portfolio_foundation studio_1
TRANSCRIPT
c.
an
na
lisa
mil
ler
academic + student work
Humans intrinsically seek orientation in the world derived from the location and measure of their body in space. This studio will employ the body and various modes of orientation to explore habitation in the world using the theoretical framework of point, line and plane. Similar to the omphalos, the stone that gave birth to ancient Roman cities, the body will serve as a POINT of beginning for understanding measure, scale and proportion. In the creation of cities, LINES extended outward from the ompha-los in cardinal directions. Similarly, students will extend lines and make recorded journeys, documenting their intersections overlaps, meetings and departures. Although the surface of a PLANE is often conceived as an object, landscape is a palimpsest––myriad artifacts and histories revealed both on the surface and below. These fragments and strands of site will drive the excavation of its particular cultural, historical or natural narratives.
Prac
tice
of
land
scap
e ar
chit
ectu
re: i
s a
mul
ti-di
scip
linar
y fie
ld, w
hich
incl
udes
: geo
gra-
phy,
mat
hem
atic
s, s
cien
ce,
engi
neer
ing,
art
, ho
rtic
ultu
re,
tech
nolo
gy,
soci
al s
cien
ces,
po
litic
s, h
isto
ry, p
hilo
soph
y an
d m
ore
rece
ntly
, eco
logy
. It i
s a
prof
essi
on c
lose
ly re
late
d to
arc
hite
ctur
e an
d ur
ban
plan
ning
and
enc
ompa
sses
pro
ject
s ran
ging
in si
ze fr
om a
smal
l re
side
ntia
l site
to
a fe
w t
hous
and
units
or
mor
e pl
anne
d co
mm
unity
. It
is a
pro
fess
ion
that
str
ives
to im
prov
e th
e qu
ality
of l
ives
for a
ll hu
man
bei
ngs
whi
le a
lso
bein
g aw
are
of
the
impl
icat
ions
the
des
ign
has
on t
he e
colo
gy o
f a s
ite.
Thro
ugh
land
scap
e w
e ca
n un
-de
rsta
nd re
latio
nshi
ps th
at e
xist
bet
wee
n hu
man
s an
d th
e en
viro
nmen
t, b
etw
een
diff
er-
ent c
ultu
res
and
geog
raph
ical
regi
ons
and
thro
ugho
ut d
iffer
ent h
isto
rical
tim
e pe
riods
.
Cont
ext:
is
criti
cal i
nfor
mat
ion
abou
t the
land
adj
acen
t to
a si
te a
nd c
ritic
al w
hen
mak
ing
abou
t tha
t site
. It
is a
zoo
med
out
vie
w fr
om th
e pa
rtic
ular
site
usu
ally
enc
ompa
ssin
g ke
y tr
ansp
orta
tion
rout
es, s
igni
fican
t ge
ogra
phic
al f
eatu
res,
adj
acen
t la
nd u
ses
and
criti
cal
cultu
ral e
lem
ents
.
O B J E C T I V E S This studio explores seeing, representing, and synthesizing as fundamental and interrelated processes in the study and practice of landscape architecture. Basic principles, vocabularies, and techniques for observing, recording, analyzing, and representing places are also examined. Emphasis is placed on learning to ‘read’ a landscape and respond appropriately to site and context (both natural and built). Projects provide opportunities to explore drawing (both analog and digital) as an essential tool for recording and conveying observations, analysis, and intentions.
S T U D I O Within a landscape architectural curriculum, the studio serves as the principal setting for design research, exploration and experimentation. Fundamental to success in studio is understanding its collaborative nature. Students should take full advantage of the studio setting as a rich and shared environment for learning and where a range of ideas, interests, projects, and representation strategies are studied.Students are required to ‘be in studio’ every MWF afternoons as well as spend a significant amount of out-of-class time (including weekends) on studio projects. While in studio, each will be expected to work independently or, if appropriate, with classmates on the researching of topics, the discussion of ideas, and the exploration of design questions and answers.
sy l labus: foundation studio
c.
an
na
lisa
mil
ler
academic + student work
Poet
ics:
is t
he b
eaut
iful,
the
intim
ate,
the
del
ight
ful,
the
crea
tive,
the
uniq
ue, t
he s
im-
ple,
the
intr
icat
e, t
he r
hym
e,
the
rhyt
hm t
he r
easo
n of
an
obje
ct.
Inte
rven
tion
: is
a co
nsci
ous
deci
sion
to
chan
ge s
omet
hing
abo
ut a
pla
ce a
nd m
ake
it be
tter
tha
n it
cur-
rent
ly is
. A
s la
ndsc
ape
arch
itect
s w
e re
ad a
nd w
rite,
rew
rite
or e
rase
and
cha
nge,
com
pose
and
impr
ovis
e,
high
light
or d
ownp
lay
cert
ain
feat
ures
on
a si
te.
We
are
trus
ted
with
am
azin
g po
tent
ial a
s w
e in
fluen
ce th
e on
goin
g hi
stor
y of
a s
ite.
Be a
war
e of
the
cultu
ral,
hist
oric
al a
nd e
colo
gica
l ele
men
ts a
nd th
e ro
le th
ey p
lay
with
in th
e en
tire
syst
em.
Topo
grap
hy: t
opo-
, “pl
ace”
, and
gra
phia
, “w
ritin
g”.
NO
T to
be
conf
used
with
typ
ogra
phy
and
ofte
n it
is
sim
ply
refe
rred
to
as ‘t
opo’
. It
is a
stu
dy o
f th
e ea
rth’
s su
rfac
e in
var
ying
con
tour
inte
rval
s of
one
, tw
o,
five,
ten,
or o
ne h
undr
ed fe
et.
Sea
leve
l is
alw
ays
zero
on
a to
pogr
aphy
map
and
a h
igh
poin
t is
alw
ays
the
high
est n
umbe
red
cont
our i
n a
part
icul
ar a
rea.
The
land
scap
e ar
chite
ct s
hall
alw
ays
incl
ude
topo
grap
hy o
n th
eir p
lans
and
use
it to
info
rm a
nd d
raw
n se
ctio
ns. T
hrou
gh th
e m
anip
ulat
ion
of th
e to
pogr
aphy
land
scap
e ar
chite
ct’s
cha
nge,
sha
pe, a
nd r
econ
stru
ct t
heir
wor
ld. E
xist
ing
topo
grap
hy is
dra
wn
with
das
hed
lines
. Pr
opos
ed to
pogr
aphy
is d
raw
n in
sol
id li
nes.
Top
ogra
phy
can
be fo
und
on U
SGS
map
s an
d in
GIS
.
Sect
ion:
is
a cu
t th
ough
a
part
of
a pl
an t
hat
show
s, in
th
e ve
rtic
al s
cale
, w
hat
the
spac
e w
ould
be
like.
It
tel
ls
a st
ory
abou
t th
e sp
atia
l or-
gani
zatio
n, t
he s
cale
of
the
land
scap
e el
emen
ts t
o th
e hu
man
bod
y an
d ho
w t
he
topo
grap
hy i
s us
ed o
n th
e si
te.
The
lan
dsca
pe a
rchi
-te
ct s
houl
d de
sign
in s
ectio
n (a
nd p
lan)
and
mak
e cr
itica
l de
cisi
ons
base
d on
the
hu-
man
and
ver
tical
sca
le o
f the
ob
ject
s.
Sket
chbo
ok:
is a
por
tabl
e co
llect
ion
of
draw
ings
, wor
ds, p
lans
, sec
tions
, per
spec
-tiv
e, d
iagr
ams,
ins
pira
tions
and
the
fre
e ex
plor
atio
n an
d ev
olut
ion
of y
our
idea
s.
It in
clud
es d
etai
ls a
bout
wha
t yo
u se
e an
d ho
w y
ou i
nter
pret
the
wor
ld.
It
hous
es
the
aspe
cts
of d
esig
n th
at m
ost
fasc
inat
e yo
u an
d th
ose
that
mos
t ch
alle
nge
you.
It
will
be
a re
cord
of
your
tho
ught
s in
the
no
w, t
he e
xact
pla
ce y
ou a
re- t
his
mom
ent-
w
ithin
you
r de
velo
pmen
t as
a d
esig
ner.
It
is a
foot
prin
t for
whe
re y
ou h
ave
been
and
cl
ues
to w
here
you
are
goi
ng.
Natural/nature: is a common word but one you must ALWAYS know in which context it is used. Its meaning changes per profession, per culture and per time period.
Diagrams: are non-written notes that explain important spatial, behavioral and environmental characteristics about a place. They provide insight and understanding to the designer and serve as reminders of what phe-nomena occur on the site.
S K E T C H B O O K You are required to keep a sketchbook/journal throughout the semester. Have it with you always. This sketchbook/journal will serve as a design journal in which field notes, thoughts and observations about your surrounding environment, designed and natural landscapes, built work (both good and bad), precedents, analytical sketches, diagrams, design inspirations, etc will be recorded. It will provide a chronological record of your design and thought process, as well as a place to refer back to for ideas. There will be an open review of the sketchbooks throughout the semester and a final review at the end.
R E Q U I R E M E N T S Studio participation, lecture attendance, completion of assigned projects, project presentations, sketchbook, assigned field trips, and WAAC competitions are required. The course schedule or project requirements may change during the course of the semester. Students are responsible for any changes announced during the regularly scheduled class time or at the Monday weekly meeting.
A S S E S S M E N TIndividual projects will not be graded throughout the semester. Rather, final grades will be decided based on your growth and development throughout the semester, the process you engage in, the ability to think critically, to seek out creative exploration and the depth of your inquiry and presentation skills.
M A T E R I A L S A recommended materials list is attached.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y Readings with citations and bibliographies will be handed out as they pertain to the projects.
S Y L L A B U SWe will complete three modules throughout the semester. Each module builds upon the previous module, in a progression of scale, skills, understanding, inquiry, materials, and representation. The first module will explore the notion of measurement and scale and how the human body is intricately involved in this process, and has served as a standardized unit throughout history. The investigation will integrate one of the four elements, fire, air, water or earth and investigate its physical qualities, poetics and purpose and its interaction with the human body and the built environment. The design will require an intervention on the site, and discover how a permanent object can change due to a force acting upon it. The second module will introduce topography, how geological features influence the organization and layout of cities and contribute to the culture and identity of a place. Through an analysis and section of King Street the student will discover how the landscape serves as landmarks, the character and functions change and progress and the importance of civic space. The third module will explore the design process through the four steps of landing, finding, grounding and founding. The project will explore the notion of landscape as palimpsest, a collection of cultural, historical and ecological clues intrinsic to the site and from which the landscape architect finds inspiration.
Palim
pses
t:
is a
met
apho
r us
ed i
n la
ndsc
ape
arch
itec-
ture
to
impl
y a
serie
s of
lay-
ers.
A p
alim
pses
t was
a s
tone
ta
blet
en
grav
ed
with
te
xt
in
anci
ent
times
. In
or
der
to r
e-us
e it,
the
sur
face
was
gr
ound
dow
n, b
ut t
his
left
tr
aces
of
the
orig
inal
tex
t.
In t
ime,
the
sur
face
wou
ld
be a
com
pila
tion
of t
he p
ast
engr
avin
gs
laye
red
on
top
of o
ne a
noth
er, w
ith t
he t
op
one
mos
t ev
iden
t. I
t is
use
d in
la
ndsc
ape
arch
itect
ure
to
desc
ribe
the
equi
vale
nt
laye
ring
proc
ess
thro
ugh
whi
ch
com
plex
la
ndsc
apes
ar
e fo
rmed
ove
r tim
e, w
ith
new
lay
ers
bein
g ad
ded
in
to o
ld o
nes,
for
min
g a
com
-po
site
tha
t be
ars
the
impr
int
of m
any
prev
ious
laye
rs a
nd
addi
tions
.
V I R G I N I A T E C HCOLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE
AND URBAN STUDIES
School of Architecture + Design
Program of Landscape Architecture
LAR 4705:: 96485
fall 2010:: mwf 1:30-5:30pm
Instructor:: Annalisa Miller [email protected]
FOU
ND
ATI
ON
STU
DIO
sy l labus: foundation studio
Poetics: is the beautiful, the intim
ate, the delightful, the creative, the unique, the sim
-ple, the intricate, the rhym
e, the rhythm
the reason of an object.
Intervention: is a conscious decision to change something about a place and m
ake it better than it cur-rently is. A
s landscape architects we read and w
rite, rewrite or erase and change, com
pose and improvise,
highlight or downplay certain features on a site. W
e are trusted with am
azing potential as we influence the
ongoing history of a site. Be aware of the cultural, historical and ecological elem
ents and the role they play w
ithin the entire system.
Topography: topo-, “place”, and graphia, “writing”. N
OT to be confused w
ith typography and often it is sim
ply referred to as ‘topo’. It is a study of the earth’s surface in varying contour intervals of one, two,
five, ten, or one hundred feet. Sea level is always zero on a topography m
ap and a high point is always the
highest numbered contour in a particular area. The landscape architect shall alw
ays include topography on their plans and use it to inform
and drawn sections. Through the m
anipulation of the topography landscape architect’s change, shape, and reconstruct their w
orld. Existing topography is drawn w
ith dashed lines. Proposed topography is draw
n in solid lines. Topography can be found on USG
S maps and in G
IS.
Section: is a cut though a part of a plan that show
s, in the vertical scale, w
hat the space w
ould be like. It tells a story about the spatial or-ganization, the scale of the landscape elem
ents to the hum
an body and how the
topography is used on the site. The landscape archi-tect should design in section (and plan) and m
ake critical decisions based on the hu-m
an and vertical scale of the objects.
Sketchbook: is a portable collection of draw
ings, words, plans, sections, perspec-
tive, diagrams, inspirations and the free
exploration and evolution of your ideas. It includes details about w
hat you see and how
you interpret the world. It houses
the aspects of design that most fascinate
you and those that most challenge you.
It will be a record of your thoughts in the
now, the exact place you are- this m
oment-
within your developm
ent as a designer. It is a footprint for w
here you have been and clues to w
here you are going.
Natural/nature: is a common word but one you must ALWAYS know in which context it is used. Its meaning changes per profession, per culture and per time period.
Diagrams: are non-written notes that explain important spatial, behavioral and environmental characteristics about a place. They provide insight and understanding to the designer and serve as reminders of what phe-nomena occur on the site.
S K E T C H B O O K You are required to keep a sketchbook/journal throughout the semester. Have it with you always. This sketchbook/journal will serve as a design journal in which field notes, thoughts and observations about your surrounding environment, designed and natural landscapes, built work (both good and bad), precedents, analytical sketches, diagrams, design inspirations, etc will be recorded. It will provide a chronological record of your design and thought process, as well as a place to refer back to for ideas. There will be an open review of the sketchbooks throughout the semester and a final review at the end.
R E Q U I R E M E N T S Studio participation, lecture attendance, completion of assigned projects, project presentations, sketchbook, assigned field trips, and WAAC competitions are required. The course schedule or project requirements may change during the course of the semester. Students are responsible for any changes announced during the regularly scheduled class time or at the Monday weekly meeting.
A S S E S S M E N TIndividual projects will not be graded throughout the semester. Rather, final grades will be decided based on your growth and development throughout the semester, the process you engage in, the ability to think critically, to seek out creative exploration and the depth of your inquiry and presentation skills.
M A T E R I A L S A recommended materials list is attached.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y Readings with citations and bibliographies will be handed out as they pertain to the projects.
S Y L L A B U SWe will complete three modules throughout the semester. Each module builds upon the previous module, in a progression of scale, skills, understanding, inquiry, materials, and representation. The first module will explore the notion of measurement and scale and how the human body is intricately involved in this process, and has served as a standardized unit throughout history. The investigation will integrate one of the four elements, fire, air, water or earth and investigate its physical qualities, poetics and purpose and its interaction with the human body and the built environment. The design will require an intervention on the site, and discover how a permanent object can change due to a force acting upon it. The second module will introduce topography, how geological features influence the organization and layout of cities and contribute to the culture and identity of a place. Through an analysis and section of King Street the student will discover how the landscape serves as landmarks, the character and functions change and progress and the importance of civic space. The third module will explore the design process through the four steps of landing, finding, grounding and founding. The project will explore the notion of landscape as palimpsest, a collection of cultural, historical and ecological clues intrinsic to the site and from which the landscape architect finds inspiration.
Palimpsest: is a m
etaphor used in landscape architec-ture to im
ply a series of lay-ers. A
palimpsest w
as a stone tablet
engraved w
ith text
in ancient
times.
In order
to re-use it, the surface was
ground down, but this left
traces of the original text. In tim
e, the surface would
be a compilation of the past
engravings layered
on top
of one another, with the top
one most evident. It is used
in landscape
architecture to
describe the
equivalent layering
process through
which
complex
landscapes are form
ed over time, w
ith new
layers being added in to old ones, form
ing a com-
posite that bears the imprint
of many previous layers and
additions.
V I R G I N I A T E C HCOLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE
AND URBAN STUDIES
School of Architecture + Design
Program of Landscape Architecture
LAR 4705:: 96485
fall 2010:: mwf 1:30-5:30pm
Instructor:: Annalisa Miller [email protected]
FOU
ND
ATIO
N S
TUD
IO
c.
an
na
lisa
mil
ler
academic + student work
POINT 1.WAAC plan
M E A S U R E A N D P R O P O R T I O N
“Man is the measure of all things.” Protagoras (sic)
The human desire to quantify and measure the world has existed since the beginning of civilization. Some of our earliest tools were used for measurement. The ancients created calendars based on the lunar cycles and the movement of the sun and stars. The pace of one man’s stride was standardized into a meter, the clay brick fits the hand that lays it, and the width of a thumb that later became the inch are all examples of how the human body was used for measurement. The Spanish word for thumb is “pulgar” and the word for inch is “pulgada” and within the names of the various units exists a rich history. During the Italian Renaissance, Leon Battista Alberti wrote in his architectural treatise On the Art of Building in Ten Books how the braccio, the unit of measurement that was based on the length of the (mayor’s) forearm, was used for construction. However each Italian city-state’s braccio was a different length.1 Over time units of measure have been standardized to facilitate in communication and the exchange of goods.
The human body was also the model for beautiful proportions. Within it proportions between the length of one body part to its whole was translated into artwork and buildings among other things. Vitruvius, the Roman Architect who wrote the first surviving architectural treatise The Ten Books on Architecture wrote, “Since nature has designed the human body so that its members are duly proportioned to the frame as a whole, it appears that the ancients had good reason for their rule, that in perfect buildings the different members must be in exact symmetrical relations to the whole general scheme,”.2 Nature offers objects that demonstrate perfect proportions and man should imitate them in order to achieve beauty. Within music, architecture, geometry and art one can find proportions that when combined correctly capture the mind and arouse the soul.
Today our world is full of standardizations: the time, the currency, distances, and building materials, etc. Customization comes at an additional cost. Landscape architects use their own set of standards, and negotiate the conversion between the engineering scale of feet to the architectural scale of inches. When drawing and translating our ideas to a plan or section of an actual scale we most often represent them using the unit of feet, the engineering scale. When drawing details, the intricacies of a design, we often draw them in the unit of inches, the architectural scale, as they require a more magnified scale. It is through our drawings of plan, section, elevation, perspective and axonometric that we communicate our concept, design intent and construction methods.
1Alberti, L. B. (1988). On the Art of Building in Ten Books. In J. Rykwert (Ed.). Cambridge: The MIT Press.
2Vitruvius.(1960).TheTenBooksofArchitecture.InM.H.Morgan(Ed.).NewYork:Dover.
point: man’s measure
c.
an
na
lisa
mil
ler
academic + student work
P U R P O S E
The purpose of this activity is to discover through bodily measures the notion of proportion and to become aware of the spaces one inhabits. The practical task is to learn how one measures, documents and draws a site plan.
A C T I V I T Y
PART 1: collect data
One important measurement that you will discover today and use for the rest of your life is the length of your pace. We will walk off a distance of 100’ and you will count the number of paces it takes you to walk the distance. You will then divide the distance by the number of paces and get the actual length of your pace. You will also measure the length of your outstretched hand from pinky to thumb and use that dimension for smaller details. Once determined, the next task is to measure the entire WAAC building(1001 Prince) up to the face of curb on Henry and Prince, and the brick wall on the backside of the building and the 1021 building. All distances should be measured to the precision of a quarter of a pace and documented according to the number of paces. It will most likely require you to revisit the site to verify the distances and check alignments.
PART 2: translate to a plan drawing
The measurements that you found based on your pace should be translated into a plan drawn with graphite pencil on trace. The size of your trace will be determined by how large your plan is. (DO not tape two pieces of trace together. Use a roll that will accommodate your entire plan.) The established scale for everyone is 1” = 4 paces. Your drawing will be unique to your pace and not look like your classmates’. The drawing should be legible, drawn with appropriate lineweights and hierarchy, and as close a representation of WAAC that you can achieve. Doors, windows, walls, grade changes, material change, north arrow and scale should be indicated on the drawing.
Hint: You will want to draw and work out the plan first, and then draw your final plan on a clean piece of trace. To reduce the amount of graphite smudging by the palm of your hand, draw from top to bottom and left to right (If you are righthanded!!). Use your Mayline to draw the horizontal lines and all the ones parallel to them and them use your triangle edge to draw the vertical lines.
PART 3: present
A pin-up of your plan will take place in studio time. Be prepared to discuss your plan, your method of collecting data and the translation process.
O B J E C T I V E S
• Document a site and its measurements • Distinguish between engineering and architectural scales • Draw a plan using correct lineweights and hierarchy • Observe and recognize nice proportions
D U E D A T E S
• September 1, 2010: Assignment given • September 3, 2010: 30 minute drafting lesson at the
beginning of class in the upstairs classroom in 1021 • September 8, 2010: Pin-Up
• NO CLASSES Labor Day: WAAC observed holiday
LeCorbusier’sModular
point: man’s measure
c.
an
na
lisa
mil
ler
academic + student work
Cosmology is a way to explain how one believes the world to be ordered. A few well-known cosmologies are the Ptolemaic model, where the universe rotates around the Earth, and the Copernican model, in which the Sun is the center of the universe and planets rotate around it. The Greek philosopher Empedocles established a cosmology based around the classical elements of fire, air, water and earth. Each element refers to a particular state of matter, such as a liquid, solid or gas. Cultures around the world have similar cosmologies based on three, four, or five elements, and often the fifth element is of non-matter. Hippocrates created a four-element metaphysical cosmol-ogy matching each element with one of the four bodily fluids also known as the four humours. Aristotle’s paired up each element with a temperament and other cosmologies have paired up one of the four elements to one of the four seasons or the four ‘ages of man’. In Ten Books on Architecture, Book One, Chapter Four Vitruvius wrote, “One form of mixture is proper to birds, another to fishes, and a far different form to land animals. Winged creatures have less earthy, less moisture, heat in moderation, air in large amount. Be-ing made up, therefore, of the lighter elements, they can more read-ily soar away up into the air.” He further provides explanations of fish and land animals and like the bird, each species has its particular composition and maintaining that balance is critical to its health and survival. Like Vitruvius, many other architectural treatises explore similar explanations, and through architecture and landscape archi-tecture we can better understand the structure, order and relation-ships within our world.
C O S M O L O G Y :: 4 E L E M E N T S
cosmology = cosmos + logos = order + plan
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POINT 1: collect and investigateJohn Evelyn, a member of the Royal Society during the 1600s, wrote Elysium Britannicum, a landscape architectural treatise that dis-cussed topics pertinent to the profession of landscape architecture. Similar to many other architectural treatises he began by introduc-ing the four elements that informed his cosmological construction and their interaction with the landscape. The order in which he intro-duces them is deliberate and insightful into the forces that influence his way of thinking. You will be given one of the four elements, fire, air, water or earth and use John Evelyn’s writings as a springboard into a deeper investigation and more intimate understanding of your element. Your investigation should include, but is not limited to, con-temporary and classic literature, poems, music, artwork, mythology, personal experience, cross-cultural perspectives and anecdotal ob-servations that contribute to a rich, well-informed and insightful per-spective on the given element.
POINT 2: 3-d representation Make four hand-held representations of your element. Each repre-sentation should provide a unique way in which you have come to know the element. You should provide text, poetic or technical, an-cient or contemporary, borrowed or personal, that emphasizes your insight into each representation. All representations should be in beautiful proportion.
Additional requirementsYou MUST have one model of cardboard, one of metal, one of rice-based materials, and one which uses materials inspired by your par-ticular element. One MUST be solid. POINT 3: present to classA well-thought through display of your four representations and text will be presented to your classmates. Be prepared to discuss your in-vestigation process, your findings and the way in which translated your findings into your physical representations.
Smith, Virginia. (2007). Clean: a history of personal hygiene and purity. New York: Ox-ford University Press. page 93Smith, Virginia. (2007). Clean: a history of personal hygiene and purity. New York: Ox-ford University Press. page 93Vitruvius. (1960). The Ten Books of Architecture. In M. H. Morgan (Ed.). New York: Dover. page 19.
the four elements