portfolio #1 writing sample #1 cognitive flexibility

Running Head: COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY 1

Cognitive Flexibility: The Experience of Muslim Refugees

Janice Fair

Western Washington University

COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY 2

Abstract

Integrating the spiral of silence theory and the cross cultural adaption theory, this study

focuses on how mass media in the U.S has misrepresented Muslim refugee’s making

intercultural socialization more difficult for those who live in the U.S since the terrorist attack of

September 11, 2001. The research examines the misrepresentation of Muslims through mass

media and how Medias’ constitutive rhetoric has affected the cognitive ideologies of Americans.

Researchers also examine the specific types of experiences Muslim refugees have had when

entering the United States post 911. With recent and past events, the number of Muslim

Refugees seeking asylum and entering the U.S has been consistently rising and in result there has

been a rapid growth of Muslim- Americans. To further understand this phenomena researchers

examine the Muslim Refugee experience by observing the effect’s mass media has on Muslims

in higher education. The proposed study will use face to face focus group interviews with

Muslim students in higher education who either have Muslim parents or relations to someone

who is a Muslim refugee in order to understand the effect of media’s constitutive rhetoric. This

issue is important to study considering that the number of refugees coming to the U.S seeking

asylum is consistent.

Key Words: Muslim, Refugees, Cross Cultural Adaption, Spiral of Silence Theory, Mass Media,

Integration, Asylum


Introduction

Researchers argue that the information and collective data produced by mass media in the

U.S has misrepresented and perpetuated negative stereotypes of Muslims, making intercultural

socialization more difficult for those who live in the U.S. Since the terrorist attack of 911, there

has been increasing research pertaining to Muslim Americans social adaption experience (Cole,

Ahmadi 2003). Despite the previous studies done, several communication researchers have

neglected to study how discrimination against Muslim refugees post 911 has effected both

genders of Muslim American youth in higher education (Christian, Lapinski 2003; Sirin,

Katasiaficas 2011; Lamont, Collet 2013; Bal, 2014). Therefore, to further apprehend the Muslim

refugee experience it is paramount for researchers to study the cross cultural adaption experience

of Muslims in higher education.

The issues with cross culturalization for refugees and Muslim Americans lie with how

citizens’ cognitive ideologies are developed through exposure to Mass Media’s constitutive

rhetoric. For this reason it is important to study how mass media, as a dominant discourse, is

problematic to the Muslims cross cultural adaption experience (Halse, 2012). Preceding scholars

have applied the spiral of silence theory to interpret this issue, however the cross cultural

adaption theory must be implemented to further understand the Muslim refugee experience.

The purpose of this study is to explore how media has effected the Muslim experience in

higher education to further understand this phenomena. The researchers will attempt to

qualitatively investigate the cross cultural socialization experience of Muslim refugees within the

U.S in response to the negative messages from mass media by implementing the spiral of silence

theory and cross cultural adaption theory to further understand this specific phenomena.


Literature Review

Historical Background

In the nineteenth century most slaves during the colonial period were imported from

West Africa to the U.S, twenty percent of which practiced some given form of Islam (Curtis,

2008). Between 1966 and 1997, 2,780,000 people resettled in the U.S, many of them being

Muslims, and in result the number of Islamic organizations grew (Edward, 2009). Such quick

growth caused a great division between Christians and Muslims by class, race, and religion,

forcing the two groups to live in segregation.

On September 11, 2001 a terrorist attack occurred in which two planes were hijacked by

nineteen members of al- Qaeda including Saudis and Egyptians (Ibrahim, 2008), igniting

negativity between the U.S and Middle East. Like many Americans, refugees and American

Muslims supported charities and prayed while fearing the backlash they were to face by looking

‘Muslim’ (Edward, 2009).

Rhetorical Media

The role of mass media, conceptualized specifically as newspapers and television, for

years has framed and presented news to the public through a lens of ‘reality’ to keep audiences

engaged. This has led citizens to believe false realities that frame specific racial groups such as

Muslims (Andersen, Brinson, Stohl, 2011). By the process of framing mass media is given the

authority to control boundaries of discourse sending Muslim refugees into a spiral of silence

(Ibrahim, 2008). Yang Xiaodong (2016) defines the spiral of silence theory as people who

compare their own opinions with the perceived public opinion and make decisions on whether or

not to speak if able to at all (p.79).

One historically significant example is the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001 and how


media conceptualized the word terrorism to fit the image of Muslims. Since the terrorist attack

occurred within a city sodden in media, terms such as Muslim, Arabs, Syrian, and Islam have

been manipulated to become synonymous with the word ‘terrorist’ to several Americans (refer to

fig.1 in appendix). Subsequently, negative news portraying Muslims has had an impact on

citizens’ cognitive attitudes towards policies and restrictions, making them more willing to enact

both (Andersen, 2011). From this it is proposed that constitutive rhetoric and stereotypes have

pernicious effects on the Muslims cross cultural adaption experience (Halse, 2012).

In addition, it can be seen in television shows that “Muslims in the Western culture have

been primarily stereotyped into the images of: greed, lust, violence, and barbarianism” (Karim,

K.H. 1997). Rolf Halse (2012) conducted a study on the TV serial 24 analyzing the change of

Muslim stereotypes in US Television and found that modern Orientalists’ observe and describe

Muslim character traits to encompass lack of discipline and inability to cooperate (p.15). More

significantly, the stereotypes portrayed through TV post 911 resemble the appearance of the

average American, dichotomizing the image of Muslims while redefining the Muslim ‘other’

(Halse, 2012). Influence from media has given Americans the excuse to fear and discriminate

against Muslims in the surrounding environment regardless of age or gender, complicating the

process of cross cultural adaption.

The Muslim Refugee Experience

Prior to entering the U.S, Muslim Refugees have experienced difficult in cross culturally

adapting into the U.S. Young Kim (2001) defines this cross-cultural adaption theory as a

dynamic evolutionary process an individual undergoes in an unfamiliar environment, making a

successful transition from one culture to another while integrating both cultures (p.xi). Rottman,

Fariss, and Poe (2009) reported in their research that in the wake of 911 during 2002-2004


asylum claims were about seven percent less likely to be accepted (p.20). Moreover, refugees

deserving asylum into the U.S have faced unnecessary or inhumane hardships, at times treated as

criminals and imprisoned for months without a hearing (Swarns, 2007). Upon entering the U.S

refugees were often placed in impoverished locations within cities where housing cost was

inexpensive for government accommodations (Phillips, 2006), therefore systematically forced

into a lower social class and harsher living conditions without an option. The Muslim refugee

experience is a paramount issue because dehumanizing actions against Muslim refugees seeking

asylum only reflects the negative history of the US, as well as reify that the hierarchical

American system of accepting refugees and immigrants is significantly flawed. Rottman, Fariss

and Poe (2009) in their study concluded that physical integrity rights, a central concern in the

decision to grant asylum, were observed as less important after 2001 in asylum officers’

decisions (p.29).

Another barrier to integration for these refugees was the language barrier. Culturally,

language gives people a sense of belonging linked with a place, both physically and

psychologically, therefore language can be considered to be the link to our roots (Sorgen, 2015).

Da Lomba (2010) explains how integration is conceived as a two-step process which involves

the voluntary nature of the community and the cooperation of the refugees through English

conversation clubs (p.247). Without adequate resources, it can be argued that the lack of

language integration reinforces social exclusion, alienating refugees from the host culture. Given

that little research has been done on studying Muslim refugee experience through Muslims in

higher education, researchers will pose the following question:

RQ1: How has post 911 mass media messages affect the cross cultural socialization experience

of Muslims in higher education within the U.S?


Methodology

Quantitative or Qualitative

To be able to comprehensively study a sample of individuals, researchers will approach

this study with a qualitative focus to provide textual data representing the experiences of

Muslims in higher education. A focus group type qualitative study will include each participants’

experience which will help assess inferences about the participants’ population as a whole and

explain meaning behind specific concepts (Sirin, Katasiaficas 2011; Lamont, Collet 2013).

However, limitations may include the difficulty with large data collection to allow for discussion

of general study themes and findings which then can be constructed for further analysis by

highlighting important and complex patterns (Lamont, Collet 2013).

Group or Focus Interview

For this study, researchers will conduct a qualitative focus group interview with Muslim

American students in higher education who either have Muslim parents or relations to Muslim

refugees. In the past qualitative research has been used and advised to be used to study

individuals’ experiences that reflect concepts and effects of variables (Cole, Ahmadi, 2003;

Langellier, 2010; Sirin, Katasiaficas, 2011, Bal 2014). Qualitative research not only gives the

researcher the ability to understand specific unique experiences through face to face interaction,

but gives the researcher the ability to shape and lead interviews to be structured or less structured

as desired, as seen in a study done by Cole and Ahmadi (2003). A weakness and limitation of

this type of method would be the inability to use a large sample size of participants due to the

amount of time it takes to interview individuals.


Variables

This study examines the relationship between Mass Media and Muslim refugees’ cross

cultural adaption experience in the U.S observed through Muslims in higher education. Mass

Media, the independent variable in this case, can be conceptualized as broadcast television and

distributed newspapers within the U.S, the two most influential forms of media (Halse, 2012;

Kellner, 2004; Ibrahim, 2008). By studying how mass media has affected Muslims experience in

a negative and positive way within the U.S operationalizes these variables.

The dependent variable is the Muslim refugee experience. This can be conceptualized as

Muslim refugees’ cultural differences and the acculturation process from their previous society,

including customs and behaviors, through religious perspectives and experiences (Cole, Ahmadi

2003; McBrien 2005). The operationalized definition for the dependent variable are the steps

taken to acculturate and adapt to negative messages and discrimination within the given

environment.

Setting & Sample

This study will take place on the campus of Western Washington University. The sample

for this study will be Western Washington University Muslim students of both genders in higher

education who either have Muslim parents or relations to those who are Muslim Refugees. The

number of participants for this study will range from seven to fifteen people and between the

ages of 18- 26 years varying specifically by school year, including those who wear religious

garments. This sample was selected to investigate the discrimination that Muslim refugees’

experience, more specifically how misrepresentation and discrimination has affected intercultural


socialization for Muslims in higher education. Researchers plan on congregating the Muslim

students by contacting them while following the ethical procedures and regulations of WWU.

Details are addressed in the procedures.

Procedures

Data Collection

Sampling Technique

Researchers will apply stratified sampling to simple random sampling to determine the

participants for this study within Western Washington University. Stratified sampling has been

chosen to ensure that the sample will contain an equal number of males to females with the

consideration that both sex have different experiences based on gender alone (Jupp, 2006). By

using stratified sampling the variables will be better represented compared to random sampling

by itself and to do so the researchers will obtain a list of students from the registrar’s office of

individuals who either have Muslim parents or relations to Muslim refugees.

Method of Gathering

To gather information and participants for this study, researchers will plan to visit the

registrar’s office to obtain a student list consisting of information on current Muslim students.

From there researchers must consult and determine the best way to contact potential participants

without breaking ethical regulations and privacy. In addition, this study will require the use of

demographic forms to gain some information on the student’s major, department, year ECT (The

form is located in the appendix). Furthermore, consent forms will be implemented into the study


to be able to gain and utilize information from personal profiles (The form is located in the

appendix).

Once the researchers have found sufficient participants, a qualitative interview will be

conducted. The inquiry will include questions about their experiences as a Muslim, how Medias

framing of Muslims in the news has affected their quality of life, and how these individuals have

coped with those internal and external negative conflicts (Instruments are located in the

appendix).

Validity & Reliability

The methodology that will administer a focus group questionnaire will specifically

address reliability by implementing the split- half reliability method. By using this type of

internal consistency reliability, two sets of similar inquiry will be used for comparing one half of

the test with the other half to ensure consistent reliable data collection (McLeod, 2013).

In addition, researchers concur that the methodology is valid for the reason that

participants will be questioned about their personal experiences as Muslims within society and

Western Washington University. Furthermore, by utilizing lists of questions that are not biased

or poorly worded, the instrument would help ensure the validity of the information coming from

the participants. Validity in this case can be thought of as an accumulation of empirical concepts

such as truth, deduction, reason, fact, and evidence (Golafshani, 2003). Potential discrepancies

may arise due to the researcher’s beliefs as to what part of the research needs validation (Winter,

2000), however this will allow for future researchers elimination of possible biases.


Ethics

For the purpose of this study researchers will provide full disclosure to participants to

gain trust and access to personal information and norms that would have not been gained

otherwise. In other words, participants will be debriefed to discuss any questions or concerns

they might have about the focus group intervention. This will help researchers promote the aim

of truth, knowledge, avoidance of error and trust (Resnik, 2015). Prior to any action taken, the

researchers will gain approval of the universities institutional review board to continue this

study, which is important to collaborative work such as accountability (Resnik, 2015). Given the

nature of the focus group interviewing, anonymity cannot be assured. However, participants will

be given a copy of the consent form (located in the appendix) that both parties have signed with

the confidentiality agreement and contact information of the researcher and WWU human

subjects board to release information.

The main ethical concern with this study is the potential psychological discomfort

participants may experience depending on the questions inquired, especially considering that

their experiences in the past may have been emotionally damaging already. With that, the

researchers will make sure to accommodate and respect each individuals’ wishes as best as

possible. After the study has been conducted the researchers will once again debrief the

participants and have a cool down period to address the purpose of this study as before. This

study will greatly benefit communication scholars and researchers to gain further insight to the

Muslim refugee experience through the eyes of Muslims in higher education, as well as provide

the citizens in this society a better understanding of how media affects Muslim Refugees

experiences here in the U.S.


Implications

This study will not only be beneficial to communication scholars and researchers, but to

all people in the world who are interested in the cross cultural adaption process and experience of

Muslim Refugees and how that affects Muslims in higher education. Considering the information

provided on Muslim Refugees experience coming into the U.S, this study encourages policy

makers to address issues that currently exist within the asylum immigration process and change

their silencing and dehumanizing tactics by providing refugees a habitable environment to live in

and more. In most recent years, because of the turmoil occurring in the Middle East, Muslim

Refugees are flooding into the U.S and other countries seeking asylum, which implies that there

are more people who are facing the experiences that have been addressed. This makes the social

issue of Muslim Refugees as prominent as ever to share with people to aid in understanding this

phenomena.

Conclusion

Information produced by mass media in the U.S has misrepresented and perpetuated

negative stereotypes of Muslims, making intercultural socialization difficult for those who live in

the U.S. In this research paper, the researchers provided information to enlighten individuals on

the issue of the Muslim Refugees cross cultural adaption experience by delving into sub

categories such as historical background and rhetorical media. By doing so the reader has gained

further understanding on how Mass Media perpetuates negative stereotypes and rhetoric of

Muslims, making the inter-acculturalization process as refugees more difficult, and how that

directly affects Muslim citizens who live in the U.S. Qualitative focus group interviews have

been implemented to reify the research done in the literature review. Researchers find this


subject to be paramount to study because by closing the gap between how media affects

incoming refugees and citizens who live in the U.S attending higher education, social and policy

changes could be made in the future to ensure the quality of life for Muslims everywhere.

Regardless of skin color, race and background, quality of life should be first priority above all

other aspects.


References

Andersen, N. C., Brinson, M., & Stohl, M. (2011). On-screen Muslims: Media priming and

consequences for public policy. Journal of Arab &Muslim Media Research, 4(3), 203-

221.

Bal, A. (2014). Becoming In/competent Learners in the United States: Refugfee Students’

Academic Identities in the Figured World of Difference. International Multilingual

Research Journal, 4(8), 271-290.

Christian, S. E., & Lapinski, M. K. (2003). Support for the Contact Hypothesis: High School

Students' Attitudes Toward Muslims Post 9-11.

Cole, D., & Ahmadi, S. (2003). Perspectives and Experiences of Muslim Women Who Veil on

College Campuses. Journal of College Student Development, 44(1), 47-66.

Curtis, E. E. (2008). The COLUMBIA SOURCEBOOK OF MUSLIMS in the UNITED

STATES. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Curtis, E. E. (2009). Muslims in America: A short history. Retrieved from

http://onesearch.library.wwu.edu/WWU:CP71119623540001451

Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research. Where

the World Learns Qualitative Research, 8(4).

Halse, R. (2012). The Muslim- American neighbor as terrorist: The representation of a Muslim

family 24. Journal of Arab & Muslim Media Research, 5(1), 3-18.

Ibrahim, D. (2008). Framing of Arab countries of American news networks following the

September 11 attacks. Journal of Arab and Muslim Media Research, 1(3), 279-295.


Indiana Wesleyan University. (n.d.). Tapestry [Photograph]. Retrieved from

http://www.iwuspectrum.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Arabs-and-Muslims-in-the-

Post-911-Media.png

Jupp, V. (2006). The SAGE Dictionary of Social Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA:

SAGE.

Karim, K. H. (2000). Islamic peril: Media and global violence. Montreal: Black Rose Books.

Kellner, D. (2004). 9/11, SPECTACLES OF TERROR, AND MEDIA MANIPULATION A

critique of Jihadist and Bush media politics. Critical Discourse, 1(1), 41-64.

Kim, Y. Y. (2001). Becoming Intercultural: An Integrative Theory of Communication and

Cross- Cultural Adaption [Google Scholar].

Lamont, S., & Collet, B. (2013). Muslim American University Students' Perceptions of Islam

and Democracy: Deconstructing the Dichtomy. Equity & Excellence in Education,4(46),

433-450.

Langellier, K. M. (2010). PERFORMING SOMALI IDENTITY IN THE DIASPORA. Cultural

Studies, 24(1), 67-94.

Lomba, S. D. (2010). Legal Status and Refugee Integration: a UK Perspective. Journal of

Refugee Studies, 24(4), 415-436.

McBrien, J. L. (2005). Educational Needs and Barriers for Refugee Students in the United

States: A Review of the Literature. Review of Educational Research, 75(4), 329-364.

McLeod, S. (2013). What is Reliability? | Simply Psychology. Retrieved from

http://www.simplypsychology.org/reliability.html

Phillips, D. (2004). Moving Towards Integration: The Housing of Asylum Seekers and

Refugees in Britain. Housing Studies, 21(4), 539-553.


Resnik, D. B. (2015, December 1). What is Ethics in Research & Why is it Important?.

Retrieved from http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/whatis/

Rottman, A. J., Faris, C. J., & Poe, S. C. (2009). The Path to Asylum in the

US and the Determinants for Who Gets in and Why. International

Migration Review, 43(1), 3-34.

Sorgen, A. (2015). Integration through participation: The effects of

Participating in an English Conversation club on refugee and

Asylum seeker integration. Applied Linguistics Revies, 6(2), 241-260.

Swarns, R. L. (2007, February 8). U.S May Be Mishandling Asylum

Seekers, Panel Says. New York Times [New York].

Western Washington University. (2015, June 23). Human Subjects Form. Retrieved from

http://www.wwu.edu/rsp/pdf/icr.pdf

Winter, G. (2000). A Comparative Discussion of the Notion of 'Validity' in Qualitative and

Quantitative Research. The Qualitative Report, 4(3).

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Appendices

Table of Contents

Appendix A: Consent Form Page 18

Appendix B: Demographic Form Page 19

Appendix C: Sample of qualitative questions Page 20

Appendix D: Sample of Media’s perpetuation of the Muslim stereotype Page 21


Appendix A

CONSENT FORM

Purpose and Benefit:

Researchers have been interested in how Mass Medias messages about Muslim refugees affects the experiences of Muslims in higher education. To better understand this phenomena researchers will conduct a qualitative focus group interview. The purpose of this experiment is to attain better information of the difficulties Muslims face due to negative messages from media as well as the coping mechanisms that Muslims have used to overcome these hardships.

I UNDERSTAND THAT:

1) This experiment will involve completion of a series of tasks that include participating in a qualitative focus group interview. My participation will involve approximately three hours.

2) Anticipated risks or discomfort associated with participation may involve the discomfort of answering questions. One possible benefit to me may be a better understanding of the research process for social interview experiments.

3) My participation is voluntary, I may choose not to answer certain questions or withdraw from participation at any time without penalty.

4) All information is confidential. My signed consent form will be kept in a locked cabinet separate from the questionnaires and recorded information. Only the primary research will review the information. My name will not be associated with any of my responses at any time.

5) This experiment is conducted by Janice Fair. Any questions that you have about the experiment or your participation may be directed to her at 253- 740- 6571 or [email protected]. If you have any questions about your participation or your rights as a research participant, you can contact the WWU Human Protections Administrator (HPA), (360) 650-3220. If during or after participation in this study you suffer from any adverse effects as a result of participation, please notify the researcher directing the study or the WWU Human Protections Administrator. ************************************************************

I have read the above description and agree to participate in this study.

_______________________________________ Participant’s Signature _______________ Date

_______________________________________ Participant’s PRINTED NAME

NOTE: Please sign both copies of the form and retain the copy marked “Participant.”

mailto:[email protected]


Appendix B

Demographic Form

Name: ________________________________________________

Current Address: ___________________________________________________

City/ State/ Zip: ____________________________________________________

Gender: Male Female Other

Language: English Other

Date of Birth: _____________________________________________________

School Year: ______________________________________________________

Major/ Minor: _____________________________________________________

Years of living in the US: ___________________________________________

Appendix C


Sample of qualitative Questions

1. Which culture do you identify with more?

2. How long have you been living in the U.S?

3. How has Mass Medias messages about Muslim Refugees affect you individually? Your

daily living situations? Who you have become friends with? The relations you have with

family, friends’ teachers.

4. What were some difficulties for you as Muslims growing up in an American culture?

5. Have you faced discrimination for being Muslim? Where?

6. If so how have you coped with these experiences?

7. How do your experiences differ as men and women?

8. What messages portrayed in media about the current issue on Muslim Refugees do you

find to be misleading or inaccurate?

9. What are your thoughts about the current issue of Muslim refugees coming into the U.S?

10. What has driven you to achieve higher education?

Appendix D


Sample of Media’s perpetuation of the Muslim stereotype.

Fig.1. Magazine cover associating Muslims with post 9/11Vanessa Small: “Arabs, Muslims and the Post-9/11 Media”IWU Spectrum: 07 March. 2016: Web.

portfolio #1 writing sample #1 cognitive flexibility

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