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  1. 1. PostgreSQL 8.4.22 Documentation The PostgreSQL Global Development Group
  2. 2. PostgreSQL 8.4.22 Documentation by The PostgreSQL Global Development Group Copyright 1996-2014 The PostgreSQL Global Development Group Legal Notice PostgreSQL is Copyright 1996-2014 by the PostgreSQL Global Development Group and is distributed under the terms of the license of the University of California below. Postgres95 is Copyright 1994-5 by the Regents of the University of California. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose, without fee, and without a written agreement is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice and this paragraph and the following two paragraphs appear in all copies. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BE LIABLE TO ANY PARTY FOR DIRECT, INDIRECT, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, INCLUDING LOST PROFITS, ARISING OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE AND ITS DOCUMENTATION, EVEN IF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIMS ANY WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE SOFTWARE PRO- VIDED HEREUNDER IS ON AN AS-IS BASIS, AND THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA HAS NO OBLIGATIONS TO PROVIDE MAINTENANCE, SUPPORT, UPDATES, ENHANCEMENTS, OR MODIFICATIONS.
  3. 3. Table of Contents Preface ...........................................................................................................................................xlviii 1. What is PostgreSQL?........................................................................................................xlviii 2. A Brief History of PostgreSQL...........................................................................................xlix 2.1. The Berkeley POSTGRES Project .........................................................................xlix 2.2. Postgres95...............................................................................................................xlix 2.3. PostgreSQL..................................................................................................................l 3. Conventions..............................................................................................................................l 4. Further Information.................................................................................................................li 5. Bug Reporting Guidelines.......................................................................................................li 5.1. Identifying Bugs........................................................................................................lii 5.2. What to report............................................................................................................lii 5.3. Where to report bugs ................................................................................................liv I. Tutorial.............................................................................................................................................1 1. Getting Started ........................................................................................................................1 1.1. Installation..................................................................................................................1 1.2. Architectural Fundamentals........................................................................................1 1.3. Creating a Database....................................................................................................2 1.4. Accessing a Database .................................................................................................3 2. The SQL Language .................................................................................................................5 2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................5 2.2. Concepts .....................................................................................................................5 2.3. Creating a New Table .................................................................................................5 2.4. Populating a Table With Rows ...................................................................................6 2.5. Querying a Table ........................................................................................................7 2.6. Joins Between Tables..................................................................................................9 2.7. Aggregate Functions.................................................................................................11 2.8. Updates.....................................................................................................................12 2.9. Deletions...................................................................................................................13 3. Advanced Features................................................................................................................14 3.1. Introduction ..............................................................................................................14 3.2. Views ........................................................................................................................14 3.3. Foreign Keys.............................................................................................................14 3.4. Transactions..............................................................................................................15 3.5. Window Functions....................................................................................................17 3.6. Inheritance ................................................................................................................20 3.7. Conclusion................................................................................................................21 II. The SQL Language......................................................................................................................22 4. SQL Syntax...........................................................................................................................24 4.1. Lexical Structure.......................................................................................................24 4.1.1. Identiers and Key Words............................................................................24 4.1.2. Constants......................................................................................................26 4.1.2.1. String Constants ..............................................................................26 4.1.2.2. String Constants with C-Style Escapes ...........................................26 4.1.2.3. String Constants with Unicode Escapes..........................................27 4.1.2.4. Dollar-Quoted String Constants......................................................28 4.1.2.5. Bit-String Constants ........................................................................29 4.1.2.6. Numeric Constants ..........................................................................29 4.1.2.7. Constants of Other Types ................................................................30 iii
  4. 4. 4.1.3. Operators......................................................................................................30 4.1.4. Special Characters........................................................................................31 4.1.5. Comments ....................................................................................................31 4.1.6. Lexical Precedence ......................................................................................32 4.2. Value Expressions.....................................................................................................33 4.2.1. Column References......................................................................................34 4.2.2. Positional Parameters...................................................................................34 4.2.3. Subscripts.....................................................................................................34 4.2.4. Field Selection .............................................................................................35 4.2.5. Operator Invocations....................................................................................35 4.2.6. Function Calls..............................................................................................36 4.2.7. Aggregate Expressions.................................................................................36 4.2.8. Window Function Calls................................................................................37 4.2.9. Type Casts....................................................................................................38 4.2.10. Scalar Subqueries.......................................................................................39 4.2.11. Array Constructors.....................................................................................39 4.2.12. Row Constructors.......................................................................................41 4.2.13. Expression Evaluation Rules .....................................................................42 5. Data Denition......................................................................................................................44 5.1. Table Basics..............................................................................................................44 5.2. Default Values ..........................................................................................................45 5.3. Constraints................................................................................................................46 5.3.1. Check Constraints........................................................................................46 5.3.2. Not-Null Constraints....................................................................................48 5.3.3. Unique Constraints.......................................................................................49 5.3.4. Primary Keys................................................................................................49 5.3.5. Foreign Keys................................................................................................50 5.4. System Columns.......................................................................................................53 5.5. Modifying Tables......................................................................................................54 5.5.1. Adding a Column.........................................................................................54 5.5.2. Removing a Column ....................................................................................55 5.5.3. Adding a Constraint.....................................................................................55 5.5.4. Removing a Constraint ................................................................................56 5.5.5. Changing a Columns Default Value............................................................56 5.5.6. Changing a Columns Data Type .................................................................56 5.5.7. Renaming a Column ....................................................................................57 5.5.8. Renaming a Table ........................................................................................57 5.6. Privileges ..................................................................................................................57 5.7. Schemas....................................................................................................................58 5.7.1. Creating a Schema .......................................................................................58 5.7.2. The Public Schema ......................................................................................59 5.7.3. The Schema Search Path..............................................................................59 5.7.4. Schemas and Privileges................................................................................61 5.7.5. The System Catalog Schema .......................................................................61 5.7.6. Usage Patterns..............................................................................................61 5.7.7. Portability.....................................................................................................62 5.8. Inheritance ................................................................................................................62 5.8.1. Caveats.........................................................................................................65 5.9. Partitioning ...............................................................................................................65 5.9.1. Overview......................................................................................................65 5.9.2. Implementing Partitioning ...........................................................................66 5.9.3. Managing Partitions.....................................................................................69 iv
  5. 5. 5.9.4. Partitioning and Constraint Exclusion .........................................................70 5.9.5. Alternative Partitioning Methods.................................................................71 5.9.6. Caveats.........................................................................................................72 5.10. Other Database Objects ..........................................................................................73 5.11. Dependency Tracking.............................................................................................73 6. Data Manipulation.................................................................................................................75 6.1. Inserting Data ...........................................................................................................75 6.2. Updating Data...........................................................................................................76 6.3. Deleting Data............................................................................................................77 7. Queries ..................................................................................................................................78 7.1. Overview ..................................................................................................................78 7.2. Table Expressions.....................................................................................................78 7.2.1. The FROM Clause..........................................................................................79 7.2.1.1. Joined Tables ...................................................................................79 7.2.1.2. Table and Column Aliases...............................................................82 7.2.1.3. Subqueries .......................................................................................83 7.2.1.4. Table Functions ...............................................................................84 7.2.2. The WHERE Clause........................................................................................85 7.2.3. The GROUP BY and HAVING Clauses...........................................................86 7.2.4. Window Function Processing ......................................................................88 7.3. Select Lists................................................................................................................88 7.3.1. Select-List Items ..........................................................................................88 7.3.2. Column Labels.............................................................................................89 7.3.3. DISTINCT ....................................................................................................89 7.4. Combining Queries...................................................................................................90 7.5. Sorting Rows ............................................................................................................91 7.6. LIMIT and OFFSET...................................................................................................92 7.7. VALUES Lists ............................................................................................................92 7.8. WITH Queries (Common Table Expressions) ...........................................................93 8. Data Types.............................................................................................................................97 8.1. Numeric Types..........................................................................................................98 8.1.1. Integer Types................................................................................................99 8.1.2. Arbitrary Precision Numbers.......................................................................99 8.1.3. Floating-Point Types..................................................................................100 8.1.4. Serial Types................................................................................................102 8.2. Monetary Types......................................................................................................102 8.3. Character Types......................................................................................................103 8.4. Binary Data Types ..................................................................................................105 8.5. Date/Time Types.....................................................................................................107 8.5.1. Date/Time Input.........................................................................................108 8.5.1.1. Dates..............................................................................................109 8.5.1.2. Times.............................................................................................109 8.5.1.3. Time Stamps..................................................................................110 8.5.1.4. Special Values ...............................................................................111 8.5.2. Date/Time Output ......................................................................................112 8.5.3. Time Zones ................................................................................................112 8.5.4. Interval Input..............................................................................................114 8.5.5. Interval Output...........................................................................................116 8.5.6. Internals......................................................................................................116 8.6. Boolean Type..........................................................................................................117 8.7. Enumerated Types ..................................................................................................118 8.7.1. Declaration of Enumerated Types..............................................................118 v
  6. 6. 8.7.2. Ordering.....................................................................................................118 8.7.3. Type Safety ................................................................................................119 8.7.4. Implementation Details..............................................................................119 8.8. Geometric Types.....................................................................................................120 8.8.1. Points .........................................................................................................120 8.8.2. Line Segments............................................................................................120 8.8.3. Boxes..........................................................................................................120 8.8.4. Paths...........................................................................................................121 8.8.5. Polygons.....................................................................................................121 8.8.6. Circles ........................................................................................................121 8.9. Network Address Types..........................................................................................122 8.9.1. inet...........................................................................................................122 8.9.2. cidr...........................................................................................................122 8.9.3. inet vs. cidr............................................................................................123 8.9.4. macaddr ....................................................................................................123 8.10. Bit String Types....................................................................................................124 8.11. Text Search Types.................................................................................................124 8.11.1. tsvector ................................................................................................125 8.11.2. tsquery ..................................................................................................126 8.12. UUID Type ...........................................................................................................127 8.13. XML Type ............................................................................................................127 8.13.1. Creating XML Values ..............................................................................128 8.13.2. Encoding Handling ..................................................................................128 8.13.3. Accessing XML Values............................................................................129 8.14. Arrays ...................................................................................................................129 8.14.1. Declaration of Array Types......................................................................130 8.14.2. Array Value Input.....................................................................................130 8.14.3. Accessing Arrays .....................................................................................132 8.14.4. Modifying Arrays.....................................................................................133 8.14.5. Searching in Arrays..................................................................................136 8.14.6. Array Input and Output Syntax................................................................136 8.15. Composite Types ..................................................................................................138 8.15.1. Declaration of Composite Types..............................................................138 8.15.2. Composite Value Input.............................................................................139 8.15.3. Accessing Composite Types ....................................................................140 8.15.4. Modifying Composite Types....................................................................140 8.15.5. Composite Type Input and Output Syntax...............................................141 8.16. Object Identier Types .........................................................................................141 8.17. Pseudo-Types........................................................................................................143 9. Functions and Operators .....................................................................................................145 9.1. Logical Operators ...................................................................................................145 9.2. Comparison Operators............................................................................................145 9.3. Mathematical Functions and Operators..................................................................147 9.4. String Functions and Operators..............................................................................150 9.5. Binary String Functions and Operators ..................................................................162 9.6. Bit String Functions and Operators........................................................................164 9.7. Pattern Matching ....................................................................................................165 9.7.1. LIKE...........................................................................................................165 9.7.2. SIMILAR TO Regular Expressions............................................................166 9.7.3. POSIX Regular Expressions......................................................................167 9.7.3.1. Regular Expression Details ...........................................................170 9.7.3.2. Bracket Expressions ......................................................................172 vi
  7. 7. 9.7.3.3. Regular Expression Escapes..........................................................173 9.7.3.4. Regular Expression Metasyntax....................................................176 9.7.3.5. Regular Expression Matching Rules.............................................177 9.7.3.6. Limits and Compatibility ..............................................................178 9.7.3.7. Basic Regular Expressions............................................................179 9.8. Data Type Formatting Functions ............................................................................179 9.9. Date/Time Functions and Operators.......................................................................185 9.9.1. EXTRACT, date_part...............................................................................189 9.9.2. date_trunc..............................................................................................193 9.9.3. AT TIME ZONE..........................................................................................194 9.9.4. Current Date/Time .....................................................................................194 9.9.5. Delaying Execution....................................................................................196 9.10. Enum Support Functions......................................................................................196 9.11. Geometric Functions and Operators.....................................................................197 9.12. Network Address Functions and Operators..........................................................201 9.13. Text Search Functions and Operators...................................................................203 9.14. XML Functions ....................................................................................................208 9.14.1. Producing XML Content..........................................................................208 9.14.1.1. xmlcomment ...............................................................................208 9.14.1.2. xmlconcat .................................................................................208 9.14.1.3. xmlelement ...............................................................................209 9.14.1.4. xmlforest .................................................................................210 9.14.1.5. xmlpi ..........................................................................................211 9.14.1.6. xmlroot......................................................................................211 9.14.1.7. xmlagg........................................................................................212 9.14.1.8. XML Predicates...........................................................................212 9.14.2. Processing XML ......................................................................................212 9.14.3. Mapping Tables to XML..........................................................................213 9.15. Sequence Manipulation Functions .......................................................................216 9.16. Conditional Expressions.......................................................................................218 9.16.1. CASE.........................................................................................................218 9.16.2. COALESCE ................................................................................................220 9.16.3. NULLIF.....................................................................................................220 9.16.4. GREATEST and LEAST..............................................................................221 9.17. Array Functions and Operators ............................................................................221 9.18. Aggregate Functions.............................................................................................223 9.19. Window Functions................................................................................................226 9.20. Subquery Expressions ..........................................................................................228 9.20.1. EXISTS.....................................................................................................228 9.20.2. IN .............................................................................................................229 9.20.3. NOT IN.....................................................................................................229 9.20.4. ANY/SOME .................................................................................................230 9.20.5. ALL...........................................................................................................230 9.20.6. Row-wise Comparison.............................................................................231 9.21. Row and Array Comparisons ...............................................................................231 9.21.1. IN .............................................................................................................231 9.21.2. NOT IN.....................................................................................................232 9.21.3. ANY/SOME (array) .....................................................................................232 9.21.4. ALL (array) ...............................................................................................233 9.21.5. Row-wise Comparison.............................................................................233 9.22. Set Returning Functions .......................................................................................234 9.23. System Information Functions .............................................................................236 vii
  8. 8. 9.24. System Administration Functions ........................................................................245 9.25. Trigger Functions .................................................................................................251 10. Type Conversion................................................................................................................253 10.1. Overview ..............................................................................................................253 10.2. Operators ..............................................................................................................254 10.3. Functions ..............................................................................................................257 10.4. Value Storage........................................................................................................259 10.5. UNION, CASE, and Related Constructs..................................................................260 11. Indexes ..............................................................................................................................263 11.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................263 11.2. Index Types...........................................................................................................264 11.3. Multicolumn Indexes............................................................................................265 11.4. Indexes and ORDER BY.........................................................................................266 11.5. Combining Multiple Indexes................................................................................267 11.6. Unique Indexes.....................................................................................................268 11.7. Indexes on Expressions ........................................................................................268 11.8. Partial Indexes ......................................................................................................269 11.9. Operator Classes and Operator Families ..............................................................271 11.10. Examining Index Usage......................................................................................272 12. Full Text Search ................................................................................................................274 12.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................274 12.1.1. What Is a Document?...............................................................................275 12.1.2. Basic Text Matching ................................................................................275 12.1.3. Congurations..........................................................................................276 12.2. Tables and Indexes................................................................................................277 12.2.1. Searching a Table.....................................................................................277 12.2.2. Creating Indexes ......................................................................................278 12.3. Controlling Text Search........................................................................................279 12.3.1. Parsing Documents ..................................................................................279 12.3.2. Parsing Queries ........................................................................................280 12.3.3. Ranking Search Results ...........................................................................282 12.3.4. Highlighting Results ................................................................................284 12.4. Additional Features ..............................................................................................285 12.4.1. Manipulating Documents.........................................................................285 12.4.2. Manipulating Queries...............................................................................286 12.4.2.1. Query Rewriting..........................................................................287 12.4.3. Triggers for Automatic Updates ..............................................................288 12.4.4. Gathering Document Statistics ................................................................290 12.5. Parsers...................................................................................................................290 12.6. Dictionaries...........................................................................................................292 12.6.1. Stop Words...............................................................................................293 12.6.2. Simple Dictionary....................................................................................294 12.6.3. Synonym Dictionary ................................................................................295 12.6.4. Thesaurus Dictionary...............................................................................296 12.6.4.1. Thesaurus Conguration .............................................................296 12.6.4.2. Thesaurus Example .....................................................................297 12.6.5. Ispell Dictionary.......................................................................................298 12.6.6. Snowball Dictionary ................................................................................299 12.7. Conguration Example.........................................................................................299 12.8. Testing and Debugging Text Search.....................................................................301 12.8.1. Conguration Testing...............................................................................301 12.8.2. Parser Testing...........................................................................................303 viii
  9. 9. 12.8.3. Dictionary Testing....................................................................................304 12.9. GiST and GIN Index Types..................................................................................305 12.10. psql Support........................................................................................................306 12.11. Limitations..........................................................................................................309 12.12. Migration from Pre-8.3 Text Search...................................................................309 13. Concurrency Control.........................................................................................................311 13.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................311 13.2. Transaction Isolation ............................................................................................311 13.2.1. Read Committed Isolation Level .............................................................312 13.2.2. Serializable Isolation Level......................................................................313 13.2.2.1. Serializable Isolation versus True Serializability........................314 13.3. Explicit Locking...................................................................................................315 13.3.1. Table-Level Locks....................................................................................315 13.3.2. Row-Level Locks.....................................................................................317 13.3.3. Deadlocks.................................................................................................318 13.3.4. Advisory Locks........................................................................................319 13.4. Data Consistency Checks at the Application Level..............................................319 13.5. Locking and Indexes.............................................................................................320 14. Performance Tips ..............................................................................................................322 14.1. Using EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................322 14.2. Statistics Used by the Planner ..............................................................................326 14.3. Controlling the Planner with Explicit JOIN Clauses............................................328 14.4. Populating a Database ..........................................................................................330 14.4.1. Disable Autocommit................................................................................330 14.4.2. Use COPY..................................................................................................330 14.4.3. Remove Indexes.......................................................................................330 14.4.4. Remove Foreign Key Constraints ............................................................331 14.4.5. Increase maintenance_work_mem........................................................331 14.4.6. Increase checkpoint_segments ..........................................................331 14.4.7. Turn off archive_mode .........................................................................331 14.4.8. Run ANALYZE Afterwards........................................................................331 14.4.9. Some Notes About pg_dump...................................................................332 III. Server Administration .............................................................................................................333 15. Installation from Source Code ..........................................................................................335 15.1. Short Version ........................................................................................................335 15.2. Requirements........................................................................................................335 15.3. Getting The Source...............................................................................................337 15.4. Upgrading.............................................................................................................337 15.5. Installation Procedure...........................................................................................338 15.6. Post-Installation Setup..........................................................................................347 15.6.1. Shared Libraries.......................................................................................347 15.6.2. Environment Variables.............................................................................348 15.7. Supported Platforms.............................................................................................349 15.8. Platform-Specic Notes........................................................................................349 15.8.1. AIX ..........................................................................................................350 15.8.1.1. GCC issues ..................................................................................350 15.8.1.2. Unix-domain sockets broken.......................................................350 15.8.1.3. Internet address issues.................................................................351 15.8.1.4. Memory management..................................................................351 References and resources..................................................................352 15.8.2. Cygwin.....................................................................................................352 ix
  10. 10. 15.8.3. HP-UX .....................................................................................................353 15.8.4. IRIX .........................................................................................................354 15.8.5. MinGW/Native Windows ........................................................................355 15.8.6. SCO OpenServer and SCO UnixWare.....................................................355 15.8.6.1. Skunkware...................................................................................355 15.8.6.2. GNU Make ..................................................................................355 15.8.6.3. Readline.......................................................................................355 15.8.6.4. Using the UDK on OpenServer...................................................356 15.8.6.5. Reading the PostgreSQL man pages ...........................................356 15.8.6.6. C99 Issues with the 7.1.1b Feature Supplement .........................356 15.8.6.7. --enable-thread-safety and UnixWare .............................356 15.8.7. Solaris ......................................................................................................356 15.8.7.1. Required tools .............................................................................357 15.8.7.2. Problems with OpenSSL .............................................................357 15.8.7.3. congure complains about a failed test program.........................357 15.8.7.4. 64-bit build sometimes crashes ...................................................357 15.8.7.5. Compiling for optimal performance............................................358 15.8.7.6. Using DTrace for tracing PostgreSQL ........................................358 16. Installation from Source Code on Windows .....................................................................359 16.1. Building with Visual C++ 2005............................................................................359 16.1.1. Requirements ...........................................................................................359 16.1.2. Building ...................................................................................................360 16.1.3. Cleaning and installing ............................................................................361 16.1.4. Running the regression tests ....................................................................361 16.1.5. Building the documentation.....................................................................362 16.2. Building libpq with Visual C++ or Borland C++.................................................362 16.2.1. Generated les .........................................................................................363 17. Server Setup and Operation ..............................................................................................364 17.1. The PostgreSQL User Account ............................................................................364 17.2. Creating a Database Cluster .................................................................................364 17.2.1. Network File Systems..............................................................................365 17.3. Starting the Database Server.................................................................................365 17.3.1. Server Start-up Failures ...........................................................................367 17.3.2. Client Connection Problems ....................................................................367 17.4. Managing Kernel Resources.................................................................................368 17.4.1. Shared Memory and Semaphores ............................................................368 17.4.2. Resource Limits .......................................................................................374 17.4.3. Linux Memory Overcommit....................................................................375 17.5. Shutting Down the Server.....................................................................................375 17.6. Preventing Server Spoong..................................................................................376 17.7. Encryption Options...............................................................................................377 17.8. Secure TCP/IP Connections with SSL .................................................................378 17.8.1. Using client certicates............................................................................378 17.8.2. SSL Server File Usage.............................................................................379 17.8.3. Creating a Self-Signed Certicate ...........................................................379 17.9. Secure TCP/IP Connections with SSH Tunnels...................................................380 18. Server Conguration.........................................................................................................382 18.1. Setting Parameters................................................................................................382 18.2. File Locations.......................................................................................................383 18.3. Connections and Authentication...........................................................................384 18.3.1. Connection Settings .................................................................................384 18.3.2. Security and Authentication.....................................................................386 x
  11. 11. 18.4. Resource Consumption.........................................................................................387 18.4.1. Memory....................................................................................................387 18.4.2. Kernel Resource Usage............................................................................389 18.4.3. Cost-Based Vacuum Delay ......................................................................390 18.4.4. Background Writer...................................................................................391 18.4.5. Asynchronous Behavior...........................................................................391 18.5. Write Ahead Log ..................................................................................................392 18.5.1. Settings.....................................................................................................392 18.5.2. Checkpoints..............................................................................................394 18.5.3. Archiving .................................................................................................395 18.6. Query Planning.....................................................................................................395 18.6.1. Planner Method Conguration.................................................................395 18.6.2. Planner Cost Constants ............................................................................396 18.6.3. Genetic Query Optimizer.........................................................................397 18.6.4. Other Planner Options..............................................................................398 18.7. Error Reporting and Logging ...............................................................................399 18.7.1. Where To Log ..........................................................................................400 18.7.2. When To Log ...........................................................................................402 18.7.3. What To Log ............................................................................................403 18.7.4. Using CSV-Format Log Output ...............................................................406 18.8. Run-Time Statistics ..............................................................................................408 18.8.1. Query and Index Statistics Collector .......................................................408 18.8.2. Statistics Monitoring................................................................................409 18.9. Automatic Vacuuming..........................................................................................409 18.10. Client Connection Defaults ................................................................................410 18.10.1. Statement Behavior................................................................................411 18.10.2. Locale and Formatting ...........................................................................413 18.10.3. Other Defaults........................................................................................415 18.11. Lock Management..............................................................................................416 18.12. Version and Platform Compatibility...................................................................416 18.12.1. Previous PostgreSQL Versions ..............................................................417 18.12.2. Platform and Client Compatibility.........................................................418 18.13. Preset Options.....................................................................................................419 18.14. Customized Options ...........................................................................................420 18.15. Developer Options..............................................................................................421 18.16. Short Options......................................................................................................423 19. Client Authentication ........................................................................................................425 19.1. The pg_hba.conf le.........................................................................................425 19.2. Username maps ....................................................................................................430 19.3. Authentication methods........................................................................................431 19.3.1. Trust authentication..................................................................................431 19.3.2. Password authentication...........................................................................432 19.3.3. GSSAPI authentication............................................................................432 19.3.4. SSPI authentication..................................................................................432 19.3.5. Kerberos authentication ...........................................................................433 19.3.6. Ident-based authentication .......................................................................435 19.3.6.1. Ident Authentication over TCP/IP...............................................435 19.3.6.2. Ident Authentication over Local Sockets ....................................435 19.3.7. LDAP authentication................................................................................435 19.3.8. Certicate authentication .........................................................................436 19.3.9. PAM authentication..................................................................................437 19.4. Authentication problems ......................................................................................437 xi
  12. 12. 20. Database Roles and Privileges ..........................................................................................439 20.1. Database Roles .....................................................................................................439 20.2. Role Attributes......................................................................................................440 20.3. Privileges ..............................................................................................................441 20.4. Role Membership .................................................................................................441 20.5. Functions and Triggers .........................................................................................443 21. Managing Databases .........................................................................................................444 21.1. Overview ..............................................................................................................444 21.2. Creating a Database..............................................................................................444 21.3. Template Databases..............................................................................................445 21.4. Database Conguration ........................................................................................446 21.5. Destroying a Database..........................................................................................447 21.6. Tablespaces...........................................................................................................447 22. Localization.......................................................................................................................449 22.1. Locale Support......................................................................................................449 22.1.1. Overview..................................................................................................449 22.1.2. Behavior...................................................................................................450 22.1.3. Problems ..................................................................................................451 22.2. Character Set Support...........................................................................................451 22.2.1. Supported Character Sets.........................................................................451 22.2.2. Setting the Character Set..........................................................................454 22.2.3. Automatic Character Set Conversion Between Server and Client...........455 22.2.4. Further Reading .......................................................................................457 23. Routine Database Maintenance Tasks...............................................................................458 23.1. Routine Vacuuming ..............................................................................................458 23.1.1. Vacuuming Basics....................................................................................458 23.1.2. Recovering Disk Space............................................................................459 23.1.3. Updating Planner Statistics......................................................................460 23.1.4. Preventing Transaction ID Wraparound Failures.....................................461 23.1.5. The Autovacuum Daemon .......................................................................463 23.2. Routine Reindexing..............................................................................................464 23.3. Log File Maintenance...........................................................................................465 24. Backup and Restore ..........................................................................................................466 24.1. SQL Dump............................................................................................................466 24.1.1. Restoring the dump..................................................................................466 24.1.2. Using pg_dumpall....................................................................................467 24.1.3. Handling large databases .........................................................................468 24.2. File System Level Backup....................................................................................469 24.3. Continuous Archiving and Point-In-Time Recovery (PITR) ...............................470 24.3.1. Setting up WAL archiving........................................................................471 24.3.2. Making a Base Backup ............................................................................473 24.3.3. Recovering using a Continuous Archive Backup ....................................474 24.3.3.1. Recovery Settings........................................................................476 24.3.4. Timelines..................................................................................................477 24.3.5. Tips and Examples...................................................................................478 24.3.5.1. Standalone hot backups...............................................................478 24.3.5.2. Compressed Archive Logs ..........................................................479 24.3.5.3. archive_command scripts.........................................................479 24.3.6. Caveats.....................................................................................................480 24.4. Warm Standby Servers for High Availability.......................................................480 24.4.1. Planning ...................................................................................................481 24.4.2. Implementation ........................................................................................482 xii
  13. 13. 24.4.3. Failover ....................................................................................................483 24.4.4. Record-based Log Shipping.....................................................................483 24.5. Migration Between Releases ................................................................................484 25. High Availability, Load Balancing, and Replication.........................................................486 26. Monitoring Database Activity...........................................................................................490 26.1. Standard Unix Tools.............................................................................................490 26.2. The Statistics Collector.........................................................................................490 26.2.1. Statistics Collection Conguration ..........................................................491 26.2.2. Viewing Collected Statistics ....................................................................491 26.3. Viewing Locks......................................................................................................499 26.4. Dynamic Tracing ..................................................................................................499 26.4.1. Compiling for Dynamic Tracing..............................................................500 26.4.2. Built-in Probes .........................................................................................500 26.4.3. Using Probes............................................................................................508 26.4.4. Dening New Probes ...............................................................................509 27. Monitoring Disk Usage.....................................................................................................511 27.1. Determining Disk Usage ......................................................................................511 27.2. Disk Full Failure...................................................................................................512 28. Reliability and the Write-Ahead Log................................................................................513 28.1. Reliability .............................................................................................................513 28.2. Write-Ahead Logging (WAL) ..............................................................................514 28.3. Asynchronous Commit.........................................................................................514 28.4. WAL Conguration ..............................................................................................516 28.5. WAL Internals ......................................................................................................518 29. Regression Tests................................................................................................................519 29.1. Running the Tests .................................................................................................519 29.2. Test Evaluation .....................................................................................................520 29.2.1. Error message differences........................................................................520 29.2.2. Locale differences....................................................................................521 29.2.3. Date and time differences ........................................................................521 29.2.4. Floating-point differences........................................................................521 29.2.5. Row ordering differences.........................................................................522 29.2.6. Insufcient stack depth ............................................................................522 29.2.7. The random test....................................................................................522 29.3. Variant Comparison Files .....................................................................................522 29.4. Test Coverage Examination..................................................................................523 IV. Client Interfaces .......................................................................................................................525 30. libpq - C Library ...............................................................................................................527 30.1. Database Connection Control Functions..............................................................527 30.2. Connection Status Functions................................................................................534 30.3. Command Execution Functions ...........................................................................538 30.3.1. Main Functions ........................................................................................538 30.3.2. Retrieving Query Result Information ......................................................544 30.3.3. Retrieving Result Information for Other Commands ..............................548 30.3.4. Escaping Strings for Inclusion in SQL Commands.................................549 30.3.5. Escaping Binary Strings for Inclusion in SQL Commands .....................550 30.4. Asynchronous Command Processing...................................................................551 30.5. Cancelling Queries in Progress ............................................................................555 30.6. The Fast-Path Interface.........................................................................................556 30.7. Asynchronous Notication...................................................................................557 30.8. Functions Associated with the COPY Command ..................................................558 xiii
  14. 14. 30.8.1. Functions for Sending COPY Data............................................................559 30.8.2. Functions for Receiving COPY Data.........................................................560 30.8.3. Obsolete Functions for COPY ...................................................................560 30.9. Control Functions.................................................................................................562 30.10. Miscellaneous Functions ....................................................................................563 30.11. Notice Processing ...............................................................................................565 30.12. Event System......................................................................................................567 30.12.1. Event Types............................................................................................567 30.12.2. Event Callback Procedure......................................................................569 30.12.3. Event Support Functions........................................................................569 30.12.4. Event Example.......................................................................................570 30.13. Environment Variables .......................................................................................573 30.14. The Password File ..............................................................................................574 30.15. The Connection Service File ..............................................................................574 30.16. LDAP Lookup of Connection Parameters..........................................................575 30.17. SSL Support........................................................................................................576 30.17.1. Certicate verication............................................................................576 30.17.2. Client certicates ...................................................................................577 30.17.3. Protection provided in different modes..................................................577 30.17.4. SSL File Usage ......................................................................................579 30.17.5. SSL library initialization........................................................................579 30.18. Behavior in Threaded Programs.........................................................................580 30.19. Building libpq Programs.....................................................................................580 30.20. Example Programs..............................................................................................581 31. Large Objects ....................................................................................................................591 31.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................591 31.2. Implementation Features ......................................................................................591 31.3. Client Interfaces....................................................................................................591 31.3.1. Creating a Large Object...........................................................................591 31.3.2. Importing a Large Object.........................................................................592 31.3.3. Exporting a Large Object.........................................................................592 31.3.4. Opening an Existing Large Object...........................................................592 31.3.5. Writing Data to a Large Object................................................................593 31.3.6. Reading Data from a Large Object ..........................................................593 31.3.7. Seeking in a Large Object........................................................................593 31.3.8. Obtaining the Seek Position of a Large Object........................................594 31.3.9. Truncating a Large Object .......................................................................594 31.3.10. Closing a Large Object Descriptor ........................................................594 31.3.11. Removing a Large Object ......................................................................594 31.4. Server-Side Functions...........................................................................................594 31.5. Example Program .................................................................................................595 32. ECPG - Embedded SQL in C............................................................................................601 32.1. The Concept..........................................................................................................601 32.2. Connecting to the Database Server.......................................................................601 32.3. Closing a Connection ...........................................................................................602 32.4. Running SQL Commands.....................................................................................603 32.5. Choosing a Connection.........................................................................................604 32.6. Using Host Variables ............................................................................................604 32.6.1. Overview..................................................................................................604 32.6.2. Declare Sections.......................................................................................605 32.6.3. Different types of host variables ..............................................................605 32.6.4. SELECT INTO and FETCH INTO ............................................................606 xiv
  15. 15. 32.6.5. Indicators..................................................................................................607 32.7. Dynamic SQL.......................................................................................................608 32.8. pgtypes library......................................................................................................609 32.8.1. The numeric type .....................................................................................609 32.8.2. The date type............................................................................................612 32.8.3. The timestamp type..................................................................................615 32.8.4. The interval type ......................................................................................619 32.8.5. The decimal type......................................................................................619 32.8.6. errno values of pgtypeslib........................................................................620 32.8.7. Special constants of pgtypeslib................................................................620 32.9. Informix compatibility mode................................................................................621 32.9.1. Additional embedded SQL statements.....................................................621 32.9.2. Additional functions.................................................................................621 32.9.3. Additional constants.................................................................................630 32.10. Using SQL Descriptor Areas..............................................................................631 32.11. Error Handling....................................................................................................633 32.11.1. Setting Callbacks ...................................................................................633 32.11.2. sqlca .......................................................................................................635 32.11.3. SQLSTATE vs SQLCODE..........................................................................635 32.12. Preprocessor directives.......................................................................................638 32.12.1. Including les.........................................................................................638 32.12.2. The #dene and #undef directives .........................................................638 32.12.3. ifdef, ifndef, else, elif and endif directives ............................................639 32.13. Processing Embedded SQL Programs................................................................639 32.14. Library Functions ...............................................................................................640 32.15. Internals ..............................................................................................................641 33. The Information Schema...................................................................................................644 33.1. The Schema ..........................................................................................................644 33.2. Data Types............................................................................................................644 33.3. information_schema_catalog_name ...........................................................644 33.4. administrable_role_authorizations.......................................................645 33.5. applicable_roles............................................................................................645 33.6. attributes.........................................................................................................646 33.7. check_constraint_routine_usage .............................................................648 33.8. check_constraints .........................................................................................649 33.9. column_domain_usage .....................................................................................649 33.10. column_privileges .......................................................................................650 33.11. column_udt_usage..........................................................................................651 33.12. columns.............................................................................................................651 33.13. constraint_column_usage ..........................................................................656 33.14. constraint_table_usage.............................................................................656 33.15. data_type_privileges.................................................................................657 33.16. domain_constraints .....................................................................................658 33.17. domain_udt_usage..........................................................................................658 33.18. domains.............................................................................................................659 33.19. element_types................................................................................................661 33.20. enabled_roles................................................................................................664 33.21. foreign_data_wrapper_options................................................................664 33.22. foreign_data_wrappers...............................................................................665 33.23. foreign_server_options.............................................................................665 33.24. foreign_servers............................................................................................666 33.25. key_column_usage..........................................................................................666 xv
  16. 16. 33.26. parameters.......................................................................................................667 33.27. referential_constraints ..........................................................................670 33.28. role_column_grants .....................................................................................671 33.29. role_routine_grants ...................................................................................671 33.30. role_table_grants .......................................................................................672 33.31. role_usage_grants .......................................................................................673 33.32. routine_privileges .....................................................................................673 33.33. routines...........................................................................................................674 33.34. schemata...........................................................................................................680 33.35. sequences.........................................................................................................680 33.36. sql_features ..................................................................................................681 33.37. sql_implementation_info ..........................................................................682 33.38. sql_languages................................................................................................682 33.39. sql_packages ..................................................................................................683 33.40. sql_parts.........................................................................................................684 33.41. sql_sizing.......................................................................................................684 33.42. sql_sizing_profiles ...................................................................................685 33.43. table_constraints .......................................................................................685 33.44. table_privileges..........................................................................................686 33.45. tables ...............................................................................................................687 33.46. triggers...........................................................................................................687 33.47. usage_privileges..........................................................................................689 33.48. user_mapping_options.................................................................................689 33.49. user_mappings................................................................................................690 33.50. view_column_usage .......................................................................................690 33.51. view_routine_usage .....................................................................................691 33.52. view_table_usage..........................................................................................692 33.53. views .................................................................................................................692 V. Server Programming .................................................................................................................694 34. Extending SQL..................................................................................................................696 34.1. How Extensibility Works......................................................................................696 34.2. The PostgreSQL Type System..............................................................................696 34.2.1. Base Types ...............................................................................................696 34.2.2. Composite Types......................................................................................696 34.2.3. Domains...................................................................................................697 34.2.4. Pseudo-Types ...........................................................................................697 34.2.5. Polymorphic Types ..................................................................................697 34.3. User-Dened Functions........................................................................................698 34.4. Query Language (SQL) Functions .......................................................................698 34.4.1. SQL Functions on Base Types.................................................................699 34.4.2. SQL Functions on Composite Types .......................................................701 34.4.3. SQL Functions with Output Parameters ..................................................703 34.4.4. SQL Functions with Variable Numbers of Arguments............................704 34.4.5. SQL Functions with Default Values for Arguments................................705 34.4.6. SQL Functions as Table Sources .............................................................706 34.4.7. SQL Functions Returning Sets ................................................................706 34.4.8. SQL Functions Returning TABLE ............................................................708 34.4.9. Polymorphic SQL Functions ...................................................................708 34.5. Function Overloading...........................................................................................710 34.6. Function Volatility Categories..............................................................................711 34.7. Procedural Language Functions ...........................................................................712 xvi
  17. 17. 34.8. Internal Functions.................................................................................................712 34.9. C-Language Functions..........................................................................................713 34.9.1. Dynamic Loading.....................................................................................713 34.9.2. Base Types in C-Language Functions......................................................714 34.9.3. Version 0 Calling Conventions ................................................................717 34.9.4. Version 1 Calling Conventions ................................................................719 34.9.5. Writing Code............................................................................................721 34.9.6. Compiling and Linking Dynamically-Loaded Functions ........................722 34.9.7. Extension Building Infrastructure............................................................724 34.9.8. Composite-Type Arguments ....................................................................726 34.9.9. Returning Rows (Composite Types)........................................................728 34.9.10. Returning Sets........................................................................................730 34.9.11. Polymorphic Arguments and Return Types...........................................734 34.9.12. Shared Memory and LWLocks ..............................................................736 34.10. User-Dened Aggregates ...................................................................................736 34.11. User-Dened Types ............................................................................................739 34.12. User-Dened Operators......................................................................................742 34.13. Operator Optimization Information....................................................................743 34.13.1. COMMUTATOR..........................................................................................743 34.13.2. NEGATOR ................................................................................................744 34.13.3. RESTRICT ..............................................................................................744 34.13.4. JOIN.......................................................................................................745 34.13.5. HASHES...................................................................................................746 34.13.6. MERGES...................................................................................................746 34.14. Interfacing Extensions To Indexes......................................................................747 34.14.1. Index Methods and Operator Classes ....................................................747 34.14.2. Index Method Strategies ........................................................................748 34.14.3. Index Method Support Routines ............................................................749 34.14.4. An Example ...........................................................................................751 34.14.5. Operator Classes and Operator Families................................................753 34.14.6. System Dependencies on Operator Classes...........................................756 34.14.7. Special Features of Operator Classes.....................................................756 35. Triggers .............................................................................................................................758 35.1. Overview of Trigger Behavior..............................................................................758 35.2. Visibility of Data Changes....................................................................................759 35.3. Writing Trigger Functions in C ............................................................................760 35.4. A Complete Example ...........................................................................................762 36. The Rule System ...............................................................................................................766 36.1. The Query Tree.....................................................................................................766 36.2. Views and the Rule System ..................................................................................768 36.2.1. How SELECT Rules Work........................................................................768

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