen in a water body caused by excessive

algae growths because of enrichment of pollutants.

Water Cycle and Pollution

Water cycle is, simply saying, the circulation of water in earth. In fact, the water in theearth's biosphere is used and reused again and again. This is called water cycle or

continuous movement of water between the earth and the atmosphere. It involves the

following mechanisms:

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Evaporation: changing of water from liquid to gas

Transpiration: Release of water vapor from plant leaves

Condensation: changing of vapor to liquid (cooled down)

Precipitation: Water that returns to the earth (water droplets in clouds become

large enough and there comes the rain).

What's the relation of water cycle and pollution?

According to the water cycle, naturally, water around us will be absorbed to the land(soil) and rivers will stream from the upstream to the downstream and released to the

sea. In normal situation organic pollutants are biodegraded by microbes and converted to

a form that brings benefits to the aquatic life. And for the inorganic pollutants, in the

same situation, don't bring to much hazards because they are widely dispersed and havealmost no effect to the environment which they are released to.

In a small scale, both inorganic and organic pollutants safely decompose throughout the

stream, their concentration decrease in the sea, and they don't harm the sea ecosystem andits distribution. But in an excessive scale, communities in beach and estuary will be

affected by the pollutants, and can heavily harm them.

Sources and Methods

We can classify major sources that lead to water pollution to the following categories:

petroleum products

synthetic agricultural chemicals

heavy metals

hazardous wastes excess organic matter sediment

infectious organisms

air pollution

thermal pollution

soil pollution

Land Pollution

Land Pollution

Revered to as soil pollution, land pollution involves the following mechanism:

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Deposition of solid waste

Accumulation of non-biodegradable materials

Toxification of chemicals into poisons

Alteration of soil chemical composition (imbalance of chemical equilibrium to

soil medium)

By as much, land pollution of this has a mass globally, everyday threatening the very

foundation and mechanical support of every matter on earth. Statistically, it has beenshown that:

loss of 6 million hectares of land per year

loss of 24 billion tons of topsoil per year

loss of minimum 15 million acres prime agricultural land to overuse andmismanagement

desertification of land results in the lost of 16 million per square miles of world's

land surface

The causes for such devastation are generally due to 2 (two) forms of malpractices:

Unhealthy soil management methods;

o improper tillage of soil in which excessive tillage result in the

deterioration of soil structureo non-maintenance of a proper supply of organic matter in the soil from the

imbalance composition of the reserves of organic matter especially

nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur unplenished supply after cultivation ofvegetation, living the soil prone to soil infertility, unable to stabilize the

soil physicality which ultimately let to desertification

o

irregular maintenance of a proper nutrient supply of trace elements givesrise to the use of excessive synthetic fertilizers, which are non

biodegradable and accumulate in the soil system which eventually

destroys useful organisms such as bacteria, fungi and other organisms

o improper maintenance of the correct soil acidity which ultimately disrupt

the adaptation of various crops and native vegetation of different soils as

the solubility of minerals present will be affected. In a more acidic soil,

minerals tend to be more soluble and washed away during rainfall whilealkaline soil, minerals are more insoluble which form complex minerals

unable to be absorbed into the flora system physiological usage.

Improper irrigation practices;

o

poorly drained soil result in salt deposits leading to high soil salinity thatinhibit plant growth and may lead to crop failure

o unirrigated land giving rise to stagnation of agriculture waste products

which accumulates and increases land toxicity and also decreasing

o irregular irrigation leads to decreasing moisturization of land for soil

medium and replenishments of solvents for minerals

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Sources and Methods

We can classify major sources that lead to land pollution to the following categories:

agriculture

mining and quarrying sewage sludge

dredged spoils

household

demolitions and constructions

industrial

Noise Pollution

This particular pollution is ever increasing with due to the rise in the utilization of heavyduty machineries of industrial facilities and vehicles, synonymous to the increase in the

standard of living in most countries. We make sounds practically every seconds of ourday, but to the extend it has reached an unfavorable high intensity which had cause manydisturbances and irritation to others emotionally that has adverse effects on our daily

activities.

Noise levels can be measured by decibel method:

Decibel - one tenth of a bel where one bel represents a difference in level between two

intensities I1, I0 where one is ten times greater than the other. Thus, the intensity level isthe comparison of one intensity to another and may be expressed:

Intensity level = 10 log10 (I1/I0) (dB)

For instance, the difference between intensities of 10-8watts/m2 and 10-4 watts/m2, an

actual difference of 10,000 units, can be expressed as a difference of 4 bels or 40decibels.These are the few examples of threshold decibels of noises made:

Threshold of hearing 0 dB Motorcycle (30 feet 88 dB

Rustling leaves 20 dB Food blender (3 feet) 90 dB

Quiet whisper (3 feet) 30 dB Subway (inside) 94 dB

Quiet home 40 dB Diesel truck (30 feet) 100 dB

Quiet street 50 dB Power mower (3 feet) 107 dB

Normal conversation 60 dB Pneumatic riveter (3 feet) 115 dB

Inside car 70 dB Chainsaw (3 feet) 117 dB

Loud singing (3 feet) 75 dB Amplified Rock and Roll (6 feet) 120 dB

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Automobile (25 feet) 80 dB Jet plane (100 feet) 130 dB

Other noise measurement systems are:

community noise equivalent level

composite noise rating

equivalent energy level

noise and number index

noise exposure forecast

noise criterion

noise level noise pollution level

noise rating

perceived noise level

traffic noise index

sound level

sound level meter

sound pressure level

world soundscape project

Sources and Methods

We can classify major sources that lead to noise pollution to the following categories:

road traffic noise

air traffic

rail traffic

neighborhood and domestic noise

incompatible land use

industrial noises

Radioactive Pollution

The 40's was the era where the first nuclear bomb is being developed, and that's why it'scalled the nuclear era. However, nuclear energy has already researched back since 1900.

Nuclear era reached its greatest peak in the world war, by showing its massive ability of

destroying things.

Nuclear energy is a form of energy thats released by the splitting of atoms. Sincescientists have found a way to make use of the energy, it has also been used to generate

electricity.

Nuclear energy has been recognized as a clean energy because it doesnt release

pollutants such as CO2 to the atmosphere after its reaction that could damage our

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environment. It's also known that nuclear energy has reduced the amount of greenhouse

gas emission, reducing emissions of CO2 for about 500 million metric tons of carbon.

Despite the advantage of nuclear as a clean energy, the big concern is the waste resultedfrom nuclear reaction, which is a form of pollution, called radioactivity. Radioactivity is a

form of radiation (a form of energy that travels through space). Some elements in thisworld are naturally radioactive while some others are made to be. Radioactivity is emitted

when a radioactive element become unstable and begin to decay in the attempt to regaintheir molecular stability. When an element decays, it emits energy and small particles. If

its still radioactive, it will repeat the process, until it finally regains its molecular

stability and stop decaying. The time that it takes for half way of decaying process iscalled half-life, and this differs for each radioactive element. It possibly takes up to 4.5

billion years (Uranium 238) and as short as 8 days (Iodine 131). This process constantly

remains, not considering external factors such as pressure or temperature. This process isexpressed in units called becquerels. One becquerel is equal to one disintegration of

nuclei per second.

There are commonly three types of radiation, namely:

Alpha particles, can be blocked by a piece of paper and human skin.

Beta particles can penetrate through skin, while can be blocked by some pieces ofglass and metal.

Gamma rays can penetrate easily to human skin and damage cells on its way

through, reaching far, and can only be blocked by a very thick, strong, massivepiece of concrete.

Sources and Methods

We can classify major sources that lead to radioactive pollution to the following

categories:

nuclear power plants

nuclear weapon

transportation

disposal of nuclear waste

uranium mining

Thermal Pollution

This has become an increasing and the most current pollution, owing to the increasing

call of globalization everywhere. Heat produced from industries is a major contribution tothe pollution, much to the operation of the heavy industries which produces high amount

of heat energy. As we will show a summary to the event of this pollution happening:

Raw materials for productivity (organic and inorganic products)

Undergo different chemical reactions with several process

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Excess heat energy is produced as a waste product

Heat is released through into atmosphere (vapor) andriverine system (liquid).

Increase of temperature of environmental system

n view of the pollution, global temperature had increased significantly.

Measurements of atmospheric temperature are done by meteorological center of the

weather forecast annually, and the graph to detect the temperature trend from a period of

10 years will be compared with the previous batch of period. Thus we may be able toknow the rate of temperature increase overall and make reference to the standard level of

heat that should be maintain in the atmosphere to avoid large deviation of heat in the

system.

Pollutants

Pollutants are any substances that under excessive quantity in a wrong place and a wrongtime will cause impurity to the living environment. Simply put, they're the things that

cause pollution. Pollutants can be chemicals, ashes, sediment, organisms, heat, radiation,etc. which if exposed to the living environment will cause bad effects.

In this section we will discuss some of common pollutants exist today: the characteristics,

uses and effects.

Radioactive Materials

Biological Pollutants

Machineries

Transportation Synthetic Chemicals

Heavy Metals

Radioactive Materials

Classified under hazardous waste, wastes can be eithertoxic (poisonous), reactive (capable of producing explosive or toxic

gases), corrosive (capable of corroding steel) or ignitable (flammable).

Improper treatment and storage resulted in air, water and soilp

Types Characteristics Uses Effects

Radium (Ra) -silvery white radioactive

material

-radiation source for

treating neoplastic

disease

-radon source in

radiography of metals-neutron source for

-exposure via inhalation

has resulted in acute

leucopoenia

-oral exposure has

resulted in anemia,necrosis of the jaw,

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research abscess of the brain and

terminal

bronchopneumonia

-via oral exposure is

known to cause

lung, bone, brainand nasal passage

tumors

Radon (Rn) -colorless, odorless, tasteless

radioactive noble gas

-special hazard: radioactive

-cancer treatment

-earthquake prediction

-experimental studies

-health threat in homes

built on granite

-smokers exposed are at

greater risk of lung

cancer-exposure via inhalation

has resulted respiratory

effects (chronic lung

disease, pneumonia,

fibrosis of the lung)

-animal studies have

reported effects on

the blood and adecrease in body

weight

Uranium (U) -very heavy silvery white

radioactive metal

-combustible solid

-special hazard: radioactive

-routes of exposure: inhalation,

ingestion, skin and/or eye

contact-target organs: skin, kidneys,

bone marrow, lymphatic

system

-pigments for glass

-fuel in nuclear reactors

and nuclear bombs

-depleted uranium:

casings of armour

piercing arterial shells,

armour plating on tanksand as ballast in the

wings of some large

aircrafts

-uranium miners have

shown an increase in

lung cancer and tumors

of the lymphatic and

hematopoietic tissues

from inhalation

exposure-increase of deaths of

non malignant

respiratory disease

Plutonium (Pu) -artificially created radioactive

metal

-made by bombarding uranium

with neutrons

-used in bombs and

reactors

-carcinogenic which

promotes cancer

development

-mutation to body tissuesand cells

-disruption to normal

fetal development

Biological Pollutants

Biological pollutants are biodegradable substances which can be considered one of the

'cleanest' pollutants, however rate of accumulation currently in an area which is biggerthan the rate of decomposition has made this an undisputable contributory factor to

pollution.

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Soil pollutants Sediments

Due to soil erosion on hill slope

or coastline where loose soil

practices are washed down andcarried to streambed, lake orocean

Organic matter

Addition of fertilizers and

nutrients to promote plant

growth and development,

usually from urea and faecal

matter of animals, or

decomposition of deadorganism.

-decomposed matter

provides fertility to soil

for agriculture

-sediments can becollected and used forconstruction of barriers

-occurrence of landslip at

hillslope

-unbearable stench of

decomposing isimminent

-leeching of organic

matter to streambed,

lake or ocean, leading to

eutrophication

-depth of lake is reduced

as a result of

sedimentation

-change in original

geographical landscape

Water pollutants Microorganism

Due to evolution and mutation

microscopic organisms can be

viral and transmit diseases to

any living organisms consumingit, through secretion of poison

-reduction in clarity of

water in lakes

-cause for malaria

-cause for diarrhea due to

contamination ofdrinking water

-acne-like skin rash

-deadly viral attack can

cause death to living

organisms

Air pollutants Particulate matter

Due to volcanic eruption and

evaporation of gases such as

methane, sulfur dioxide,nitrogen dioxide and carbon

dioxide from decomposing

materials to the atmosphere

which accumulates gradually

and chemically reactive to react

-atmospheric visibilityreduce (haze, smog)

-build up of toxic

chemicals in theatmosphere harmful to

living organisms

-frequent asthma attack

-adverse respiratory

illness is imminent

Machineries

Increasing industrial activities with multiple productivity of goods by the extensive use ofmachineries resulted in extension of industries in rural areas, also the cause of increase in

noise disturbance and heat accumulation.

The effects of this activity are:

causes for irritation to daily activities

cause for boilermaker's disease and hearing loss anxiety, nervousness and loss of sleep

presbycusis

sociocusis

schizophonia

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excess heat emitted will return to environment, thus increasing mean surrounding

temperature, leading to thermal pollution

certain hazardous materials which is part of the machine (i.e. cadmium in nuclearfactor regulator) may wear off and released to environment.

Transportation

Convenience and alternatives to the mode of transportation worldwide sees an increase inemission of air pollutants as a result of fuel combustion and noise pollution from rail and

commercial aircraft.

The effects of this activity are:

increase in emissions of air pollutants: carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb), nitrogen

oxides (NO, NO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), volatile organic compounds (VOC),

persistent organic pollutants (POPs) excess heat emission as a result of heavy fuel combustion from increase use of

vehicles

annoyance and disturbances in intercity housing, with the centre and

transportation hub situated.

Synthetic chemicals

Complex chemical structure are non-biodegradable which accumulates and persists insoil, water and air can become toxic, thus a haphazard which in turns affects the

physiology of living organisms in the contaminated ecosystems.


Persistent Organic

Pollutants (POPs)

-highly stable organic

compounds

-accumulates in most fatty

tissues of living organisms

-semi volatile

-pesticides

-industrial use

-a half-life in water

greater than two months

-soil and sediment half-

lives greater than six

months-toxic characteristics, are

persistent, bio

accumulate, are prone to

long-range trans

boundary atmospheric

transport and deposition

Polychlorinated

Biphenyls (PCBs)

-forms clear to yellow, oily

liquids to white, crystalline

(sand like) solids and hard

resins

-change in original geographical

landscape

Used in insulating fluids

of electrical system

-irritates and burns the

eye

-irritate nose and throat

causing cough and

difficulty in breathing

-damage to reproductive

system

-acne-like skin rash

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-damage nervous system,

causing headache,

numbness weakness and

tingling in the arms and

legs

-liver damage

Volatile Organic

Compounds

(VOC)

-efficient evaporation of organic

compounds

-low molecular mass of

compound

made up of hydrocarbons,

aldehydes, ketones andsolvents

-transfer easily through air, landand water

Used in household

products: paints, paint

strippers and other

solvents, wood

preservatives, aerosol

sprays, cleansers,disinfectants, moth

repellents, air refreshers,stored fuels and

automotive products,

hobby supplies and dry

cleaning clothing

-eye, nose and throat

irritation

-headache

-loss of coordination

-nausea

-damage to liver, kidneyand central nervous

systems-carcinogenic and causes

cancer in animals

PersistentBioaccumulative

Toxic Pollutants

(PBTs)

-non-biodegradable-highly toxic

ability to travel long distances

-transfer easily through air,

water and land

-target organs: central nervous

systems, reproductive organs,

chromosomes

-Aldrin/DieldrinInsecticide and

byproduct of pesticide

Aldrin

-Benzo(a)pyrene

Byproducts of

incomplete combustion

-Chlordane

Pesticide and fumigating

agent-DDT

Pesticide-Hexaclhorobenzene

-Pesticide-Fungicide

-Fireworks and

amunition

-Mirex

-Insecticides

-control chemical for

fire ants-Octachlorostyrene

Graphite anodes are

used during electrolytic

production of

magnesium frommagnesium chloride

-Dioxins and furans

Trace level unintentional

byproducts of most

forms of combustions

and industrial chemical

processes

-Toxaphene

Insecticides

-decrease effectiveness ofimmune system

-increase infant mortality

-reduces reproductive

success

-cause cancer and birth

defects

-damages to kidney

-skin disorders in humans

and animal-harmful developmental

and reproductive effects

-behavioral disorders in

children if they wereexposed before birth or

while nursing

-harms the endocrine,

nervous, digestive andliver systems

-damages bones, kidneys

and blood cells

-abnormal fetal

development

-harmful effects on

stomach, intestines, eyes

and thyroid glands

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Heavy Metals

Heavy metal readily accumulates through food web from producer to consumer. As it

exceeds the maximum health standard level, it can be immediately poisonous or result in

long-term health problems.


Lead (Pb) -metallic and cubic close-

packed

-soft bluish white metal-non combustible solid (except

as dust)


ingestion, skin and/or eye

contact

-target organs: gastrointestinal

tract, central nervous system,

kidneys, blood and gingivaltissue

-protective shield from

radioactivity

-lead acid accumulator-manufacture antiknock,

tetraethyl lead

Pb(C2H5)4 in petrol

-pigments e.g., white basic

lead

carbonate,Pb(OH)2 orange

pigment red lead, Pb3O4

-Mental retardation

among children exposed

to lead in waterresulting from lead

pipes and solders

in older water systems

-exhibit weakness,

general disability,

nervous disorders and

eventual death

Mercury (Hg) -silver coloured liquid

transition metal

-non-combustible liquid

-routes of exposure: inhalation,skin absorption, ingestion,skin and/or eye contact

-target organs: eyes, skin,

respiratory system, central

nervous system, kidneys

-electrodes in the

amalgamation of

electrolysis of brine

-thermometers-barometers-fluorescent lamps

-carcinogenic, typically

cause cancer or are

mutagenic

-cause for kidneydamage

-cause for neurological

disorder

-cause for blindness

-associated with birth

defects

-damaging to aquatic

life

Arsenic (As) -metalloid and gray brittle non-

metal flake


ingestion, skin and/or eyecontact.

-target organs: skin, respiratory

system, kidneys, centralnervous system, liver,

gastrointestinal tract,

reproductive system

-deadly poison in shotgun

pellets

-metal for mirrors

-glass-lasers

-light emitting diodes

(LED)-semiconductors

-carcinogenic

-associated with lung

cancer

-results in skin cancer-damage to intestines

and liver, as it is found

in pesticides, woodpreservatives and

naturally occurring in

many household

products

-toxic when ingested

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Cadmium (Cd) -silvery white transition metal

-non-combustible solid (except

as dust)

-route of exposure: inhalation,

ingestion

target organs: respiratory

system, kidneys, blood,prostate

-nickel-cadmium batteries

-nuclear reactor regulator

-red/yellow pigments

-toxic and poisonous

Impacts

Economical effects

In the course of development, many basis for sustainable development is often ignored.In the aim for environmental management, private investors often opting for lowest risk

with highest profit takings in its ventures are ignorance to thorough plans, analysis and

assessments on environmental impacts done.

Even if such assessments are taken into account and cautious measures implemented,pollutions are still happening rapidly as each nations would not want to be left out in the

race for globalization, and also inevitable as pollution has been happening for a long

time.

Continuous development for globalization due to increasing activity of agriculture,

industrialization, fisheries, timber and mining will lead to:

rapid and excessive constructions of factories and building

increase in emissions of toxic and poisonous gases

destruction of ecosystems

And finally they will lead to permanent and irreversible damage to the environment.

In the events of pollution occurs which are reversible, greater finance and grants are

needed for the following purposes:

conservation of remaining ecosystem

rehabilitation contaminated ecosystems clean up of toxic waste

restoration of historical landscapes

revival of biodiversity to a new ecosystem preservation of endangered species

Biodiversity and diseases

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Biodiversity Degradation

Disturbances to biotic factors (temperature, light, water, humidity, wind, air currents, pH,

topography, etc.) and abiotic factors (predation, competition, habitat, pollination andmimicry - resemblance between animals and part of a plant/species happens to be

unpalatable to a predator) will lead to environmental resistance.

This is due to:

shortage of food, water and oxygen

low light intensity

predators and parasites

destruction of habitat

diseases

accumulation of toxic waste

psychological factors

harsh climate

And will lead to exponential decrease in population of ecosystems that will cause highextinction rate of biodiversity. If this condition is severe, the ecology of the ecosystems

will be permanently damaged.

Emergence of variant diseases

A combination of the following happenings:

Unhygienic practices by

individualsPoor sanitation of habitation

Uncontrollable

emission/release ofparticulates containing

pathogenic

microorganism/pollutants

Mismanagement of treatment, control and storageplants in containment of pollutants

Deterioration of machineries and facilities oftreatment, control and storage plants

will result in...

Exposure of contaminants to the

environment

|

Accumulation of poisonous

/hazardoussubstance incorporated into

the physiological functions & systems

of every living organisms ,

including microorganisms like bacteria

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|

Harmless microorganisms due to

evolution undergoes rapid mutation of

deleterious genes into pathogenic /

viral microorganisms

|

Diversifications with the existence of

superclasses of microorganisms

(super virus) which are aggressive &

invasive against the protective

immunities provided by the immune

systems in organisms

|

More powerful & larger doses of

medications, ranging from vaccines toantibiotics produced to battle &

immunize against strongerpathogen attack

|

Strong medication may produce side

effects & harmful to physiological

functions/systems of organisms

Climatic pattern change


Rapid emission of greenhouse gases from mass utilization of transportation &

heavy industrial economic activities

Clearing of land leaving an exposed idle barren land

Chemical composition of atmosphere altered

Natural disasters of frequent volcanic eruptions

will result in...

pH, light intensity, wind speed and

globe temperature distorted

|

Change in wind direction cause for

alteration in the world's seasonal

climates

|

Concentration of the extremes of

temperatures could cause a build up of

air and ocean currents

|

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Allocation and shift of these currents to

different continents from its original

location

|

Activities are rapid and instantaneous,

which can leave lots of damages and

lost of lives

|

Corrosive to land surfaces and

mountain ice-capped which can lead to

erosions and melting of ice cap due to

distortion from climate pattern

..and will finally cause

Global warming

El Nino & La Nina

Alteration to geographical landscapes


Constructions of housing and industries for development

Economical activities of mining, timber and agriculture

Clearing of rainforest and hillside, with natural disasters like earthquake which

involves the shifting of earth surface

will result in...

Alteration to chemical composition of

soil by substitution, utilization and

drainage

|

Increase in soil temperature produces

warming

|

Soil fertility decreases which gradually

turns to a barren land due to

desertification

|

Soil stability and grip which acts as

foundation decrease

|

Displacement of upper layer of soil due

to external forces of nature becomes

easier

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|

Original geographical landscape is

significantly altered

|

Visibility of atmosphere decrease

..and will finally cause

Deforestation

Desertification

Erosion

Landslide

Food contamination and food web distortion

Food contamination leading to food shortage

A combined event of (a) free flow and emission of non biodegradable industrialdischarge and noise disturbances due to usage of heavy machineries; (b) illegal dumping

and spraying of toxic and hazardous chemicals on land and water; and (c)

mismanagement in regulation of treatment and control of heat and radioactive substances;will lead to high density toxicity concentration on soil, water and air. The impacts of this

are:

1. Fertile land becoming poisonous for living organisms underground and

agriculture practice, nutrients lost, locked up or becomes toxic2. Aquatic ecosystem depletes further and non-consumable water supplies noxious

fumes and gas permeates, blanketing atmosphere

3. Detrimental health to psychological and physiological being of organisms inecosystems

This situation continues to the rise of mortality rate of domesticated animals, failure of

reproduction, deterioration on performance of superior breed, and failure of cultivation of

crops which are inedible. This is also due to rapid mutation of deleterious genes;deterioration on metabolic and physiology functions of systems in plants and animals.

Finally, as a result, there will be low productivity of food population; occurrence of

starvation and dehydration, and if severe, exponential increase in mortality rate of florasand faunas worldwide.

Food web distortion

A combination of (a) mass viral infections and attacks on certain organisms; (b)

contamination and pollution of food supplies which is inedible; and (c) uncontrollable

hunting of exotic/rare/endangered species will lead to the disequilibria of speciespopulation. The next impact will be the imbalance in the ration of producers, consumers

and decomposers in the ecology system, which consequently distorts the pattern of

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energy flow through the chain/web. This will bring to disruption of ecological food

pyramid.

When ecological food pyramid is disrupted, insufficient consumption of food causeorganisms deprived of energy, thus affecting the organism's metabolism of its

biochemical activities. Then, growth and development of organisms will be affected, andleads to mass starvation and mortality in world population. On the other hand, particular

species extinction occurred while its predators dominates, thus ecological niche inecosystems change.

Ozone depletion and acid rain

Ozone depletion

Ozone layer is a protective layer in our atmosphere (O3, three oxygen atoms). It's about19 to 30 km in distance from the Earth surface. It plays an important role of blocking

ultraviolet (UV) rays that come from the sun, which, if there was no ozone layer ever,

cancer would dominate and even no life would be in this world! The concentration of thelayer is usually under 10 parts ozone per million. The ozone layer is made up by the

action of sunlight to oxygen, and the amount is stabled by the existence of nitrogen.

n today's trends there is a noticeable depletion of the ozone layer. It's popularly known

since 1970 that a substance called CFC (chlorofluorocarbon) is threatening the layer. Thissubstance is usually contained in refrigerators, coolants, and aerosol sprays. When we use

much of those things (which contain CFC), we are continually depleting our Earth's

ozone layer. However, most of the latest products today do not contain CFC anymore.Some other substances, like bromine halocarbons and nitrous oxides are also possible

threats.

The effects of ozone layer depletion are:

More ultraviolet rays come to Earth (this could make the Earth just like a cooking

oven) More heat, thus increasing the risk ofglobal warming.

How CFC depletes the ozone layer?

1. CFC molecule, consisting of one atom for each fluorine and carbon and 3 chlorine

atoms, is hit by the UV rays.2. One chlorine atom breaks apart. It will hit an ozone (O3) and takes one oxygen

atom away to create chlorine monoxide, thus leaving one oxygen molecule (O2).

3. Another oxygen atom breaks the chlorine monoxide and takes the oxygen atom

away, leaving one chlorine atom, leaving no ozone molecule. Process repeats.

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Acid rain

Acid rain is the kind of precipitation that contains larger amounts of acid than normal.

Rainwater is usually slightly acidic, with pH level between 5 and 6. Water that evaporatesfrom earth is neutral (pH 7) and it becomes weak acid when mixed with carbon dioxide in

the atmosphere. Acid rain contains more pH than ordinary. This is caused by the presenceof air pollutants, like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. They produce acids if combined

with water. Acid rain is considered as the wet deposits of air pollutants, where it'scombined with moisture before falling into the ground. While air pollutants that fall

without combining with moisture is called dry deposits.

Acid rain can occur naturally, from the volcanic eruptions. However we are also causing

this, from the emission of vehicles and of industrial plants that include the burning offossil fuels. If we continue to increase rate of air pollution, we are increasing the risk of

acid rain to happen.

What's the impact of acid rain?

Deteriorates building that is made of rock

Acidification of soil and lakes

Separation of poisonous minerals such as aluminum and mercury from the

surrounding ground, increasing the risk of contamination to lakes/water sources

Deteriorates trees and forests.

Actions to Control Pollution

Activities

Various programs are implemented for every levels of communities to participate andgive their support on the measures of conservation and sustaining environment initiated

by government and NGOs, in the assessment of risk and economical cost, grants and

financing, thereby maintaining cooperations and partnerships between internationalcommunities to reach a mutual objective in prevention of pollution and conservation of

environment worldwide.

Classifications Applications

Education

Imparting knowledge and value of significance of theenvironment is an important step to gain every

individual sense and consciousness the wealth of

biodiversity and ecology we have now

Environmental Physics

Documentaries Field Trips

Competitions

Parental Guidance

Environmental Clubs & Societies

Environmental-Based Games

Protocols and Conventions Montreal Protocol

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Implementations and adoption of protocols discussed

and exchange ideas and opinions by scientist,

environmentalist and leaders worldwide on themeasures on preventions, treatments and control, and

management on the global environmental state facing

every nations

Kyoto Protocol

Basel Convention

Secretariat to the Convention of

Migratory Species of Wild Animals

Regional Seas Conventions

Rotterdam PIC

Ozone Secretariat

Secretariat of the Convention on Biological

Diversity

Organizations

Governing and non governmental organizations

(NGOs) which are in charge of initiating the plans

and objectives of each societies to encourage public

participations on the sustainable management of

environment, and as a medium of communications

between the public and government concerning

environmental issues

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)

Wetlands International

United Nations Environment Program

(UNEP)

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

National Geographic Society

Discovery

Birdlife International

Environmental Ethics

In the philosophical upfront...

Let's think about what's written below:

Mankind is not everything, we are part of nature. Therefore respecting nature is

the same as respecting ourselves Nature is not provided only for mankind but for all living things

Mankind must play a good and honest role as a part of nature

Natural resources are limited, we have to preserve and save it for the future

Mankind as a part of nature must execute the responsibility to care for nature's

continual conservation, stability and beauty The use of natural resources must be as efficient as possible

To promote the use of recyclable materials

To keep maintaining environmental equilibrium

Governments at any level must manage the preservation of environment by

enforcing laws and regulations.

Laws and Regulations

Enforcement of law to ensure smooth implementation as passed by the Bill, and to act asdeterrent to others against the unscrupulous offenders committing such offences to bring

them to justice. As such, the laws stated are all derived from U.S. EPA (United States

Environmental Protection Agency), in which explanations of each laws are takenfrom the U.S. EPA's web site in summary

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National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) to

declare a national policy which will encourage productive and enjoyable harmonybetween man and his environment, to promote efforts which will prevent or eliminate

damage to the environment and biosphere and stimulate the health and welfare of man; to

enrich the understanding of the ecological systems and natural resources important to the

Nation; and to establish a Council on Environmental Quality.

The Clean Air Act (CAA)

o comprehensive Federal law that regulates air emissions from area,

stationary, and mobile sources

o to set and achieve NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards

authorized by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) in every state by

1975. The setting of maximum pollutant standards was coupled withdirecting the states to develop state implementation plans (SIPs)

applicable to appropriate industrial sources in the state.

The Clean Water Act (CWA)

o set the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants to waters ofthe United States

o authority given to EPA to set effluent standards on an industry basis

(technology-based) and continued the requirements to set water qualitystandards for all contaminants in surface waters

o focused on toxic substances, authorized citizen suit provisions, and funded

sewage treatment plants (POTWs) under the Construction GrantsProgram.

Comperehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act

(CERCLA or Superfund)

o created a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries and provided broad

Federal authority to respond directly to releases or threatened releases ofhazardous substances that may endanger public health or the environment

o established prohibitions and requirements concerning closed and

abandoned hazardous waste sites

o provided for liability of persons responsible for releases of hazardous

waste at these sites

o established a trust fund to provide cleanup when no responsible party

could be identified.

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA)

o streamlined and strengthened EPA's ability to prevent and respond to

catastrophic oil spills

o requires oil storage facilities and vessels to submit to the Federalgovernment plans detailing how they will respond to large discharges

o requires the development of Area Contingency Plans to prepare and plan

for oil spill response on a regional scale

The Pollution Prevention Act (PPA)

o focused industry, government and public attention on reducing the amount

of pollution through cost-effective changes in production, operation, and

raw materials use

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o includes other practices that increase efficiency in the use of energy,

water, or other natural resources, and protect our resource base through

conservation. Practices include recycling, source reduction, andsustainable agriculture

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

o

control hazardous waste from the "cradle-to-grave." This includes thegeneration, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous

waste. RCRA also set forth a framework for the management of non-

hazardous wasteso address environmental problems that could result from underground tanks

storing petroleum and other hazardous substances

o focuses only on active and future facilities and does not address

abandoned or historical sites

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

o to protect the quality of drinking water in the United States

o focuses on all waters actually or potentially designed for drinking use,

whether from above ground or underground sourceso to establish safe standards of purity and required all owners or operators of

public water systems to comply with primary (health-related) standards.

The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)

o stressed the importance of permanent remedies and innovative treatment

technologies in cleaning up hazardous waste sites

o required Superfund actions to consider the standards and requirements

found in other State and Federal environmental laws and regulations

o provided new enforcement authorities and settlement tools

o increased State involvement in every phase of the Superfund program

increased the focus on human health problems posed by hazardous waste

siteso encouraged greater citizen participation in making decisions on how sites

should be cleaned up

The Toxic Substances Control Act (TCSA)

o ability to track the 75,000 industrial chemicals currently produced or

imported into the United States

o repeatedly screens these chemicals and can require reporting or testing of

those that may pose an environmental or human-health hazard

o ban the manufacturing and importing of those chemicals that pose an

unreasonable risk

o mechanisms in place to track the thousands of new chemicals that industry

develops each year with either unknown or dangerous characteristics. Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act of 1978

o provides for the cleanup and disposal of mill tailings at abandoned sites

and the disposal of tailings at licensed sites after cessation of operations

o implemented by DOE, NRC, and some states through agreements with

NRC

o combination of active and passive controls to clean up contaminated

ground water as well as tailings that have been misused at off-site

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locations, and to dispose of tailings in a manner that will prevent misuse,

limit radon emissions, and protect ground water.

WIPP Land Withdrawal Act

o reviews and approves of the DOE's plans for testing and retrieving waste

at the WIPP

o

responsibility for implementing its radioactive waste disposal standardso helps ensure that the wastes will be disposed of in a manner that limits the

release of radioactive materials.

Research and developments (R&D)

Overview

In the field of advancing technology, improvisation of current method in the treatment

and control of pollutants in industrial areas, prevention of greater degree of pollution and

proper management of waste in hand with economical cost. Also in mind the practice ofsustainable development with the implementation of environmental technology to give a

greater benefit to every individuals. By classifications, research and development isdivided into:

Alternative Technologies

offering various possibilities to the current method in treatment and control of

pollution

current alternatives in applications:o soil vapor extraction

o bioventing

o biopileso land farming

o low temperature thermal desorption

o air sparging

o biosparging

o natural attenuation

o in situ ground water bioremediation

o dual-phase extraction

o desalination of sea water

many scientists think that the next step of generating nuclear energy is by fission

of atoms

Clean Technologies

renewable sources which can be used many times, involves minimal cost and alsorestricted use of hazardous materials in use, especially in the use of energy

current clean technologies available:

o hydropower

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o solar energy

o wind power

o geothermal energy

o biomass energy

o tillage

o vegetationo compost

Creative/Innovative Technologies

new class of invention which could lead to greater efficiency in prevention of

pollutions, or current improvement to a more refine technology

current creative/innovative technologies are:o sorbents

o air cleaning

o in situ oxidation

o in situ well aeration

o solvent extraction

o in situ flushing

o solidification

o soil washing

o biological agents

o dispersing agents

o energy chipso cooling towers

Perspectives of Pollution

The earliest precursor of pollution generated by life forms would have been a natural

function of their existence. The attendant consequences on viability and population levelsfell within the sphere ofnatural selection. These would have included the demise of a

population locally or ultimately, species extinction. Processes that were untenable would

have resulted in a new balance brought about by changes and adaptations. At the

extremes, for any form of life, consideration of pollution is superseded by that ofsurvival.

For humankind, the factor of technology is a distinguishing and critical consideration,

both as an enabler and an additional source of byproducts. Short of survival, humanconcerns include the range from quality of life to health hazards. Since science holds

experimental demonstration to be definitive, modern treatment of toxicity or

environmental harm involves defining a level at which an effect is observable. Common

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examples of fields where practical measurement is crucial include automobile emissions

control, industrial exposure (eg Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

PELs), toxicology (eg LD50), and medicine (eg medication and radiation doses).

"The solution to pollution is dilution", is a dictum which summarizes a traditional

approach to pollution management whereby sufficiently diluted pollution is not harmful.It is well-suited to some other modern, locally-scoped applications such as laboratory

safety procedure and hazardous material release emergency management. But it assumesthat the dilutant is in virtually unlimited supply for the application or that resulting

dilutions are acceptable in all cases.

Such simple treatment for environmental pollution on a wider scale might have had

greater merit in earlier centuries when physical survival was often the highest imperative,human population and densities were lower, technologies were simpler and their

byproducts more benign. But these are often no longer the case. Furthermore, advances

have enabled measurement of concentrations not possible before. The use of statistical

methods in evaluating outcomes has given currency to the principle of probable harm incases where assessment is warranted but resorting to deterministic models is impractical

or unfeasible. In addition, consideration of the environment beyond direct impact onhuman beings has gained prominence.

Yet in the absence of a superseding principle, this older approach predominates practices

throughout the world. It is the basis by which to gauge concentrations of effluent for legal

release, exceeding which penalties are assessed or restrictions applied. The regressivecases are those where a controlled level of release is too high or, if enforceable, is

neglected. Migration from pollution dilution to elimination in many cases is confronted

by challenging economical and technological barriers.

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Waste management

What is Waste ManagementWaste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal, andmonitoring ofwaste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human

activity, and is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health,

the environment oraesthetics. Waste management is also carried out torecoverresources from it. Waste management can involve solid, liquid, gaseous or

radioactive substances, with different methods and fields of expertise for each.

Waste management practices differ fordeveloped and developing nations,

forurban and rural areas, and forresidential and industrial producers. Management fornon-hazardous residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the

responsibility oflocal government authorities, while management for non-hazardous

commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the generator.

Methods of Waste Management

Disposal methods

Landfill

Landfill operation in Hawaii.

Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, and this remains a common

practice in most countries. Landfills were often established in abandoned or unusedquarries, mining voids orborrow pits. A properly-designed and well-managed landfill

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can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials.

Older, poorly-designed or poorly-managed landfills can create a number of adverse

environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction ofvermin, and generation ofliquid leachate. Another common byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of

methane and carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down

anaerobically. This gas can create odor problems, kill surface vegetation, and is agreenhouse gas.

A landfill compaction vehicle in action.

Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as

clay or plastic lining material. Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase itsdensity and stability, and covered to prevent attracting vermin (such as mice orrats).

Many landfills also have landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill

gas. Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in agas engine to generate electricity.

Incineration

Spittelau Incineration plant in Vienna.

Incineration is a disposal method that involves combustion of waste material. Incineration

and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "thermal

treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam, and ash.

Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by

industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a

practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological

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medical waste). Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues

such as emission of gaseouspollutants.

Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is more scarce, as thesefacilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or

energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace orboiler to generate heat, steam and/or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not

always perfect and there have been concerns about micro-pollutants in gaseous emissionsfrom incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organics

such as dioxins which may be created within the incinerator and which may have serious

environmental consequences in the area immediately around the incinerator. On the otherhand this method produces heat that can be used as energy.

Recycling methods

PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable, although these

are not commonly collected. These items are usually composed of a single type ofmaterial, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of

complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to

the additional dismantling and separation required.

Biological reprocessing

An active compost heap.

Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper

products, can be recycled using biological composting and digestion processes to

decompose the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch

orcompost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from theprocess (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity. The

intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate thenatural process of decomposition of organic matter.

There are a large variety of composting and digestion methods and technologies varying

in complexity from simple home compost heaps, to industrial-scale enclosed-vessel

digestion of mixed domestic waste (see Mechanical biological treatment). Methods of

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biological decomposition are differentiated as being aerobic oranaerobic methods,

though hybrids of the two methods also exist.

An example of waste management through composting is the Green Bin Program inToronto, Canada, where household organic waste (such as kitchen scraps and plant

cuttings) are collected in a dedicated container and then composted.

Energy recovery

Anaerobic digestion component ofLbeckmechanicalbiological treatmentplant in Germany

The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as a direct

combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel. Recyclingthrough thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking orheating, to fuel forboilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine. Pyrolysis and

gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste materials are heated

to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability. The process typically occurs in asealed vessel under highpressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into

solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or

refined into other products. The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products

such as activated carbon. Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are used toconvert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed ofcarbon

monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam.

Avoidance and reduction methods

An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material beingcreated, also known as waste reduction. Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-

hand products, repairing broken items instead of buying new, designing products to be

refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouragingconsumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), removing any

food/liquid remains from cans, packaging, ... and designing products that use less

material to achieve the same purpose (for example, lightweighting of beverage cans).

Waste handling and transport

A typical front loading garbage truck in North America.

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Waste collection methods vary widely between different countries and regions. Domestic

waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by

private industry. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have aformal waste-collection system. Examples of waste handling systems include:

In Australia, curbside collection is the method of disposal of waste. Every urbandomestic household is provided with three bins: one for recyclables, another for

general waste and another for garden materials - this bin is provided by themunicipality if requested. Also, many households have compost bins; but this is

not provided by the municipality. To encourage recycling, municipalities provide

large recycle bins, which are larger than general waste bins. Municipal,commercial and industrial, construction and demolition waste is dumped at

landfills and some is recycled. Household waste is segregated: recyclables sorted

and made into new products, and general waste is dumped in landfill areas.According to the ABS, the recycling rate is high and is 'increasing, with 99% of

households reporting that they had recycled or reused some of their waste within

the past year (2003 survey), up from 85% in 1992'. This suggests that Australiansare in favour of reduced or no landfilling and the recycling of waste. Of the totalwaste produced in 200203, '30% of municipal waste, 44% of commercial and

industrial waste and 57% of construction and demolition waste' was recycled.

Energy is produced from waste as well: some landfill gas is captured for fuel orelectricity generation. Households and industries are not charged for the volume

of waste they produce.

In Europe and a few other places around the world, a few communities use a

proprietary collection system known as Envac, which conveys refuse viaunderground conduits using a vacuum system.

In Canadianurban centrescurbside collection is the most common method ofdisposal, whereby the city collects waste and/or recyclables and/or organics on ascheduled basis. In rural areas people often dispose of their waste by hauling it to

a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to a regional landfill.

In Taipei the city government charges its households and industries for thevolume of rubbish they produce. Waste will only be collected by the city council

if waste is disposed in government issued rubbish bags. This policy has

successfully reduced the amount of waste the city produces and increased the

recycling rate.

Technologies

Traditionally the waste Management industry has been slow to adopt new technologies

such as RFID tags, GPS and integrated software packages which enable better quality

data to be collected without the use of estimation or manual data entry.

Technologies like RFID tags are now being used to collect data on presentation

rates for curb-side pick-ups which is useful when examining the usage of

recycling bins or similar.

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