porchanee a. white 4-23-11 dissertaion

7/28/2019 Porchanee a. White 4-23-11 Dissertaion

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The Role of Principals and Teachers in the Engagement of

African American Students in Reading

A Dissertation

by

Porchane A. White

Submitted to the Whitlowe R. Green College of Education

Prairie View A&M University

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

May 2, 2011


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African American students in Reading

A Dissertation

By

Porchane A. White

Approved for style and content by:

_________________________Lisa D. Hobson, Ph.D.

(Dissertation Chair)

______________________ ________________________

Clarissa Booker, Ed.D. William A. Kritsonis, Ph.D.(Member) (Member)

______________________ _________________________Laxley Rodney, Ph.D. David Monk,

(Member) (Outside Committee Member)

______________________ _________________________

Lucian Yates III, Ph.D. Willie F. Trotty, Ph.D.(Dean, W.R. Green College of Education) (Dean, Graduate School)

April 25, 2011


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Abstract


African American Students in Reading

Porchane A. White: B.S., Lamar University

M.Ed., Prairie View A & M University

Chair of Advisory Committee: Lisa Hobson Ph.D.

School personnel are confronted with the task of promoting reading in their

schools, which in turn contributes to success in other areas. African American students

are the subgroup that most often scores lowest on state mandated tests (NCES, 2009).

Their reading abilities and scores on tests, when compared to those of their

counterparts of other ethnicities, correspond with their attitudes and beliefs about

reading (NCES, 2009).

Relatively few studies have attempted to examine the reading engagement of

African American students, particularly elementary students (Wigfield, Guthrie,

Perencevich, Taboada, Klauda, Mcrae, & Barbosa, 2008). In this study, the researcher

examined classrooms to identify best engaging practices during reading instruction for

African American learners.

The following research questions guided this study:

1. Are there classroom indicators that demonstrate that students are engaged

during reading instruction?


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2. Are there strategies that teachers use specifically to effectively engage

African American students during reading instruction?

3. How do instructional leaders/principals view student engagement during

reading instruction?

4. How do instructional leaders monitor and evaluate student engagement


The researcher recognized the need for additional research and development of

strategies to support minority students, when afforded the opportunity to assist, and

serve as administrator, in the implementation of a pilot after school reading program

(Reading Academy, 2010). The researcher noticed the disparities in the reading

abilities of students, as well as the achievement gains which also helped to

conceptualize the idea of the proposal for a study of instructional leadership practices

that facilitate reading engagement.

The researcher proposed a conceptual framework that included instruction and

the role of the principal and teacher in student engagement and may be used at the

elementary level also, whereas most models are available for use with older students.

The need for an expanded model was based on the literature and attempted to convey

the relationship and importance of support from the principal, as the instructional leader,

and the teacher, as the instructor, in creating an engaging lesson and therefore an

engaged reader. The researchers model was built on Gambrells model and includes

the role of principal and teacher and shows how relationships also contribute to student

engagement.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT...iii

DEDICATION v

ACKNOWLEDGMENT vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS...............vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...............1

Background of Study........4

Statement of the Problem.....6

Purpose of Study..............8

Research Questions.............9

Rationale of Study.........9

Assumptions.............10

Definition of Terms...............12

Organization of Study..............13

CHAPTER: 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE.....14

Performance Data.......14

Current Perspectives.......22

Engagement................26

An Engaged Student..........26

Significance of Engagement......28


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Strategies for Effective Student Engagement...31

Discussions................31

Classroom Management....32

Positive Environment......34

Teacher Efficacy............38

Methods of Instruction.........40

Role of Teachers........ .......43

Role of Principals as Instructional Leaders...............43

Conceptual Framework......47

Gambrells Model..47

Expansion of Gambrells Model..50

CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF THE STUDY....51

Methods.......51

Guiding Questions.............51

Participants...53

Instrumentation .......55

Procedures and Data Collection.55

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS...57

Overview..57

Socio-cultural context of school and community...57

Beliefs About and Understandings of Engagement..59

Beliefs About and Children and Learning61

Practices that Affirm Engagement/Engage Students..63


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Practices that Prohibit Engagement and Disengage African American Students ..77

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS & CONCLUSION....82

Summary of Findings...82

Recommendations for Future Research..84

Conclusion. 87

REFERENCES.84

APPENDIXES..94

APPENDIX A.......94

Teacher Interview Instrument # 1.94

APPENDIX B99

Teacher Observation Instruments # 2 & 3..99

APPENDIX C..103

Principal/Instructional Leader Interview Instrument # 4..103

APPENDIX D.106

Principal/Instructional Leader Survey Instrument # 5..106

APPENDIX E..110

Student Observation Instrument # 6. . 110

APPENDIX F..130

Superintendent Approval Letter...130

APPENDIX G... ..131

Letter of Support ...131

APPENDIX H..132

IRB Approval132


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APPENDIX I 134

Letter of Consent.134


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Chapter 1

Introduction

Education is the impetus for change that provides the opportunity for participants

to be productive, skilled, knowledgeable, and contributing members of society.

Educational leaders have the task of providing educational consumers i.e. students the

resources and knowledge base to achieve academic excellence. An instructional leader

must promote strategic planning and comprehensible solutions to problems sometimes

in the face of resistance or reluctance. Educators must develop and employ innovative

and effective techniques to solve problems and to motivate and encourage all students

to achieve. American Educator Marva Collins said, Dont try to fix the students, fix

ourselves first. The good teacher makes the poor student good and the good student

superior. When our students fail, we as teachers too have failed (1992, p. 9). This

challenge is all the more apropos given the 2010 Elementary Secondary Education Act

Reauthorization: A Blueprint for Reform.

Students who do not acquire life skills and academic competency can find

themselves at a serious disadvantage in social settings, as civil participants, and in the

working world. Reading is a necessary skill in all areas of study and there are a

plethora of definitions used to describe reading. Consequently, reading is often

considered as a separate entity apart from other subjects. Reading is a necessary and

vital prior knowledge component of any subject. Despite knowing this, approximately

eight million young people between fourth and twelfth grade struggle to read at grade

level (Biancarosa, & Snow, 2006).


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What we know from an educational science point of view about the

correspondence between how well children learn to read, and the infrastructure of their

cognitive abilities and their emotional development is that reading is a critical academic

task. It is critical, not only in the sense that language arts is a core component of the

curriculum for elementary school children, but also in the sense that every area of the

curriculum, starting in elementary school, depends on fluent reading (Whitehurst, 2009).

Therefore success in other academic subjects depends highly on the ability to read.

Another important component of literacy is the rate of reading fluency. If one

reads at an acceptable rate of fluency, more than likely he or she will become a

voracious reader due to his or her ability to read, and comprehend, vast quantities of

material within a shorter time span than most. Reading fluency is the rate of speed

that one reads. Fluency is important for the study of tests and reading large books or

amounts of materials for school, work, and community. Fluency grows as students

have opportunities, support, and encouragement to read text types about a large

range of topics (Cziko, 2000).

Although at first glance, reading may seem to be passive, solitary, and simple in

truth, it is active, populated by a rich mix of voices and viewsthose of the author, of

the reader, and of others the reader has heard, read about, and otherwise encountered

throughout life (Cziko, 2000). With this understanding in mind, it becomes essential for

instructional leaders to demonstrate that reading is not just a passive, solitary, and

simple act, but one that is active, engaging, and complex.

Most reading theorists agree that when readers encounter printed text, they

comprehend by retrieving prior experiences and concepts rooted in their culture and
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their language. Reading is a personal experience that develops and expands ones

knowledge and understanding of others. Those readers who develop a lifelong love of

reading and read regularly are able to make connections to the text (Conners, 2000).

Despite what theorists have said about the nature of reading, many teachers and

assessment specialists in the field still measure comprehension by how well children

recall the details of what they have read. Many believe that children are proficient

readers because they can answer questions about the information included in the text.

However, test developers view comprehension in a different manner. In the past, well-

publicized changes in the National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP),

Stanford Achievement Tests (SAT-9), and numerous statewide assessments suggest a

shift from objective to more open-ended responses to text (Sarroub & Pearson, 1998).

Objective items measure recall and not thinking ability according to Allington (2001).

Childrens ability to think is measured more concisely by the use of open -ended items

that allow them to explain how they believe as they do about a particular question.

A combination of objective and open-ended questions is needed to accurately

test students to obtain information about whether they are successful readers. In years

past, students may have scored high in reading, but when the assessment focused on

critical reading and responding to the text, only a few children demonstrated even

minimal proficiency (Allington, 2001).Students who are able to think critically can

understand what they read and make connections between what they read and what

they already know and are more likely to be successful. However, students have

become adept at finding the information necessary to answer questions in the text,

recalling information, and answering questions (Allington, 2001).


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Many students view reading as unnecessary, insignificant, boring, annoying, and

only initiate the act of reading when it is given as a school assignment. When children

are asked to discuss the key issues or the significance of what they have read and to

support their responses with details and arguments, they are often unable to do so

(Foertsch, 1998). Many students are not able to identify or make connections with

characters or the story nor imagine themselves in a story or just imagine the story .

The term good readeris often defined differently by researchers and other

educators. Despite contention in many other areas of reading research and changes

throughout the years, when it comes to proficient readers, widespread agreement has

emerged and remains the same. The agreement comes in the form of a set of key

habits of proficient readers. This consensus is summarized as follows by Baumann &

Duffy (1997).

Good readers are . . . mentally engaged, motivated to read and to learn,

socially active around reading tasks, strategic in monitoring the interactive

processes that assist comprehension: setting goals that shape their reading

processes, monitoring their emerging understanding of a text, and coordinating a

variety of comprehension strategies to control the reading process (p.73).

Background of the Study

Research studies suggest that students, particularly African Americans, are not

mastering the skill of reading (NCES, 2009). Some educators and researchers conduct

studies for the purpose of discovering the reasons why students are not able to

successfully read and how best to teach them reading. Nevertheless, some classroom


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teachers have not shown progress in educating students while billions of dollars have

been spent on K-12 education (Spellings, 2005).

If what teachers have done in the past does not work effectively with the current

generation of students, educators should evaluate strategies for improvement and/or

make changes in instructional methods and materials (Whitney, 2009). If students are

not afforded a proper education, opportunities beyond the classroom walls will be

severely limited. Given the poverty and culturally unresponsive curriculum in some

areas, having adequate and exceptional reading skills is very important for African

American students (Hanley, 1999).

During a recent school year, the researcher saw the need for additional research

and development of strategies to assist minority students when she helped to

implement a pilot after school reading intervention program. The researcher served as

the program administrator of the Success and Promise Reading Academy, for a school

district in Southeast Texas (Reading Academy, 2010). One of the program goals was to

provide additional support and instruction for thirty-six fourth and fifth grade students

who were reading below grade level, did not pass the state mandated reading exam,

and lacked motivation to read. Another goal was to develop participants desire to

acquire more knowledge through high interest enrichment activities and to make text to

life connections through real-world applications.

Additionally, the Success and Promise Reading Academy was created to

research the impact of a non-traditional academic setting on the students level of

engagement. Some of the students had been retained and lacked motivation to read or

receive instruction in reading. All students who were enrolled received intensive literacy


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instruction and were engaged in hands-on active learning in a small group setting.

Enrichment activities were implemented to foster student interest in reading, learning,

and high achievement.

Students who were enrolled in the Reading Academy program gave positive

comments regarding the programs effectiveness. One student said, I love the

activities and the store. We dont do a lot of worksheets. Here we learn differently.

Another student stated, My teacher doesnt say do this or do that. She gives us an

example. A third student said, I learn more because I didnt have good grades in

reading but now I have an A in reading and I love going to the library at the Reading

Academy. Currently, there is a waiting list of students who are eager to enroll in the

program (Reading Academy, 2010). Results showed that twenty of the thirty-six

students, who previously did not master the state mandated test, passed and sixteen

made significant gains. The role of program administrator and recognizing the

disparities in the reading abilities of students, as well as the achievement gains I noted

when students were exposed to quality learning experiences, helped to lead me to

conceptualize the proposal for a study of instructional leadership and teacher practices

that facilitate reading engagement.

Statement of the Problem

Interest in reading is declining significantly and students often complain about the

boredom associated with reading. Technology often makes it difficult for educators and

parents to motivate students to read. For example, social networking websites are

causing frightening changes in the brains of young users. Derbyshire (2009) asserted

that social networking programs such as Facebook, Twitter, Myspace, Bebo and other


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forms of technology may shorten attention spans. Thus, parents and teachers complain

that many youngsters lack the ability to communicate or concentrate beyond digital and

electronic forms of technology which lead to decreasing interest and engagement in

reading. Other factors that limit engagement include family instability, ignorance, and

overindulgence in TV, video games, and music. Without guidance, these actions usually

manifest when students advance to the second, third and fourth grades, yet read a

grade level or two behind (Abdul-Alim, 2007).

While communication by way of technology is becoming increasingly popular, a

growing number of psychologists and neuroscientists believe this may be doing more

harm than good. Derbyshire (2009) noted neuroscience beliefs state repeated

exposure to technologies could rewire and retrain brains to function at the level of young

children. Repeated usage of computer games, instant messaging, chat rooms, and

social networking sites could promote a whole generation of learners with poor attention

spans. These activities, used frequently by the current generation of k-12 students,

require much more movement and hands-on applications than does reading a book or

the traditional method of teaching reading.

Given the amount of literature on instruction, perhaps educators should look at

the method in which reading instruction is presented and ensure that lessons are first

taught in an engaging manner that keeps students of this generation interested and

involved. School personnel are confronted with the task of promoting reading in their

schools, which in turn contributes to success in other subject areas and on state

mandated tests. African American students are of particular concern. They are the

subgroup that most often score lowest on state mandated tests (NCES, 2009). Their


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reading abilities and scores on tests, when compared to those of their counterparts, of

other ethnicities, correspond with their attitudes and beliefs about reading (NCES,

2009).

At a time when fewer than two in ten eighth graders are on target to be ready for

college-level coursework by the time they graduate from high school, it is crucial that

educators intervene in the upper elementary grades and middle school to ensure that

students enter high school ready to benefit from high school coursework (ACT, 2008).

Studies have further shown that African American students lag behind other subgroups

in reading skills, the frequency that they choose to read, rate of fluency, and also results

on reading assessments (NCES, 2009). Motivating African American students to read

is of paramount importance.

Relatively few studies have attempted to examine increasing reading engagement

of elementary students (Wigfield, Guthrie, Perencevich, Taboada, Klauda, Mcrae, &

Barbosa, 2008). In this study, I examined schools to identify best instructional practices

for African American learners to become successfully engaged during reading

instruction. Therefore, the purpose of this ethnographic case study was to examine how

educational leaders and teachers in an urban school district in Southeast Texas operate

in schools to engage students in reading instruction.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this ethnographic case study was to examine how principals and

teachers in an urban school district located in the southeastern area of Texas, operate

in elementary schools to engage African American students in reading instruction.


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Research Questions

The following questions guided this study:

1. Are there classroom indicators that demonstrate that students are engaged


2. Are there strategies that teachers use to effectively engage African American

students during reading instruction?

3. How do instructional leaders view student engagement?

4. How do instructional leaders monitor and evaluate student engagement


Rationale for the Research Study

The rationale for this study was the need to examine the role of principal and

teacher and explore instructional indicators that engage African American students

during reading. Given the paucity of literature on reading engagement, research is

needed that explores the techniques, best instructional practices, and behaviors that are

common to classrooms, schools, principals as instructional leaders, and teachers who

use student engagement as an effective instructional method.

I desired to conduct this study to determine effective strategies and practices to

be implemented by teachers with the goal in mind of improving, not only reading

instruction, but also the reading attitudes and behavior of African American students.

Furthermore, this study may serve as a guide to educational leaders as they support

teachers in the quest to improve instructional practices, to discover and use best

practices while increasing positive reading behavior and attitudes of African American


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students, thus increasing the knowledge of the importance of education in all subject

areas.

Assumptions

Creswell (2008) notes researchers must be reflexive about the work they do,

adding and identifying any biases or positions contributing to the design and

implementation of the research. In this section, I addressed the reflexive process by

identifying assumptions. The assumptions, which are embedded in the approach I used

to design my research study, stem from the following perspectives.

My family has a legacy of involvement in education dating back to at least the

1800s. My relatives and I were reared understanding the importance of knowledge,

education, and reading. For example, Warren Hooks, my white maternal great, great,

great, great, great grandfather was a pioneer farmer, planter, and slave owner. He

came from Alabama in 1818 to an area of Texas now known as the town of Hooks

which was named in honor of him. Warren brought with him a son, named Forrest,

whose mother was Native American. Forrest was my great great great great

grandfather. Warren deeded two acres of land to Forrest to be used for a church,

school, and cemetery for Black residents which is now known as the Red Bank

community (Hooks, 1984). In 2003, Red Bank Baptist Church, founded by Rev. Forrest

Hooks, son of Warren Hooks who is the founder of the town of Hooks, celebrated its

137th year anniversary referenced in the Texarkana Gazette (Morrow, 2003).

Warren taught Forrest to read, write, and count. In 1866, Forrest organized

and taught the first School for African Americans in Bowie County, Texas. His life was

threatened for teaching blacks to read (Hooks, 1984). As a result of this legacy of the


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fierce importance of reading, and consistently hearing stories of family members

desires and enthusiasm for reading, l fervently began to pursue this study. Students

need to understand and take advantage of the opportunity to read and the privileges

afforded them that were unavailable for Blacks years ago. A voracious appetite for

reading, which began at an early age, is one that I and other educators should seek to

pass on, specifically to students. Once while teaching fourth grade students, I

discovered that discussing novels, current events, and other reading materials, helped

students to see that reading is more than mere words on pages. I also discovered that

hearing the enthusiasm in my voice, as I discussed my favorite books, was contagious.

The discussions and lessons that ensued were engaging by far, and produced much

critical thinking on the part of the students.

One of the goals of education should be to make a man thirst for knowledge.

By reading, one can acquire a thirst for knowledge. A teacher should strive to keep a

student engaged and a principal should monitor and support the teacher to ensure that

engagement occurs. If this is done, students will, more than likely, want to participate

and learn.

Given my family legacy and personal beliefs about reading, I espoused the

following assumptions. These assumptions undergirded the design of my study:

1. Interest in reading, among African American students, will most likely occur,

as a result of being taught by a teacher who engages students during

reading instruction, has a positive attitude towards reading, and positive

rapport with students.


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2. African American students, on average, spend less time reading than

students of other ethnicities, but need reading as an important life skill.

3. Engagement, among African American students, occurs in schools and

classrooms where the principal is supportive and understanding of the need

to engage students.

4. In addition, the principal consistently monitors the classrooms to ensure

that student engagement, among African American students, is taking

place and provides effective instructional and literacy leadership.

Definition of Terms

The terms listed below were used throughout the study.

African American pertaining to or characteristic of Americans of African ancestry; Afro-

American Culture; many black people preferred to be called African-American or Afro-

American. African Americans have origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa

(Dictionary, 2003).

Best Practice - A best practice is a technique or methodology that, through experience

and research, has proven to reliably lead to a desired result. A commitment to using

best practices is a commitment to using all the knowledge and technology at ones

disposal to ensure success (IBM, 2007).

Classroom Management - Classroom management is defined as the management of

content which includes space, materials, and lessons. It also includes the management

of student conduct, discipline problems, and covenant which is the social dynamics and

interpersonal relationships of those in the classroom (Froyen & Iverson, 1999).


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Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning is an approach to organizing classroom

activities into academic and social learning experiences. Students must work in groups

to complete tasks collectively. Everyone succeeds when the group succeeds

(Dictionary, 2010).

Cultural Relevancy - Culturally relevant teaching essentially means that teachers create

a bridge between students home and school lives, while still meeting the expectations

of the district and state curricular requirements. Culturally relevant teaching utilizes the

backgrounds, knowledge, and experiences of the students to enhance the teachers

lessons and methodology (Coffey, 2008).

Engagement - A substantially engaged student is one who not only attends to the built-

in procedures of instruction but also interacts with the content of the lesson in a deep

and thoughtful manner. Engagement is the act of being engaged; of occupying the

attention or efforts of a person or persons; of attracting and holding fast; of pleasing ; of

attaching or securing; of entangling or involving, of occupying; to become involved

(McLaughlin, McGrath, Burian-Fitzgerald, Lanahan, Scotchmer, Enyeart, and Salganik,

2005).

Organization of the Study

This study consisted of three chapters. In chapter one, I included the

introduction, background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study,

research questions, rationale of the study, assumptions, and the definition of terms. In

chapter two I reviewed related literature and addressed the methodology in chapter

three. In chapter four I reported the findings and in chapter five I included the summary,

implications, conclusion, and recommendations.


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Chapter II

Review of Literature

Educational institutions, in which African Americans make up a large percentage

of the population, are often in crisis and the subject of much debate. The debate that

most often ensues is how best to solve the problem of effectively educating all African

American students (Hammond, Hoover & McPhail, 2005). When a school fails to solve

a particular problem or educate students effectively, the school is said to have received

a failing grade. The perception that African American students are not interested in

learning threatens the very efficacy of the role of the classroom teacher. Increasingly

heard is the mantra that African American students have no interest in education, much

less reading (Hammond, Hoover & McPhail, 2005). It must be noted that there is a

paucity of literature on African American students and engagement, particularly in

reading at the elementary school level.

Data on the performance of African American students, current perspectives on

education, recognizing student engagement, the significance of engagement, strategies

for effective engaging instruction, and the role of the principal and teacher, are

important components of the literature review of this study.

Performance Data

Over the past four decades, the cost of running K-12 schools has more than

doubled per student but achievement has not improved for United States students while

other countries students have raced ahead (Gates, 2011). U.S. Secretary of Education

Arne Duncan issued a statement in The Nation's Report Card: Reading 2009, National

Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) for grades 4 and 8. He asserted the


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achievement of American students isnt growing fast enough (Duncan, 2010). In spite

of all of the millions of dollars that have been poured into districts for new reading

programs since 1998, reading scores for some Texas districts (the state of the study)

have not improved(Ellis, 2009). The Nations Report Card results are taken from a

national representative sample of more than 178,000 fourth-graders and 160,000

eighth-graders who participated in the 2009 National Assessment of Educational

Progress (NAEP) in reading. At each grade, students respond to questions designed to

measure reading comprehension across two types of texts, literary and informational,

(NCES, 2009).

The 2009 Nations Reading Report Card showed that there has been no

significant change in African American fourth grade reading scores since 2007. It also

showed that there is no significant change in the gap between whites and blacks in

fourth and eighth grades. About two-thirds, 67 percent, of fourth-graders performed at

or above the Basiclevel in 2009, and one-third, which is 33 percent, perform at or

above Proficient. The percentages did not significantly change from 2007. Eight

percent of fourth-graders performed at theAdvancedlevel, which is the same as in

2007 (NCES, 2009).

Reading levels showed that at the fourth grade level in 2007, 54 percent of black

children were below the basic level compared to only 22 percent of white children.

Fourth grade also showed that 35 percent of whites were at the basic level compared to

32 percent of black students. The gap at above proficiency level in reading is

astounding as it shows that white students were at 43 percent and blacks at only 14

percent (Tembo, 2011). According to the National Center for Education Statistics, the


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scale score for Texas African American fourth graders was 25 points lower than that for

whites and 29 points less than that of Asians/Pacific Islanders on The Nations 2009

Report Card (NCES, 2009). Reasons cited for this gap in achievement include troubling

neighborhood social obstacles such as poverty, crime, children being raised by single

and or young mothers, gang violence, bullying, guns and drugs, and juvenile

delinquency which may not attract the best teachers (Tembo, 2011).

Theproficientlevel is the goal for student performance as set by the National

Assessment Governing Board. At grade four in 1992, only 6 percent of students scored

at the advancedlevel, 22 percent scored at theproficientlevel, 34 percent at the basic

level, and 38 percent below basic. On the other hand, on the 2009 Nations Report

Card, 8 percent scored at the advancedlevel, 25 percent at theproficientlevel, 34

percent again scored at the basiclevel, and 33 percent below basic(NCES, 2009).

Five years into the 21st century, approximately 40 percent of American children

were not proficient readers i.e. they were unable to read fluently, comprehend, and

retain knowledge. In Texas that figure was an abysmal 77 percent. Findings in 2009

findings indicated that there was little or no significant change nationally (NCES, 2009).

Findings from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study(PIRLS) are

released by the U.S. Department ofEducations National Center for Education Statistics

(NCES). This report compares findings about U.S. fourth-grade reading literacy with

those from the 34 other countries that participated in PIRLS (United States Department

of Education, 2003). According to Grover "Russ" Whitehurst, former director of the U.S.

Department of Education's Institute of Education Sciences in the United States, there

are significant gaps in the reading achievement between ethnicities, students in schools


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where the demographics show high poverty and other public schools, and also between

girls and boys (Whitehurst, 2009).

There were several key findings from this study. Fourth-graders in U.S. public

schools with the highest poverty levels scored lower on reading literacy compared to

their counterparts in schools with lower poverty levels. Almost all (95 percent) of U.S.

fourth-graders attend schools with a curricular emphasis on reading. The percentage of

fourth-graders who attend schools with a curricular emphasis on reading is greater than

the international average of 78 percent. Sixty-five percent of U.S. fourth-graders

receive more than six hours of reading instruction per week, a higher percentage than

the international average of 28 percent (Whitehurst, 2009).

According to this study, two key points are critical and should be considered for

further study. (a) America is or is not a nation of readers. And (b) Americans read or do

not read daily and consistently. A report released by the National Endowment for the

Arts (NEA) in November 2007 would suggest most of us probably do not read. As

reported in an NEA (2007) study which gathers data from more than forty sources

studying reading habits and related reading testing, the number of people reading in the

United States has fallen steadily over the past twenty years. The study reported that,

on average, the typical 15 24 year old watches at least two hours of television per

day, while spending about seven minutes per day reading for leisure. Only about a third

of thirteen year olds read daily, and the percentage of non-readers among seventeen

year olds has doubled since 1984. Some experts gauged the literaryreading rate in

2002 was ~47% of the public (NCES, 2009). Research showed that the indicator of

student success on college entrance exams is whether they are avid readers. If a
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teacher wants students to succeed, he or she must provide a rigorous, relevant reading

classroom and allow students to have a choice about what they want to read and

encourage them to read while thinking critically (Vanderjagt, 2011).

Reading patterns tend to follow education and economic status. An earlier NEA

report suggested that only 14% of American adults with grade school educations read

literature, while 74% of those with graduate school experience do. There have long

been recognizable correlations between reading and literacy rates and their impact on

educational and financial success (Leichliter, 2010). Therefore, our economy could be

at risk if we do not produce educated readers who are logical thinkers and problem

solvers.

The performance statistics for African American students in public schools are

alarming. Their suspension rates are twice that of other students, and 20 percent are

likely to drop out of school before graduation (Hanley, 1999). Educational researchers

repeatedly compare African American children to students of other ethnicities and find

that they score lower on achievement and IQ tests, creativity, writing, and reading

(Hanley, 1999). Often ignored is that lessons should teach to the knowledge base of

the learner. The deficiency possibly lies in the system that refuses to adapt to the

differences among students. Culturally relevant teaching supports and acknowledges

the culture of the learner. Students are not empowered to learn because the negative

self-image that often accompanies the content of the curriculum, either by teaching or

by not recognizing it at all, is eliminated (Hanley, 1999).

A 2006 study found that almost one-third of public high school students dropped

out in America and nearly one-half of all African Americans failed to graduate from
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public high school with their class. The findings were staggering. The report found that

60% of Urban School Children did not graduate from high school and the inability to

read accurately is a common factor of those who do not graduate from High school.

Out of all Americans who do read, 40% do so at only a 4 th grade level. In addition, out

of all Americans over 65 years old who read, 50% are functionally illiterate. The report

also found that the United States is 49th in the world in literacy (Ventura, 2007). NAEP

scores in reading have not improved over 30 years, despite billions of dollars spent in K-

12 education. Only 30% of 4th graders are proficient readers. The 2010 Census

reported 308,745,538 residents in the United States. People under the age of 20 make

up 27.3 5 of the population. Out of all US adults, 42 million are functionally literate,

meaning they can't read the front page of the newspaper. Dissatisfaction with public

school bureaucracy, teacher shortages, teachers teaching out of their fields and other

factors contribute to the failure of public education (Bridgeland, Dilulio, Burke Morison,

2006).

Suspension refers to an out-of-school suspension, during which a student is

excluded from school for disciplinary reasons for one day or longer and does not include

students who served their suspension in the school. In 2006, larger percentages of

African American students were suspended and expelled from school than their White,

Asian/Pacific Islander, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaskan Native peers. Across all

years in previous studies, a 2009 study found that greater percentages of African

American students were suspended and expelled from school than their White,

Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaskan Native peers. For

example, in 2006, about 15 percent of African American students were suspended,


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compared with 8 percent of American Indian/Alaska Native students, 7 percent of

Hispanic students, 5 percent of White students, and 3 percent of Asian/Pacific Islander

students. Student expulsion rates in 2006 show that about 0.5 percent of Blacks were

expelled from school, compared with 0.3 percent of American Indian/Alaska Native

students, 0.2 percent of Hispanic students, 0.1 percent of White students, and 0.1

percent of Asian/Pacific Islander students (NCES, 2009).

After climbing in most of the 20th century and peaking in the late 1960's, the

national graduation rate has steadily declined, settling around 70 percent in the last few

years. For black students, the numbers are worse. Data from 2002 indicates that only

about 55 percent of African American students graduate (Greene & Winters, 2006).

African American students make up only about 17 percent of the public school

population but 41 percent of the special-education population (Ladson-Billings, 2009).

African American students continue to score among the lowest of all racial

groups on standardized K-12 and college entrance exams. Standardized test scores are

used to determine which students are accepted into gifted programs, special education

and remedial programs, and colleges and or universities. Unless a change takes place

African American students may be excluded from educational programs that could help

them reach their potential (Jairrels, 2010).

There are several models that exist pertaining to cultural relevancy but there is a

paucity of literature related to student engagement. One such model is the cultural

deficit model. The philosophy behind the cultural deficit model resembles that of the

compensatory educational models of the 1960s and 1970s in that the children's


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academic problems are seen to be rooted in thepathologyof their homes, communities,

and cultures.

The cultural relevancy model uses student culture in order to maintain and

transcend the negative effects of the dominant culture as well as the ignoring of the

culture by the mainstream. The aim is to assist in the development of a culturally

relevantpersonalitythat allows African American students to choose academic

excellence yet still identify with African American culture. It empowers students by

using cultural references to impart knowledge. (Ladson-Billings, 2009). Teacher

perceptions of students have a significant impact on student learning. Negative

perceptions of African American students can lead to negative associations with African

American culture and low expectations; teachers may only value students that

demonstrate mainstream behavior. A culturally relevant teacher believes that all

students can succeed, is a part of the learning community, and helps students make

connections between the subject matter and their world (Ladson-Bilings, 2009).

A teacher who is an Assimilationist sees herself as an individual who may or may

not be a part of the community. This type of teacher believes failure is inevitable for

some students. The teacher is detached from students and expects all students to have

prior knowledge (Ladson-Billings, 2009),

One of the most researched areas on student success, which may assist in the

instruction of African American students and student engagement is the "field

independence" (FI) or "field dependence" (FD) learning style. FI/FD refers to how

people perceive and memorize information. The FI learner excels in classroom


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learning. The FD learner seems to achieve a higher degree of success in everyday

language situations beyond the classroom (Wys, 2002).

Current Perspectives

The original purpose of education included literacy, citizenship, and external

development. Literacy originally meant teaching reading, but later expanded to include

writing and math (Kritsonis, 2002). The original definition of literacy, teaching reading,

is now again the current definition. Schools have changed immensely from the days

when the original purpose of education was defined. Black Americans have always

used education as the chief weapon in their struggle for equal access to American

society and civil rights (Cosby & Poussaint, 2007).

African American students often experience a low-level, watered-down

curriculum, negative perceptions about their ability, and low expectations regarding their

achievement (Russel, 2005). Furthermore, many times teachers are not able to reach

African American students. In other words, they are not able to ensure that they learn

and retain the information presented by the classroom teacher.

Gloria Ladson-Billings (2009) believes that there are teachers who are capable of

teaching African American students to high levels of proficiency. Scholarly literature

positions African American students as problems and seeks to determine what is wrong

with their education, their families, their culture, and their minds. It is important to

examine the way instruction is presently being presented to ascertain why African

American students are lagging behind other ethnicities, particularly in reading. One

reason that is often overlooked is negative peer influence. Bill Cosby has been

criticized for saying that African American students who want to learn and who make


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good grades are often ostracized or intimidated by their peers for their efforts and great

achievement (Tembo, 2011).

During the many centuries of oppression, unlike many other ethnic groups,

African Americans were prevented from developing any strong meaningful culture of

reading or educational excellence. Despite this oppression and exclusion, many African

Americans such as Lucy Simms and Booker T. Washington were determined to

persevere and therefore were educated. No one today likely questions why African

American students lag behind other ethnicities in view of the fact that this racial group

has had a troubled history of oppression in every facet of life including education

(Tembo, 2011).

According to the 2007 U.S. Education Department Nationwide Report, 73% of

12th grade students achieved a basicreading score in 2005, down from 80% in 1992, as

the NAEP sampling test records, which the government calls the Nation's Report Card

(Ellis, 2009). One assertion that is often raised is the use of invalid, ineffectively,

inaccurately, and costly developed tests from the companies who publish them.

Businesses are capitalizing on educational institutions that are in need of materials

created to prepare students for standardized and state mandated tests. These

companies create programs, books, guides, professional development workshops, and

lessons to assist educational institutions and instructional leaders with the task of

ensuring that their students meet the standards.

Surprising to some is the fact that the number of jail cells that a prison facility will

build in the future is based on how many children are not reading on grade level by third

grade (Whitehurst, 2009). With this in mind, one must search for answers to the


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problem of students not being able to read successfully. The African American

population is the group that is of grave concern. The Texas Education Agencys

Academic Excellence Indicator System of 2009 reports that African Americans score

lower than any other subgroup in reading (TEA, 2009).

The percentage of fourth grade students who met Texas state expectations in

2009 was 86%. The percentage of African American students who met expectations

was 79%, 3 percentage points less than Hispanics and 10 percentage points less than

Whites and below the state average. In fifth grade, 85% of students met state

expectations. The percentage of African American students who met expectations was

79%, the same percentage as Hispanics and 14 percentage points less than Whites

(Texas Education Agency, 2009). Students, specifically African Americans, still cannot

read at acceptable rates (NCES, 2009).

The Nations Report Card shows that 68% of the nations 4th graders are reading

below proficiency level and that 64% of 12 th graders never make it to the proficiency

level. Statistics for African American students are even more disturbing. The report

shows that 88% of 4th graders and 84% of 12th grade students are below the proficient

level in reading. This study also finds that 60% of 4th grade students and 46% of 12th

grade students are below the basic level (Ellis, 2009). Someone who is reading at the

basic level can understand the words, can answer simple questions about the factual

information presented in the written text, and can read with enough fluency to get

through the material on time and answer questions. Students who are performing at the

proficient level can go beyond that to make reasonable inferences from the material

they read (Whitehurst, 2009). On average, African American 12th graders read at the


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same level as White 8th graders. Many studies have found that dropping out of high

school and prison incarceration begins with ongoing difficulties in reading and writing

(Jairrels, 2010).

Although two-thirds of high-growth, high-wage jobs requires a college degree,

only one-third of Americans have one. Also, while 90% of the fastest-growing jobs in

the economy will require higher education, more than 60% of Americans ages 25-64

have postsecondary education credentials. As a result, a U.S. worker with only a high

school diploma makes almost 40% less than one with a bachelors degree (Ellis, 2009).

Changes must be made in instruction to ensure that high-school graduates are

better prepared for higher education or jobs. Nevertheless, these changes must be

made before students enter high school. Forty percent of students at four-year

institutions and 63% at two-year colleges require remedial education, according to a

study cited in an educational report (Thompson & Barnes, 2006). Millions of African

American students have achieved at the highest levels in all occupations and

professions. Reading and writing opened doors for them, long shut, as they developed a

love for learning that was passed on to others (Cosby & Poussaint).

Over 40 percent of high school graduates are not sufficiently prepared for jobs

after high school. A detailed survey of 431 human resource professionals conducted by

members of the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) indicated askills

shortage which could impact the countrys economic competitiveness (Wise, 2006).

Table 1 shows that employer respondents report that new employees with a high school

diploma are deficient in their overall preparation for entry-level jobs. Almost no

employers rate their new employees preparation as excellent.


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Table 1: Skill & Successful Job Performance

Subject Area Rating by Employers

Deficient Adequate Excellent

Very important for

successful jobperformanceWriting in English 72.0% 27.1% 0.8% 49.4%

Mathematics 53.5% 45.1% 1.5% 30.4%

Reading Comprehension 38.4% 58.2% 3.4% 62.5%

(Wise, 2006)

The table shows that most employees are adequate at best in the area of reading

comprehension which was rated as most important for successful job performance by

62.5% of employers (Wise, 2006). This study indicates that reading is crucial to

successful job performance according to employers. It is rated as the subject area that

is vitally important to perform job duties successfully. The increasing concerns over

how much students are learning are fueled by a U.S. Labor Department report saying

that over the next decade, more than 87 percent of new high-wage jobs will require

more than a high-school diploma (Ellis, 2009).

Engagement

An Engaged Student

A substantially engaged student is one who not only attends to the built-in

procedures of instruction, but also interacts with the content of the lesson in a deep and

thoughtful manner. Studies showed that reading engagement and comprehension are

related (Wigfield, Guthrie, Barbosa, et. al., 2008). A highly engaged reader uses

comprehension strategies such as questioning and summarizing to connect meaning

with the text. Studies showed that reading to children not only improves listening


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comprehension but also attention spans (Sederberg, 2009). A highly engaged reader is

also motivated to read and reads frequently and deeply (Wigfield, Guthrie, Barbosa, et.

al., 2008). Engagement is the act of being engaged; of occupying the attention or

efforts of a person or persons; of attracting and holding fast; of pleasing; ofattaching or

securing; of entangling or involving, of occupying oneself; becoming involved

(McLaughlin, et al., 2005). Collins (1992, p. 20) stated, We have created an attitude

that puts joy back into learning, that creates satisfaction at doing something correctly.

Students are engaged when they are involved in their work, persist despite

challenges and obstacles, and take visible delight in accomplishing their work. Student

engagement also refers to a student's willingness, need, desire and compulsion to

participate in, and be successful in, the learning process, promoting higher level thinking

for enduring understanding. A defining characteristic of successful classrooms is high

student engagement (Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, & Vincent, 2003).

An engaged reader is therefore thoroughly immersed in the reading task at hand.

He or she is completely involved and is able to concentrate intently. Engaged readers

also will read not just because the reading has been assigned, but for their own

personal purposes as well. Shaywitz (2003) examines the relationship between the

numbers of words read by students to reading test scores. She found that students,

who read approximately 20 minutes a day, read about 1.8 million words per year and

score in the 90th to 100th percentile on reading tests. Students who read on average

about 4 minutes a day, read about 282,000 words per year and score in the 50th

percentile on reading tests and students who read about 1 minute a day, read about

8,000 words per year and score in the 10th percentile on reading tests (Shaywitz, 2003).


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Jairrels (2010) discovered a simple remedy that was enjoyed by families long

before television and the Internet began to monopolize students time. She believes

that African American students must increase the time they spend reading for pleasure.

A significant body of research found that there is a difference between the reading

habits of African American students and students of other ethnicities. Jairrels (2010)

found that some African American students have not engaged in long-term pleasure

reading since birth, that is since their parent read to them when they were infants.

According to the federal government, 68 percent of White children read every day

compared with 50 percent of African American children. Some African American

parents underestimate the amount of reading time that is needed for children to be

successful and do not understand or know that test scores can be improved by the

simple act of reading (Jairrels, 2010).

Significance of Engagement

The definition of student engagement suggests that the student is motivated and

wants to learn the material that is presented. Therefore, it is critical that educators find

the solution to the problem of keeping African American students engaged. It is

possible that the presentation of the subject manner would be of interest to any student

when presented in an engaging manner. Studies showed that engaged students are

more successful in school than non-engaged students (Wang & Holcombe, 2010).

Currently, around 70 percent of fourth-graders are expected to graduate on time.

"We know that the success of every American will be tied more closely than ever before

to the level of education they achieve," stated President Obama. The president

announced that $900 million in government grants will be distributed to help transform
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underperforming schools. President Obamas Administration has committed $3.5 billion

to fund transformational changes in Americas persistently low-performing schools.

President Obama also emphasized the importance of investing in dropout prevention

and recovery strategies to help make learning more engaging and relevant for students

(Obama, 2010).

On a 2007-2008 survey of student engagement of those students who claimed

they have been bored in class, more than four out of five stated that a reason for their

boredom as material was not interesting(83% in 2007, 82% in 2008) and about two out

of five students claimed, that the lack of relevance of the material (41% in each year)

created boredom. The level of difficulty of the work was a source of boredom for about

one-third of students (33% in 2007, 32% in 2008) and students were also bored

because the work was not challenging enough, while just over one-fourth of the

respondents were bored because the work was too difficult (27% in each year).

Interaction during classroom instruction played a role in students boredom as well:

more than one-third (35% in each year) were bored due to not having any interaction

with the teacher(Yazzie-Mintz, 2008).

Improving the quality of instruction in a classroom is vitally important (Leslie and

Caldwell, 2008) if we are to consistently and significantly improve literacy for all

students. The consequences for children who do not learn to read in the early grades

are well documented. It has been reported that 88% of the children who score in the

lowest quartile in reading comprehension at the end of first grade remain below the 50

percentile at the end of fourth grade (Allen and Leslie, 1999).


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The President recognizes the importance of relevancy and keeping students

engaged. The notion of engagement has attracted increased educational attention

because it is seen as a potential means for combating on-going problems such as

academic failure, student disinterest and high dropout rates (Fredericks, Blumenfeld, &

Paris, 2004). Fredricks et al. (2004) identified three types of engagement: cognitive;

emotional; and behavioral.

Students who are cognitively engaged have different ways to master a concept.

They willingly participate and work extra hard to accomplish a task and many times go

beyond what is required. They have a positive attitude whether successful or

unsuccessful. On the other hand, students who are emotionally engaged refer to

students reaction to the classroom, the lesson, the teacher, and other students. In

addition, it is related to students emotions and attitudes. Behavioral engagement

involves students adherence to rules as well as their effort, concentration, and

participation (Fredericks et al., 2004). Engagement can be increased and enhanced if

teachers increase their efforts to ensure that instruction is presented in an engaging

manner.

It is almost impossible for some to fathom how reading could be exciting, how

students can be engaged during reading instruction. Many, especially students, would

not want to imagine the movie while reading, when they could just as easily, see it on

the big screen. Some students do not understand how the catalytic action of reading

could produce the images, in the mind, that are shown on the movie scene. It is

imperative that instructors transfer the skill of reading with a purpose to students, which

leads to engagement during reading. They must teach students the process of thinking


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while reading. A readers habits are likely created in response to engaging instruction

that he or she receives, the enthusiasm of the instructor, and the feedback that is

generated from the readers products or responses (Trelease, 2006).

Strategies forEffective Student Engagement

According to research, several concepts contribute to successful student

engagement. Some of these concepts include discussions, classroom management, a

positive environment, method of instruction, and the role of teachers and principals.

Discussion

Trelease (2006) believes in the importance of discussion after reading a story.

This discussion is of critical importance. Students from classrooms where there are

more book discussions tend to score higher on national reading assessments and read

more than the required classroom reading assignments (Trelease, 2006). The most

effective schools provide a positive climate, model positive relationships, and have

programs in place that give students opportunities to participate in discussions. Adults

take the time to talk and listen to students (Conners, 2000). Children and teenagers are

reading fewer books and playing more video games (Derbyshire, 2009). Students need

opportunities to articulate ideas, discuss findings, and examine new knowledge to help

them internalize content information. Computer-based programs, which tend to isolate

students, are not enough (Americas Choice, 2010).

When considering instruction, educators should remember that learning does not

have to take place in a completely quiet classroom. As Kasten (1997) stated, educators

often invest considerable energy into maintaining classroom quiet, mistakenly believing


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that student silence equates with student productivity. Although adults usually work

alongside of others in their work environment, many teachers insist that students work

alone instead of cooperatively. Educators should know that participation in

conversations can be engaging. It is learning at its best when students can discuss the

text, which increases interest in reading. Discussions of this kind help students to

understand the importance of the printed word (Kasten, 1997). Educator Ron Clark

(2003) stated we do not set the climate that will allow students to speak freely and voice

their thoughts and opinions. He said he imagines that there are many times when the

best ideas are not heard or ever voiced.

Engaging lessons are lessons in which students have a high level of

involvement. The lesson plan is organized so that the class proceeds smoothly and

with high student involvement and expectations specifically in engaging discussions

(Harmin, 2006). In this type of lesson students naturally get involved without the need

of threats or rewards due to the high level of interaction. The use of quick pacing during

the lesson or activity is a strategy that keeps students engaged. The pace should be

fast enough to keep students involved and prevent them from focusing their attention on

other less important matters (Harmin, 2006).

An additional strategy is to teach in layers, which means that the lessons are

reinforced and reviewed, during discussions, from time to time (Harmin, 2006). A

teacher who teaches in layers realizes that instant learning should not always be

expected and rarely does it occur the first time the lesson is presented. Another

strategy is using variety (Harmin, 2006). Variety should be a consistent part of the class

lessons, but not so much variety that it becomes confusing to students. Variety keeps


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students engaged oftentimes because they never know what to expect which keeps

them from being bored.

Classroom Management

One aspect of effective student engagement is the ability to properly manage the

classroom. An instructor must be able to effectively manage his or her classroom in

order for learning to take place. Teachers must deliver the curriculum as well as help to

create a positive classroom learning environment, by developing rules for student

behavior and giving messages and non-verbal cues regarding students interactions

with their classmates (Ryan & Patrick, 2001). Likewise, effective classroom

management must occur if student engagement is to be successful. Marzano, Marzano

& Pickering (2003), emphasize that a positive learning environment must be established

in order for learning to occur and be maximized.

Marzano, et. al. (2009) also believe that managing the classroom has been

identified as the greatest concern of teachers and listed as one of the top reasons for

leaving the profession. Research supports the argument that the social environment of

the classroom is important to student motivation and engagement (Ryan & Patrick,

2001). Successful teachers are often teachers who are successful at managing the

classroom which includes students of varying gifts, talents, skills, and abilities. This

includes students who may or may not be socially adept at working with others,

including the teacher.

Effective teachers have clear and high expectations, procedures, and routines in

place. The students are aware of them as evident when one first walks in to observe a

classroom. Marzano, Marzano, & Pickering (2003) and Harris (2005) noted the


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importance of teachers clearly defining their expectations for students. Clear

expectations for behavior are established during the first few weeks of school. Students

are not only aware of what is expected of them, but are aware of the consequences for

not following the expectations that also includes the rules of the classroom. Research

found that acknowledgement of behavior is important in an actively engaged classroom

(Stage and Quiroz (1997). Appropriate behaviors must be reinforced and inappropriate

behaviors should receive consequences (Stage and Quiroz, 1997). Students should be

aware of behavioral expectations. Classroom systems should offer support and teach

procedural self-talk, positive self-talk, planning, goal-setting, coping strategies,

appropriate relationships, options during problem-solving, access to information and

know-how, and connections to additional resource (Payne, 1996).

Another specific technique, related to student engagement, is that of

demonstrating a wide variety of verbal and physical responses to students misbehavior,

such as proximity, eye contact, finger to mouth to indicate inappropriate behavior. Also,

many teachers establish a warning through signals, such as holding up the index finger

to indicate one minute to organize belongings. In addition, teachers and principals

provide physical rewards or recognition of appropriate behavior and group or class

rewards or recognitions contingent on responsible group behaviors. Furthermore, these

educators involve parents or guardians in home contingency rewards and

consequences (Stage & Quiroz, 1997).

Student engagement is contingent upon a system of routines and rules

established in the classroom which is based on a system of classroom management. A

classroom management system should include a clearly defined purpose, measures to


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ensure autonomy, the ability to adapt or adjust according to the circumstance,

developmental appropriateness, student-friendly presentation and implementation, and

student involvement for ownership and sense of democracy (Kohn, 1996). Accordingly,

when these indicators are in place, students are more likely to participate in an

engaging manner.

Positive Environment

A positive learning environment is essential to not only teacher retention, but also

for effective instruction and for keeping students engaged. Emmer, Evertson, and

Worsham (2003), argued that teachers must begin the year teaching management in a

positive manner; they must design and arrange the room to maximize classroom

management; and they must establish and implement rules and operating procedures

that support student success. This is contrary to what many new teachers are told to do

when they first enter the classroom, and that is to be strict and mean and never let their

guard down. If this persona continues, it is almost impossible to build positive rapport

with students.

Positive relationships foster productivity in the learning environment. One of an

instructors goals should be to build strong communication bridges with their students

which leads to reading discussions in which students are not afraid to communicate with

their teachers and peers. For optimal learning outcomes to occur, the relationship

between the learning environment and learning outcomes must be recognized.

Furthermore, the learning environment must provide opportunities for students to

develop a sense of personal competence and autonomy and positive relationships

(Reeve, 2002). Ginott (1975, p. 10) wrote,


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I've come to the frightening conclusion that I am the decisive element in

the classroom. It's my daily mood that makes the weather. As a teacher, I

possess a tremendous power to make a child's life miserable or joyous. I can be

a tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration. I can humiliate or humor, hurt or

heal. In all situations, it is my response that decides whether a crisis will be

escalated or de-escalated and a child humanized or de-humanized.

In such an environment, students feel as though there is order which assists them

in the development of organizational skills as well as with the ability to reason and think.

Also, according to Kohn (1996) the engaging classroom and school, should be a caring

community where students feel that others care about them and they care about others.

Qualities of a caring community include a clear sense of value and respect, a feeling

that students are important to one another and to the teacher, a focus on collectiveness

and what is best for the group, and a connectedness through which students feel they

belong to each other (Kohn, 1996). Research has further indicated that a sense of

connectedness to teachers and classmates in school is associated with academic

motivation and engagement (Wang & Holcombe, 2010). In this type of community,

students feel as though they belong and are a part of the group. They also may feel

protected within the classroom family.

Harris (2005) mentioned several studies in which only about one-third of the

students believe they have a teacher who really cares about them. Stipek (2006) stated

that even the most challenging students perform better for teachers who show that they

care about them as individuals and are committed to their success and interests. When

students believe that a teacher cares and will listen to them, they are more likely to


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become engaged in the lesson. Students perceptions of teacher support and the

teachers promotion of interaction and mutual respect in the classroom are related to

positive advances in student motivation and engagement (Ryan & Patrick, 2001).

Similarly, students, in a supportive and caring environment, have more positive

attitudes toward academics, and they identify themselves and feel that they belong in

the school and classroom because they can freely express themselves and count on

teachers for support with a range of problems (Furrer & Skinner, 2003). Therefore, they

are able to immerse themselves in the lesson are activity. In such a classroom, one is

able to observe that students are engaged in the learning process.

Stronge (2007) believes that effective teachers focus on specific classroom

activities. These activities include the management of routines and discipline for an

effective learning environment, organization of lesson and research-based instructional

strategies for engaged learning, and the assessment of student performance to meet

the needs of individual students. His research emphasized the teachers affective

characteristics as playing the most important role in effectiveness. Showing a personal

interest in a student is encouraging, motivational, and leads to a relationship with that

student that increases their chances of learning (Marzano et al., 2003). This

relationship increases the likelihood of student engagement.

Marzano and Marzano (2003) believe effective teachers take a personal interest

in each student and employ a variety of strategies to meet the needs of the individual

student. They build strong teacher-student relationships that set the stage for a positive

classroom dynamic to support student learning and each other. Students are more apt

to do their best and immerse themselves in an engaging lesson, when they believe that


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they belong, are needed, and will be held in high-esteem. This type of relationship

makes the classroom most effective when it is developed between the student and

teacher. McCombs and Whisler (1997) emphasized the need for all students to receive

personal attention from the teacher. Interactions, they concluded, may be small and

can include actions such as a personal greeting, handshake, calling them by name, pat

on the back, note, smile, comment about student interest or performance and or

conversation before or after class.

Marzano, Marzano & Pickering (2003) noted the significance of making each

student feel important and recommends specific positive teacher behaviors for

equitability. They conclude that teachers and principals should look into the face of

each student and call him or her by name, learn the specific interests of each student

and relate the curriculum to interest when possible, maintain the integrity, establish

proximity, stand close to each student during class and ensure classroom arrangement

provides for movement by students and teacher.

Marzano et.al (2003) further concluded that the teacher should acknowledge

contributions and ideas of all students and build on them, encourage and enable all

students to participate, allow ample wait time for all students to think and respond,

emphasize what is right with the response, encourage collaboration, rephrase or restate

the question, if needed, provide hints or clues, and allow students to pass, if appropriate

(Marzano et. al., 2003). Gibson (2002), shared that teachers are most effective when

they care, not only about the curriculum, but about students and share their lives with

them.


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Teacher Efficacy

Teacher efficacy is a teachers belief in his or her ability to make a difference in

student learning (Collier, 2005). Collier further reported that teacher efficacy has been

determined to have the greatest impact on teacher behavior and student learning. If a

teacher does not believe that he or she can make a difference in a students life, that

teacher, more than likely, will not put forth the best effort when planning, rehearsing,

and executing instructional lessons. Therefore, in all likelihood, the lesson will not be

engaging or effective. Alderman (2004) stated that teachers with a high level of efficacy

tend to recognize the importance of the role of the teacher, set high expectations for

student performance, take personal responsibility for student learning, engage in goal

setting for all stakeholders, exhibit confidence in their ability to affect student learning,

view themselves and their students as partners in the learning process, expend greater

effort, and persist longer in assisting student learning.

Consequently, individuals leave poverty for one of four reasons: a goal or vision

of something they want to be or have; a situation that is so painful that anything would

be better; someone who sponsors them (i.e., an educator or spouse or mentor or role

model who shows them a different way of living or convinces them that they could live

differently) or a specific talent or ability that provides an opportunity for them to live

differently (Payne, 1996).

Teacher efficacy is linked with educational innovativeness and willingness to take

risks (Alliinder, 1994; Cousins & Walker, 2000). This innovativeness and willingness

has an immense outcome on the preparation and presentation of engaging instruction.

Risks are taken when educators allow students to make choices about academic goals


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while teachers should make sure that these goals are focused on learning (Holliday,

2001). Teachers attitudes towards reading and the students abilities to succeed, and

their view of the students themselves, play a major role in students willingness to learn.

For example, to avoid negative comments from a classroom teacher or peers, a student

said, many of his classmates would rather say nothing than risk embarrassment, by the

teachers negative criticism, during reading instruction. These students teachers had

inadvertently pushed them away from reading and had constructed barriers to their own

students progress states Tatum (2005). The efficacy of the students teacher would

indicate that the classroom is one in which most students are not engaged due to the

teachers negative comments and fear of embarrassment by the teacher. As one

African-American teacher with high-efficacy beliefs shared that students must know that

they can succeed if they set goals and that is a teachers job to help them meet those

goals. Teachers and schools can offset the effect of negative influences by their beliefs

about their ability to teach these students and by using challenging and effective

teaching techniques (Alderman, 2004). The single most important factor for student

success is excellent teaching (Gates, 2011).

Methods of Instruction

Studies showed that reading instruction improves achievement if engagement is

increased during reading instruction (Wigfield, Guthrie, & Barbosa, 2008). Therefore, it

is important to study instructional practices that influence student engagement.

Conceptions that educators form about reading, from their own experiences, determines

their chosen method of reading instruction. If teachers believe that their reading

comprehension instruction is not engaging, then they also have reason to believe that it


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will not increase student comprehension levels (Wigfield, Guthrie, & Barbosa, 2008).

An example of a type of instruction that is engaging but is not used readily, due to

lack of knowledge, is cooperative learning. Cohen (1998) defined cooperative learning

as students working together in a group small enough that everyone can participate on

a collective task that has been clearly assigned. Moreover, students are expected to

carry out their task without the direct and immediate supervision of the teacher.

Teachers sometimes encourage and even allow students to interact with one another

during academic activities such as small group activities. However, some teachers

discourage interaction, sharing of ideas, and implement seatwork as the standard (Ryan

& Patrick, 2001).

In a cooperative learning environment, students take responsibility for their

learning and for their actions which promotes and enhances the student engagement

process. They are aware of the consequences and are given choices. These choices

do not impede the learning process of the students nor does it relinquish control to the

students. Furthermore, they are not choices that allow the child to decide if he or she

wants to be a part of the education process, but rather choices that lead to a more well-

rounded education (Kasten, 1997).

In cooperative learning, students help and encourage one another. They cheer

their team on to success. Members make up a group, community or partnership. They

communicate, make decisions, solve problems, organize, and manage group duties.

Each one is responsible for the operation of the group, much like adults when they are

at their places of employment (Cohen, 1998).


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Organizing students in heterogeneous cooperative learning groups at least once

a week has a significant effect on learning (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). The

amount of research on cooperative learning is expansive. Cooperative learning, when

implemented and monitored consistently, has tremendous effects on students

motivation, transfer of learning, and other benefits (Cohen, 1998). Therefore, it is one

of the instructional methods in which students are willingly engaged while learning.

When students work collaboratively and cooperatively, there are many benefits

for the learners. Principals who are supportive of teachers, who implement the

cooperative learning instructional method, are often more knowledgeable of the

extensive research that has been done and of the benefits of engaging students.

Teachers who are successful at facilita

porchanee a. white 4-23-11 dissertaion

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