South Sudan Agribusiness Development Programme (SSADP)

Ministry of Trade, Industry and Investment

Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (EKN)

South Sudan (Juba)

Ref. project FEZ/IM/251/Juba

POULTRY TRAINING MANUAL

NOVEMBER 2016

Page | ii

FOREWORD

This booklet is about poultry farming and takes into account the unique position in terms of

development of South Sudan. The booklet gives an insight into both small scale and large

scale farming requirements for poultry production. South Sudan is just emerging from the

vagaries of war and its costs are eminent. Much as South Sudan Agribusiness development

programme placed emphasis on developing commercial poultry farmers already operating at

a scale, the reality is that such farmers are hardly existent and thus the need to grow the ex-

isting pool from small scale to commercial farmers and as such this training manual gives

insight into both.

This manual, a publication of SSADP, covers a wide range of topics including importance of

chicken to the economy, poultry feeding, poultry diseases, bio-security measures, record

keeping and marketing. Covering different aspects of the different chicken breeds in a single

publication proved challenging but has been possible so that a switch from one chicken

breed to the next, while still in the same sector, is made easy for the SMEs.

Jan Hendrik Mulder Team Leader South Sudan Agribusiness Development Programme (SSADP) DDR Avenue, off Kololo Road Juba – South Sudan

Acknowledgements

This publication was made possible because of the co-operation between the EKN and the

people of South Sudan. My sincere thanks to the South Sudan Agribusiness Development

programme Technical Assistance Team for their contributions and review. Special thanks

to Tahmina Shafique for the overall programme guidance and Jan Hendrik Mulder for his

precious time and effort spent working on this publication.

Authored by:

1. Sylvester Oduor, Value Chain & Private Sector Development Consultant, SSDAP

2. Menno Keizer, Senior Agribusiness Advisor, SSDAP

Edited: Jan Hendrik Mulder, Team Leader SSADP

Page | iii

Table of Contents

FOREWORD........................................................................................................................... ii

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... ii

Tables .................................................................................................................................... iv

Figures................................................................................................................................... iv

Preface.................................................................................................................................... v

1. ROLE OF CHICKEN IN HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY ................................................... 6

1.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 6

2. PRODUCTION SYSTEMS AND PROFITABILITY ...................................................... 7

2.1. Production Systems ......................................................................................................... 7

2.2. Cost-benefit analysis (Broilers) ...................................................................................... 8

3. POULTRY DISEASE CONTROL AND BIO-SECURITY ........................................... 11

3.1. Poultry Diseases Dynamics........................................................................................... 11

3.2. Categories of Common Poultry Diseases ..................................................................... 13

3.3. Biosecurity .................................................................................................................... 14

3.4. Vaccines and Vaccination ............................................................................................. 15

3.5. Diagnosis of Poultry Disease ........................................................................................ 19

4. CHICK PLACEMENT AND BROODING..................................................................... 21

5. HOUSING ........................................................................................................................... 24

5.1. Site Selection for Poultry Houses ................................................................................. 25

5.2. Chicken runs ................................................................................................................. 25

5.3. Stocking Density ........................................................................................................... 26

6. FEEDING CHICKEN ....................................................................................................... 27

6.1. What to Feed ................................................................................................................. 28

6.1.1 Scavenging .............................................................................................................. 29

6.1.2 Types of feeds ......................................................................................................... 30

6.2. Feed Formulation Suggested......................................................................................... 31

6.3. How much to feed? ....................................................................................................... 32

6.4. Layer and breeder feeds ................................................................................................ 33

6.5. Common feedstuff problems include: ........................................................................... 34

6.6. Feeders and Drinkers .................................................................................................... 34

7. POULTRY SELECTION AND BREEDING .................................................................. 36

7.1. Chicken Selection ......................................................................................................... 36

7.2. Breeding ........................................................................................................................ 38

7.3. Cockerel exchange programs ........................................................................................ 40

8. RECORD KEEPING ......................................................................................................... 41

9. MARKETING .................................................................................................................... 42

9.1. Understanding marketing and business analysis........................................................... 42

9.2. Market research ............................................................................................................. 43

9.3. Products to be marketed ................................................................................................ 43

9.4. Business analysis .......................................................................................................... 44

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Tables

Table 1: Chicken Production Systems ....................................................................................... 7

Table 2: Technical ratios broilers ............................................................................................. 8

Table 3: Cost per production unit per cycle .............................................................................. 8

Table 4: Cost and income distribution in annual production plan .......................................... 10

Table 5: Common Poultry Diseases ........................................................................................ 16

Table 6: Comparison parameters of Native, Dual Purpose and Broilers ............................... 27

Table 7: High density ration for broilers ................................................................................. 31

Table 8: Low density ration for Broilers ................................................................................. 32

Table 9: Feed intake by age ..................................................................................................... 32

Table 10: Feed consumption Layers per week ........................................................................ 34

Table 11: Cost calculation for 500 Layers .............................................................................. 44

Table 12: Cost calculation for 500 Broilers ............................................................................ 46

Table 13: Cost calculation for 500 Kuroilers/Rainbow Roosters ........................................... 48

Table 14: Gross profit comparison of 3 products .................................................................... 49

Figures

Figure 1: Causes of diseases ................................................................................................... 12

Figure 2: Chick behavior ......................................................................................................... 23

Figure 3: Brooding temperature profile parent breeders........................................................ 24

Figure 4: Chicken Run ............................................................................................................. 25

Figure 5: Roofing options for ventilation in chicken houses ................................................... 26

Figure 6: Scavenging ............................................................................................................... 29

Figure 7: Energy Feed ............................................................................................................. 30

Figure 8: Different Drinkers and Feeders ............................................................................... 35

Figure 9: Locally made Feeder and Drinker inside chicken run ............................................ 36

Figure 10: Laying Birds........................................................................................................... 37

Figure 11: Cocks...................................................................................................................... 38

Figure 12: Breeds of indigenous chicken (Dwarf, Frizzled Feathers and Naked Neck) ......... 39

Figure 13: Typical breeds producing eggs, meat and dual purpose ....................................... 39

Figure 14: A farmer selling chicken and eggs at the market ................................................... 42

Page | v

Preface

The Government of the Republic of South Sudan (GoSS) has emphasized the importance of

creating employment and income for the development of the new Republic of South Sudan.

In response to this, the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (EKN) formulated upon

request of the lead Ministry of Trade and Industry and Investment (MTII) the South Sudan

Agribusiness Development Programme (SSADP), a four years project. Following subse-

quent reshuffles of Government, the project is now guided by the Ministry of Trade, Industry

and Investment.

The direct objective of SSADP is to ensure entrepreneurs gain access to and make use of

business support and financial services to start-up and expand their businesses. More spe-

cifically, the project aims to help to establish or strengthen 250 small and medium business-

es and farms in South Sudan. Results to be achieved are:

• increased capacity and availability of business support services;

• facilitating entrepreneurship development;

• Increased capacity and availability of Financial Institutions to provide financial support to

(agri) businesses.

The EKN awarded the service contract for the Programme Management of the SSADP to

Mott MacDonald BV (The Netherlands) in association with Rabobank International Advisory

Services and the International Training Centre of the ILO. The contract was signed on 07

February 2013 and allowed for the formal commencement of activities per 11 February 2013

for an initial period of two years. Following satisfactory performance over these first two

years, the Programme was extended from Feb 2015 till January 2017.

The program over the period narrowed its focus on three main sub-sectors that is cereals,

horticulture and poultry. This material is therefore developed to help strengthen both the ex-

tension providers and the SMEs in the poultry sub-sector.

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1. ROLE OF CHICKEN IN HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY

1.1. Introduction

South Sudan, Africa’s newest country emerged from the war with substantial economic po-

tential. The country is endowed with vast fertile agricultural land and large livestock popula-

tion. Poultry production is one of the priority livestock investment options alongside dairy

production, red meat production peri-urban fattening and animal feed production.

Livestock are a common asset among most rural households in Africa. This implies that live-

stock is a major source of livelihood for most house holds within rural areas of South Sudan.

Chicken are the most common type of livestock in many rural and peri-urban households.

FAO, OIE, 2007, classification of poultry production on the basis of bio-security level outlines

the poultry production systems or sectors as:

Sector 1: industrial integrated system with a high level of bio-security and birds or prod-

ucts that are marketed commercially;

Sector 2: commercial poultry production system with a moderate to high level of bio-

security and birds or products that are sold through slaughterhouses or live-bird markets;

Sector 3: smallholder commercial poultry production including waterfowl, generally with

low levels of bio-security and birds or products that are usually sold through live-bird

markets.

Sector4: village or backyard production with minimal bio-security and birds or products

that are consumed locally.

Poultry production in South Sudan currently falls in sector 3 and 4 as outlined.

Interventions that aim at improving productivity will simultaneously improve the income and

knowledge of household members. To tap these potentials programs should be designed to

take advantage of the competitive advantages inherent in chicken production.

The livestock sub sector in South Sudan has great potential to contribute to economic de-

velopment, eliminating over reliance on oil based revenue which currently accounts for the

largest proportion in gross domestic product.

Animal protein consumed in rural areas frequently comes from indigenous chicken meat and

eggs. Chicken can also be sold or bartered to meet family needs such as medicines, clothes

and school fees. In this way, they act as a ready source of cash for emergencies and small

purchases. They also provide manure and play a role in pest control.

These birds are also important during special festivals, traditional ceremonies and in treating

illnesses.

Chicken meat and eggs provide a readily available, high-quality source of proteins, vitamins

and micronutrients. Eggs are an excellent source of iron, zinc and vitamin A, all of which are

essential to health, growth and wellbeing. Chickens and eggs contribute to a nutritious, bal-

anced diet, which is especially important for children, nursing mothers and people who are

ill.

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2. PRODUCTION SYSTEMS AND PROFITABILITY

(ORGANIZED CHICKEN PRODUCTION)

2.1. Production Systems Poultry production systems may be divided into three different categories based on man-

agement practices

A: Traditional/Backyard free-range;

B: An improved semi-free-range (Semi-intensive) and

C: Small-scale confined rearing systems. (Intensive)

Table 1: Chicken Production Systems

Criteria A: Traditional/Backyard B: Semi-intensive C: Intensive

Flock size 1-10 birds 5-50 birds or above More than 100

Inputs Low Medium High

Ownership Mostly owned by women Owned by women and family

Businessmen and women

Purpose For home consumption Home consumption /income generation

Income generation

Social Role Social & cultural importance Social importance No social importance

Genotypes Indigenous Indigenous/improved Improved

Mortality High mortality Moderate mortality Low mortality

Feed Source Scavenging Scavenging+ Supplemen-tation

Commercial bal-anced feeds

Disease con-trol

No vaccination NCD vaccination and oc-casionally Fowl pox

Various vaccination schemes

Housing Shared with other household members at night

Simple housing made of local material with a run

Housing made of conventional material

Annual egg production

30-50 50-180 250-300

Broodiness Long Short No

Growth rate Low Moderate High

Market orien-tation

None Moderate (Based on need)

High (Must have readily available market)

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2.2. Cost-benefit analysis (Broilers)

The technical ratios are defined to help understand the input, labour and equipment re-

quirement during the production cycle.

Table 2: Technical ratios broilers

TECHNICAL RATIOS

ITEM No UNIT

Birds per Drinker (4 Litres) 30 Bird

Birds per Feeder 20 Bird

Feeds per bird per cycle 5 Kg

Labour per unit 2 Unit

Survival rate 95 %

Months per cycle 3 Month

Selling price 360 bird

Vaccination: Gumboro 2 units

Vaccination: New Castle (NCD) 2 units

Vaccination: Infectious Bronchi-tis (IB)

1 units

De-wormers 50% Chance

Coccids 50% Chance

The vaccination schedule is also clarified with Gumboro and NCD repeated while IB is of-

fered only once

Table 3: Cost per production unit per cycle

COSTS FOR ONE PRODUCTION UNIT PER CYCLE (in SSP)

ITEM Cost/Units Unit No. of Units Total Cost

Day old Chicks 80 Chicks 500 40,000

Feeds 45 kg 2,500 112,500

Labourers 1,400 Months 3 4,200

Water

Vaccinations

Vaccination: Gumboro

200 Vial 2 400

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COSTS FOR ONE PRODUCTION UNIT PER CYCLE (in SSP)

ITEM Cost/Units Unit No. of Units Total Cost

Vaccination: NCD, NCD/IB

200 Vial 2 400

Medicines

Antibiotics 200 Pkt. 3 600

Coccids 2 Pkt. 250 500

Brooding

Plywood 50 Sheets 3 150

Wood Shavings/ Sawdust

5 bag 3 15

Charcoal 450 bag 3 1350

Liquid Paraffin 60 Bottle 1 60

Disinfectants 300 litre 1 300

COST PER PRODUCTION CYCLE 160,475

DIRECT COST PER BIRD 320.95

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Table 4: Cost and income distribution in annual production plan

Item M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11 M12

DoC 40,000 40,000 40,000 40,000

Feed 37,500 37,500 37,500 37,500 37,500 37,500 37,500 37,500 37,500 37,500 37,500 37,500

Labour 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400

Water

Vaccination 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400

Medicines 367 367 367 367 367 367 367 367 367 367 367 367

Brooding 1,875 1,875 1,875 1,875

Total Cost 81,542 39,667 39,267 81,542 39,667 39,267 81,542 39,667 39,267 81,542 39,667 39,267

Sales 0 0 171,000 0 0 171,000 0 0 171,000 0 0 171,000

Gross Margin -81,542 -39,667 131,733 -81,542 -39,667 131,733 -81,542 -39,667 131,733 -81,542 -39,667 131,733

Page | 11

The cost- benefit analysis above is based on a broiler farm with one unit doing 500 chickens

per cycle with an all-in all-out system of production, which means that in a year up to 4 cy-

cles can be achieved with one month in between to prepare for the subsequent batch.

The percentage mortality is based at 10% which is achievable with proper training and

adoption thereby reducing incidences of disease occurrence. It is estimated that each bird

will consume 5kg of feed during an eight week period in the farm, values which can be man-

aged downwards with production period up to 6 weeks and the quantity of feed up to 4kg.

A well-managed production plan means selling birds at the time of highest price, and buying

feeds, new chicks or inputs (e.g. feeders and drinkers) at the time of the lowest price. For

many farmers this means keeping the birds in the flock until the time of festivals (e.g. Eid

festival, Christmas, Easter or national holidays), where they may get a price often two or

three times the normal price. However, it is important to stress that keeping birds in the flock

means more feed and a higher risk in terms of losing birds through predators, diseases or

theft. In general birds should be sold no later than at the age of maturity, e.g. 6-8 weeks of

age for broilers.

3. POULTRY DISEASE CONTROL AND BIO-SECURITY

3.1. Poultry Diseases Dynamics

What is disease?

Disease can be defined as any change or impairment of normal body function that affects

the birds’ ability to survive, grow or reproduce.

An understanding of the cause of a disease and its method of spread (transmission) will as-

sist in controlling it. Knowledge of the clinical signs of a disease and the characteristics of

lesions found at Post-mortem will assist in its diagnosis and instituting preventative

measures.

Why learn disease management and control?

Diseases kill

Interfere with normal growth

Reduce productivity (eggs/ meat)

Diseases lead to heavy losses to farmers

Causes of disease

Many diseases—called infectious diseases—are caused by organisms that can be transmit-

ted from one bird to another. Such organisms include viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozo-

ans. Other infectious organisms are external (lice, fleas and ticks) or internal (roundworms,

tapeworms, flukes) parasites.

In many cases, disease results from a combination of factors such as husbandry, nutrition,

environmental factors and flock management. All these have a direct and important influ-

ence on the health and productivity of chickens.

Page | 12

Figure 1: Causes of diseases

Factors affecting the health status of Chicken

Characteristics of Healthy birds

• Alert and on guard

• Bright eyes and comb

• Walk, run, stand and scratch

• Continuously Eat and drink

• Normally Lay eggs

• Normally Smooth and neat feathers

• Soft compact droppings Breathe quietly

Characteristics of Unhealthy birds

• Unhealthy birds/sick birds

• Tired and lifeless

• Dull eyes and comb

• Sit or lie down

• Eat and drink less

• Lay less or stop laying eggs

• Ruffled and loose feathers

• Wet droppings with blood or worms, diarrhoea

• Cough, sneeze and breathe noisily.

Cost Associated with Disease Control

• Mortality

• Morbidity

Page | 13

• Reduced productivity- weight gain/egg production

• Downgrading at processing

• Treatment

• Vaccination

• Surveillance and monitoring

• Loss of market

• Public health control

• Welfare perceptions

Note: Preventing a disease is better and generally cheaper than treating it. Preventing dis-

eases in chicken by the strategic use of vaccination and improved husbandry is usually the

most cost-effective approach.

3.2. Categories of Common Poultry Diseases

Diseases in poultry are divided into three categories and the importance of a disease is

judged by mortality rates and effect on production;

a) High importance diseases:

Diseases with high mortality (more than 30% of the flock), highly contagious and difficult to

treat are:

• Newcastle Disease

• Avian Influenza (AI)

• Fowl pox

• Fowl cholera (pasteurellosis)

• Coccidiosis (internal parasites)

b) Medium importance diseases:

Disease with medium mortality (10-30%) of the flock and/or difficult to treat:

• Pullorum disease (Baciillary white diarrhoea)

• Fowl typhoid

• Gumboro (Infectious Bursal Disease, IBD)

• Infectious Coryza

• Chronic respiratory disease (Mycoplasmosis)

• Roundworms and tapeworms (Internal parasites

• Mycotoxicosis (fungal poisoning)

• External Parasites

c) Less important diseases:

Not common, with lower mortality and/or easy to treatment.

• Marek’s disease

• E. coli infection

• Scaly legs

• Nutritional diseases

Page | 14

3.3. Biosecurity

This is a set of management practices which when followed, collectively reduces the poten-

tial for introduction or spread of disease causing organisms onto and between sites.

Most infectious agents enter the chicken via the beak while eating, drinking or cleaning its

feathers, or during breathing. Other infectious agents can infect a bird through a wound. The

agent then multiplies within the chicken and may spread, causing damage (lesions) in cer-

tain organs and, consequently, clinical signs. After multiplication, some of the infectious

agents leave the bird in its droppings, in discharges from lesions, in its breath, or even on

dropped feathers. If other birds come in contact with these contaminated items, then they

too may get infected.

Infectious agents can survive outside the bird for variable periods. Worm eggs and Coccidia,

for example, can survive for several months in the environment while some other infectious

agents are easily destroyed by sunlight, disinfectant or heat.

For spread of diseases caused by agents that are easily destroyed, direct contact between

the birds is necessary. On the other hand, infectious agents that can survive for a certain

time in the environment can also be spread via any person, animal or material that might

carry the agent. The infectious agent might be carried with small traces of droppings on

shoes, or in the dust or small feathers attached to any rough surface, on the eggshell or with

any part of a dead chicken.

When an infectious agent enters a bird, the bird does not get sick immediately. It usually

takes some days for the bird to show signs of illness. This period is called the ‘incubation

period’. During this period the bird does not look sick but the number of infectious organisms

inside it increases rapidly and some organisms may leave the bird when it breathes or drinks

or passes droppings. This means that the agents causing an infectious disease can be

spreading even before clinical signs of the disease are manifested.

Some infectious diseases can also be spread vertically, i.e. from the hen to its offspring, by

transmission through eggs. To date, vertically transmitted diseases appear to have been

more of a problem in commercial poultry enterprises.

NOTE: Some infectious poultry diseases (particularly NCD and HPAI) cannot be controlled

by good husbandry and flock management alone. These diseases are caused by very strong

and contagious viruses and can lead to very high losses in chickens or other poultry species.

Because of the huge impact these diseases may have on poultry production and trade, they

are notifiable all over the world, i.e. they are World Organization for Animal Health (OIE)

‘transboundary animal diseases’. Outbreaks must be reported to, and control measures co-

ordinated by, the veterinary authorities.

Page | 15

Common Bio-security Measures

This include,

❖ Location: If possible not close to existing premises (between farms 500m-1 km);

prevailing wind directions when planning to minimize risk of airborne infection

❖ All-in all-out: to reduce build-up of disease causing organisms by breaking the cycle-

rearing of different ages.

❖ Litter disposal- removal of used litter and proper disposal/disinfection

❖ Site security- aimed at reducing possible introduction of infection to premises mainly

from personnel moving between houses and flocks, equipment and other innate ob-

jects.

3.4. Vaccines and Vaccination

Vaccines protect chicken from infectious diseases but they cannot treat diseases. Moreover,

vaccines are disease-specific and protect chicken against only a specific disease rather than

all diseases. Vaccines work best on healthy, well-managed chicken.

Note: Never vaccinate sick chicken.

Why vaccinate?

❖ Many infectious diseases agents are always present in the environment and difficult

to control even with the best bio-security measures

❖ Reduce losses due to morbidity and mortality caused by infectious agents

❖ Birds need protection against diseases causing egg production drop and egg shell

deformities

Vaccine specificity

Farmers must understand that vaccination with a particular vaccine protects their chicken

against only a specific disease and that their chicken might suffer from other diseases de-

spite successful vaccination.

VACCINATION can NEVER provide 100% protection; but it is part of complex preven-

tative policy of which bio security & hygiene are equally essential.

Rules of Vaccination

Not to be administered to sick birds

Adhere to genetic make-up of the bird

Cost benefit of vaccination against potential loss

The short-term protection required

Maternal antibody status- will have significant effect on design of vaccination pro-

gramme

Method and frequency of administration

NOTE: Vaccination programs are NOT universal and have to be designed based on:

1) Type of bird

2) Production systems

3) Local disease condition of the area

Page | 16

Methods of Administration

To be stored/kept at 4-8 0C and protected from heat and light

1) Drinking water: After reconstitution the vaccine MUST be used within 2 hours.

2) Spray

3) Eye drop /intranasal route: Most effective vaccine administration method but time

consuming

4) Injection: used mainly for live vaccines

5) Wing web

6) In feed- used for thermostable vaccines

Vaccination tools

Vaccines

Distilled water

Sterile needles and syringes

Cool box

Clean apron and gumboot

Common Poultry Diseases

Table 5: Common Poultry Diseases

Disease Causative Agent Transmission Common Signs Effects to Birds Control

Newcastle Viral-Virus can survive in dead host or excre-tions up to 12 months; Virus sensitive to disin-fectant, fumi-gants and sun-light.

Aerosols, Inges-tion, Contact (Human, dead birds, droppings, eggs- contami-nated shells)

Coughing, nasal discharge, gasping, Drooping wings Paralysis Twisting of head and neck Swelling of head Greenish/watery diarrhoea High mortality PM-Petechiae in proventiculus, giz-zard and enteritis

Death in high numbers Drop in egg production Blood spots in eggs Rough/ shell-less egg Reduced hatchability

Quaran-tines Institute biosecurity measures All in-all out Vaccina-tion

Gumboro Viral-ages se-verely affected 14-28 days; signs common-est at 4-6 weeks of life. Virus very resistant in houses and droppings.

Oral, Respiratory tract

Vent pecking, Diarrhoea with urate in mucus Sudden death PM-Skeletal bleed-ing, swollen Bursa of Fabricious, De-hydration, swollen kidneys with urates.

Moderate deaths Secondary infections

Vaccina-tion as scheduled

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Disease Causative Agent Transmission Common Signs Effects to Birds Control

Fowl pox Viral Contact Cutaneous form: Nodular lesions or non-feathered skin Diphtheritic form: Lesions on mucus membranes of mouth, oesophagus ,pharynx and tra-chea

Retarded growth Decreased egg production Low or moder-ate mortalities

Vaccina-tion and Quarantine

Infectious Co-ryza

Bacteria: Sur-vives for 2-3 days outside the bird but is easily killed by heat, drying and disin-fectant.

Conjuctiva or nasal

Incubation period of 1-3 days, fast spread of disease to the whole flock Facial swelling, Purulent ocular and nasal discharge Sneezing and dysp-noea

Loss of condi-tion Drop in egg-production Low mortality

Antibiotic; Fluoroquin-quin-olones, might pre-vent carri-ers. Keep Co-ryza-free birds Proper manage-ment of the flock.

Fowl Typhoid Bacteria Contact In chicks- acute infections with sud-den deaths of up to 90% Vent pasting with chalky-white excreta

High death up to 90% Poor growth, Poor feather-ing of survivors Decreases egg production

Antibiotic and Vac-cination

Page | 18

Disease Causative Agent Transmission Common Signs Effects to Birds Control

Coccidiosis Coccidia- a protozoan with several species ;parasites mul-tiply intracellu-larly, infection common in over-stocked flocks Oocysts remain viable for many months but killed by freez-ing, extreme dryness and high tempera-tures

Ingestion of contaminated feed with bird droppings con-taining oocysts

Bloody stained droppings or yel-lowish diarrhea High mortality around the 6-8th week of life

Impaired feed utilization or conversion Uneven growth High death rates Low produc-tion

Outbreaks treated immedi-ately us-ing coc-cidiostats Avoid contami-nation of feeds and water by droppings Avoid wet-litter Avoid over-crowding Coccidio-stats mixed in feeds for young flocks

Internal para-sites

Several worms infestation e.g. Roundworms, Ascarides, Cestodes, Tapeworms

Ingestion of infective stage of worms

Loss of body con-dition Death in heavy infestations

Downgrading of eggs-Loss of shell color, strength, yolk color and egg size Poor weight gain, poor feed conver-sion Increased cannibalism via vent peck-ing due to straining

Use ap-propriate de-wormers e.g. Fen-bendazole, Pipera-zine or Levami-sole Strict san-itation Segregate birds by age group Clean house before introduc-tion of new batch

Page | 19

Disease Causative Agent Transmission Common Signs Effects to Birds Control

External para-sites

Mites, Fleas, Lice and Ticks

Contact Uncomfortable-Scratching, peck-ing, irritation, blood loss Loss of feathers

Retarded growth Reduced egg-production Damaged plumage Death

Use ap-propriate acaricides e.g. Syn-thetic Py-rethroid, Organo-phos-phates Ensure strict hy-giene

3.5. Diagnosis of Poultry Disease

History

The case history will give information about the course of the disease (the number of birds

affected, severity and duration of the disease), the means of introduction into the flock and

whether or not the disease is infectious.

The person looking after the chickens should be asked the following questions since they

generally have a better understanding of what is going on in the flock than the head of the

household.

The farmer’s observations of their chickens:

• Why do you think the chickens are sick? Describe the signs observed.

• What age groups are affected by the disease (chicks, growers, adults)?

• When did your chickens become sick?

The severity and nature of the disease:

• How many chickens do you have? How many of them are sick?

• Did any of your chickens die? OR Have any chickens been slaughtered recently be-

cause they were sick? If yes: how many?

• Do you have other birds besides chickens? Are they sick too?

Husbandry factors:

• Do you provide feed and water for your chickens?

• If yes: how often do you provide them with fresh feed and water? What do you feed

your chickens with and how much do you give them?

• Where do you keep the chickens at night?

• If you provide housing for your chickens, how often do you clean the shelter?

• Did you use any traditional remedies or drugs in your chickens?

• Have the birds been vaccinated? When? What vaccine was used?

How the disease might have entered the flock:

• Do birds in neighboring flocks show the same signs? If yes, how many flocks are af-

fected?

• Did you bring new birds to your household recently?

Page | 20

• Did you recently visit someone whose chickens were sick? OR Has someone whose

chickens are sick recently visited your homestead?

Clinical examination of the whole flock and its environment

This examination will provide information on the health status of the flock and confirm the

information provided by the person looking after the chickens. Since chicken in poor condi-

tion are more likely to get sick from any infectious agent, an assessment of housing and nu-

trition is also important.

Examination of the whole flock:

• Are the chickens active?

• Do they scavenge for their feed?

• Is feed and water provided? If so, is the feed fresh or old and/or moldy?

• How many of the chickens are sick?

• Which age groups are affected by the disease?

• What does the plumage (feathers) look like?

• What do the droppings look like?

• Are the hens laying eggs as normal?

• What do the eggs look like?

Examination of the environment:

If the farmer provides housing:

o Where and how are the chickens kept at night?

o Is the shelter clean?

o Is the shelter crowded at night?

If the farmer provides feed/water:

o What is the quality of the feed or water provided?

o Is the drinker or feed trough clean?

o Do the chickens find feed and water in the surroundings of the home-

stead?

o Are there many droppings close to the chicken house, waterer or feed

trough?

Clinical examination of sick birds

To examine a sick chicken you will have to catch and hold it in your hands in a way that

does not injure the bird.

Examine the bird thoroughly for the following signs:

General signs

• Is the bird active or sleepy?

• Are the feathers smooth, clean and free of external parasites?

• Is the bird well nourished? (Feel the breast muscle of the bird: birds that have been

sick for a long time lose body weight and have a thin breast muscle. Feel the muscle

of other birds for comparison.)

• Has the bird eaten within the last few hours? Feel the crop to confirm.

Respiratory signs

• Is the bird breathing through an open beak?

• Is the breathing noisy?

• Is the bird coughing or sneezing?

• Are there swellings around the eyes and discharge from the eyes, nose or beak? If

present, nasal discharge can be squeezed out by pressing gently above the nostrils.

Page | 21

Diarrhoea

• Are the feathers around the vent dirty? The feathers will be dirty when the bird has

diarrhea.

Nervous signs

• Does the bird show any nervous signs (e.g. twisted neck, trembling)?

Movement

• Is the bird lame?

• Are the joints swollen?

• Are the legs and wings in a normal position?

Skin and feathers

• Are there external parasites on the feathers and on body regions with few feathers

(head, under the wings, above the vent)?

• Are there injuries or lesions on the bird’s skin, especially on the head, comb and

wattles?

• Are the feathers damaged?

• Are there changes in color (pale, dark, bluish) or size of the comb or wattles?

4. CHICK PLACEMENT AND BROODING

Handling of the day-old chick and management of the brooding program has a direct rela-

tionship on life-time production of the bird – whether indigenous chicken, breeders, layers or

broilers, as well as flock mortality.

The four factors to control are:

Feed

Water

Temperature

Air quality

Effective chick management begins before the day-olds arrive.

Prerequisites for brooding

1. Brooding houses should be isolated from other houses containing older birds.

The producer should follow an “all-in, all-out” program, never mixing birds of dif-

ferent ages.

2. All facilities must thoroughly be cleaned, and disinfected.

3. Before the arrival of chicks the brooders and heaters must be checked to ensure

that they are working properly.

4. On arrival chicks should be offered fresh water containing glucose (for immediate

energy boost).

Why Brood?

A newly hatched chick has not developed the mechanism to regulate its body temperature.

Therefore, it cannot maintain its body temperature properly for the first few weeks and is

subject to chilling.

Artificial brooding is mainly aimed at providing the right temperature for the chicks. Brooding

will help to provide extra heat, from external sources to newly hatched chicks.

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When heat is not provided from external sources, the chicks will not take sufficient feeds and

water. This leads to the retardation of growth and poor development of internal organs, re-

sponsible for digestion. Thus the chick will not be able to digest the yolk completely. Egg

yolk is a highly nutritious feed for chicks. As such if it is not absorbed completely by the

chick, there is growth and multiplication of bacteria on the yolk leading to Early Chick Mor-

tality (ECM) and growth retardation. A condition called omphalitis (yolk infection).

The ideal brooding temperature is as measured at the edge of the hover and 5 cm above the

litter surface

Preparations for chick placement:

The brooding house MUST be cleaned and disinfected, preferably using a sprayer. Feeders

and drinkers should be washed and disinfected then sun-dried for two days. All equipment in

the house should be arranged and the litter spread. The brooder ring should be prepared

and curtains fixed on the open sides to insulate the brooder house. Use of a good quality

terminal disinfectant, for the final spraying before the chicks are placed is advised.

Provide foot baths at the entrance with lime powder or any other disinfectant e.g. Kerol, TH4.

Preparation of a brooder guard

Use an 18 inch cardboard sheet, aluminum sheet, coffee wire as brooder guard material to

make a circle that uses 20 feet in diameter of the brooder guard for 50 chicks; 25 feet for

100 chicks; 30 feet for 150 chicks; 35 feet for 200 chicks. The brooder should be ready prior

to disinfection.

Fill the ring with litter material such as wood shaving or straw up to 4 inches thick from the

floor, and then spread newspapers to cover the litter on the floor. The heat source should be

placed at the center of the brooder ring.

Chick Check

The crops of chicks should be checked the morning after placement to ensure they have

found feed and water. At this time, a minimum of 95% of the crops should feel soft and plia-

ble indicating chicks have successfully located feed and water.

Hard crops indicate chicks have not found adequate water and water availability should be

checked immediately. Swollen and distended crops indicate chicks have located water but

insufficient feed and in this case the availability and consistency of the feed should be im-

mediately evaluated.

Feed Management

The use of supplemental feeder trays at placement is recommended to help chicks get off to

the best start possible. Trays should be provided at the rate of 1 per 100 chicks and should

be placed between the main feed and drinker lines and adjacent to the brooders. Supple-

mental feeders should be provided for the first 7-10 days.

Light Management

Continuous lighting should be provided for the first 48-72 hours post placement. For the first

7 days light is required to help chicks find feed and water.

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Brooding temperature

The ideal brooding temperatures are as measured at the edge of the hover and 5 cm above

the litter surface. The best time to observe the chicks and make temperature adjustment

should be during the coldest times of the day. Thermometers may not always be available.

Therefore, use the behavior of chicks as a guide.

Adequate floor, feeder and drinking spaces are also important, relative humidity, light and

ventilation should be provided for optimum comfort of the chicks. Free moving spaces

should be provided all around the feeders and drinkers, so that the chicks can feed and drink

freely.

Chick Behavior

Figure 2: Chick behavior

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Temperature Step down

Figure 3: Brooding temperature profile parent breeders

Chick mortality

It is important to know the reasons for early chick mortality as they can be prevented. These

may include; poor brooding conditions- high and low brooding temperature, feed poisoning -

fungal, toxins, litter poisoning (ingestion of sawdust) ,injuries- rough handling and pro-longed

transportation stress ,starvation, humidity, nutrition, deficiency, genetic disorder, predators.

Induction of chicks

1. Light the brooder heat source an hour prior to chick arrival so that the ring tempera-

ture is 32oC.

2. Count the chicks proper while receiving.

3. Release the chicks into the brooder ring after dipping their beaks in water.

4. Wait for some time to allow the chicks to drink water and keep feed in a chick feeding

tray or clean egg tray. Do not sprinkle feed on the newspaper as this will get contam-

inated.

5. For the first 3 days watch the chicks at 2-3 hours interval whether they have taken

feed and water.

6. Remove and replace the top newspapers daily and remove wet litter immediately.

5. HOUSING

Housing is necessary to protect chicken against predators, thieves, adverse weather (rain,

sun, cold, winds and low night temperatures) and to provide shelter for egg laying and

Page | 25

broody hens. Suitable poultry houses are important for efficient production and manage-

ment.

5.1. Site Selection for Poultry Houses

The site should be dry and flat or alternatively the house can be elevated from the ground.

Trees and bushes close to the site will provide shade, windbreaks and protect the birds from

flying scavengers in the case of scavenging birds.

Requirements of a good housing

• Well ventilated housing

• House built in east to west direction along the long axis of the house for natural light

and sun rays

• Temperature 20-25 0C

• Floor concrete, rain proof, crack-free, rat proof and easy to clean

• Roof should be moist proof, and common roofing materials may be asbestos, fiber

sheet, thatch etc.

• Light- Daylight desirable

• Sanitation- Ease of cleaning and spraying disinfectants/sanitizers

• Height of the house 3 meters from the foundation to the roof

5.2. Chicken runs

Chicken runs are a fenced open air space of 25 m2 or more where poultry are kept and pro-

tected against predators and thieves. Runs are also used for feeding, watering, for daily

flock observation and collection of eggs. The walls are 2 meters high and can be made of

clay or woven mat or chicken wire. A chicken run is relatively costly but provides security to

the poultry. Allow adult birds to scavenge outside the run during daytime to reduce feeding

costs.

Figure 4: Chicken Run

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5.3. Stocking Density

Stocking density has critical implications for the broiler industry because higher returns can

be obtained as the number of birds per unit space increases. Assigned densities have been

primarily driven by cost-benefit analysis, but economic profit may come at the cost of re-

duced bird performance, health, and welfare if densities are excessive. These negative con-

sequences are the primary reason for the increasing demands for guidelines that limit densi-

ty allowances.

The ideal density at which to place broilers during grow-out is an ongoing debate. There is

no definitive answer to this question. It is natural to assume that birds will perform better

when given more space. However, it’s not more space but the improved environment that

the added space may provide that is important. The modern broiler house enables produc-

ers to have great control over the house environment. Birds can be placed at higher densi-

ties as long as the correct environment (temperature, ventilation, humidity) is provided. Fac-

tors to consider when determining stocking density include but are not limited to bird size,

feeder space, drinker space, house dimensions, bird welfare, nutrition, breed, performance

and economic return. The ultimate goal is to maximize pounds of chicken produced per

square foot while preventing production losses due to overcrowding. In many cases, pro-

ducers have to settle for slightly reduced performance to achieve a satisfactory economic

return.

In tropical conditions where temperatures during the day rise over 30 degree Celsius the

maximum stocking rate for broilers depends on the target final weight. If birds are to be mar-

keted at 1.4 kg, then 19 -20 broilers can be placed per square meter, but if the birds are to

be marketed at 2.2 kg, then 11-13 broilers per square meter is enough. The house should

allow ample ventilation, though one should be able to prevent draught, using curtains e.g.

chicks can be very stressed when direct sunlight enters the unit, so it is best to prevent di-

rect sunlight to enter the unit. When houses are oriented with narrow ends East –West and

the walls of these narrow ends are shaded, no sunlight can enter.

Figure 5: Roofing options for ventilation in chicken houses

Closed roof, limited ventilation

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Open roof, better ventilation

6. FEEDING CHICKEN

Feeding is important so as to increase the production of meat and eggs from chicken. Lack

of feed or water will reduce resistance to diseases and parasites, and subsequently increase

flock mortality (deaths).

Egg production and growth are limited by access to feed and genetic potential. Local birds

are the best converters of feed to eggs under fluctuating environmental conditions, although

their production potential is much lower than the genetically improved breeds as illustrated in

the table below:

Table 6: Comparison parameters of Native, Dual Purpose and Broilers

COMPARISON NATIVE LOW INPUT BROILERS

AVAILABILITY POOR GOOD GOOD

GENETIC STATUS VARIABLE STANDARD STANDARD

MASS REARING NOT DONE POSSIBLE ONLY WAY

LIVE BIRD PRICE GOOD GOOD UNCERTAIN

ORGANIC FOOD PRO-DUCTION

POSSIBLE POSSIBLE NOT POSSIBLE

TATSE GOOD GOOD AVARAGE

MEAT TOUGH MEDIUM V. TENDER

RISK OF LOSSES LOW LOW HIGH

CHICK MORTALITY HIGH LOW LOW

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COMPARISON NATIVE LOW INPUT BROILERS

PARENT LAYING (EGGS)

60 220 170

COMMERCIAL LAYING (EGGS)

60 160-180 100

INITIAL GROWTH POOR GOOD V.GOOD

WEIGHT 4WEEKS GMS <200GMS 400 1000

WEIGHT 6WEEKS GMS 450 1125 2000

WEIGHT 8WEEKS GMS 550 1600-2200 2500

MARKET WEIGHT GMS 1200 1200 1200

NO OF DAYS TO GET 1200

80 44 32

FEED CONVERSION 3 2.23 1.68

FEED QUANTITY (KGS) 3.6 2.68 2.00

Data: courtesy of Indbro Research and Breeding

One may easily increase egg production and growth of local birds by giving supplementary

feeds. Improved breeds also perform well under village conditions when

given a steady supply of feeds.

Indigenous chicken under an intensive system may not be profitable due to high cost of

feeds, however better returns will be attained if the feeding is supplemented alongside the

scavenging, a cost-benefit analysis will help in judging the costs involved before choosing

the quantity and type of feed.

Feeds and feeding will vary between free range, semi-intensive and intensive systems of

poultry production due to profitability.

6.1. What to Feed

The composition and availability of feeds will vary, depending on the season, locality and

production system. In general poultry, as other animals need feed containing energy and

protein, as well as vitamins, minerals and water. The need for feed will change, depending

on the age and status {chicks, growers (pullets), egg layer, and broody hen} of the bird.

The cheapest – and also often the best – way to supplement the diet of your poultry is to use

local resources.

However, many vitamins and nutrients are destroyed if stored too long or under sub-optimal

conditions, e.g. high humidity and heat. Knowledge of feed quality and sources of different

feed types is important for feed safety.

Page | 29

If your production is based on improved breeds or hybrids for egg production, different types

of commercial diets may be offered. These are divided into three distinct categories, with

decreasing amount of protein as follows;

a) A starter diet or (chick mash): high in protein; offered from day old up to 8 weeks;

b) A growers’ diet/mash: medium in protein; offered from 9 weeks up to when they start

dropping eggs;

c) A layers’ diet/mash: medium in protein; offered to hens from when they start laying.

When buying commercial feeds, calculate if it is profitable based on the market price for

eggs or meat/live birds. If the product price is lower than the price of feed consumed by the

birds it is not economical to offer commercial feeds.

Indigenous chicks may be offered commercial diets profitably from day old to six weeks of

age, for optimized performance later.

6.1.1 Scavenging

Scavenging for feed is a major characteristic of extensive poultry-keeping systems. Birds are

free to forage and they usually manage to get a reasonably balanced diet. Nevertheless,

their diet is restricted in quality and quantity to what they manage to find.

Figure 6: Scavenging

This comprises household waste, crop by-products and a range of foods from the gardens,

fields, and wastelands. It varies from one area to another, with season, with the size and

wealth of the household, and with the area that the chickens have to roam (the village popu-

lation density)

In a free-range or semi-intensive poultry rearing system, pullets and mature birds ought to

be given enough time and space for scavenging in the surroundings daily. The best time for

scavenging is early morning and late afternoon when there are plenty of insects and less

heat.

Chicks below six weeks of age should be confined. Supplementary feeds should be offered

in the morning and evening when the birds come back for the night. Access to clean water

should be offered at all times.

Page | 30

6.1.2 Types of feeds

a) Energy Feeds

As a rule 75% of a quality poultry diet is made up of energy feeds. These are the most im-

portant feeds for maintenance requirements (e.g. body temperature, vital functions, exer-

cise).

Examples of energy feeds are cereals like maize and its by- products (bran), sorghum,

wheat and its by-products (bran), rice and its by-products (bran, polishing), cassava root

meal, yams and sweet potatoes. Roots and tubers should be soaked in water for 60 minutes

or cooked before drying to remove harmful substances and the proportion in the diet in gen-

eral kept below 10%. Fat is also a good source of energy particularly, in hot climates as the

heat produced during metabolism is less than that from traditional energy feeds, e.g. cere-

als. Sources of fat are animal fats and oil seed cake meals. Such oils and fats should only

be given in small amounts, i.e. less than 10% of the total diet.

Figure 7: Energy Feed

b) Protein

Protein is needed for growth and optimal health status. Normally no more than 20% of a

poultry diet is made up of protein-rich feeds mainly due to cost. Protein sources may origi-

nate from animals or plants. Examples of protein-rich local feeds include; termites, insects,

worms, meat scraps, fish scraps, fresh-water shrimps, fish meal, meat meal, bone meal,

blood meal, soya bean meal, peas, beans, oil cakes from; ground nuts, cotton seeds, palm

kernels, and coconuts.

c) Minerals

Minerals are important for bone formation, eggshell formation and for optimal health status.

The most important minerals are calcium and phosphorous. To produce strong egg shells,

laying hens need free access to calcium (limestone or crushed shells). Mature birds are

usually able to balance their mineral intake according to their requirements. When phospho-

rous rich feeds are added to the diet, they should be balanced with calcium rich feeds, since

high levels of one mineral will cause deficiency of the other.

Note: The standard ratio for calcium and phos-

phorous is 2:1.

Page | 31

Sources of minerals include bone meal, limestone and burned eggshells.

The use of bone meal or eggshells is a good way of balancing calcium and phosphorus lev-

els in the diet. Eggshells should always be scorched or cooked before re-use in diets to re-

move contaminants.

d) Vitamins

Scavenging birds get vitamins from eating green grass, vegetables, fresh cow dung and

through sunlight. Vitamins A, B2, and D3 are important because many problems arise when

birds are deficient of these. Sunlight and green grass or green fodder normally provide Vita-

min A and D, whereas Vitamin B may come from fresh cow dung. Vitamin B may also be

added by giving multivitamins.

Additional vitamins are given in very small quantities and purchased from agro-vet stores or

feed stockists. Supplementary vitamins are usually not required when birds are left to scav-

enge. Confined or intensively managed birds always need additional vitamins added into

their feeds.

6.2. Feed Formulation Suggested

1. High Density Rations

Table 7: High density ration for broilers

ITEM (Kg/ Metric Ton)

STARTERS (0-25 DAYS)

FINISHERS (26- END)

Maize plus other grains (Wheat, millet, sorghum, bro-ken rice, rice polish, Cassava etc.

591 645

De-Oiled SOYA cake/ Sun-flower cake

350 300

Meat and Bone Meal/Fish 30 30

Di-calcium Phosphate 16 12

Salt 3 3

Limestone 10 10

TOTAL 1000 1000

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2. Low density - Broiler type

Table 8: Low density ration for Broilers

ITEM (Kg/Metric Ton)

STARTER (0-20 DAYS)

GROWER (21-40 DAYS)

FINISHER (40+ DAYS)

Maize plus other grains (Wheat, millet, sorghum, broken rice, rice polish, Cassava etc.

571 574 567

Soya Cake + Fish/ Meat & bone meal

378 280 240

Sunflower cake 40 70 100

De-oiled Rice Bran/Maize bran

20 80 100

Di-calcium Phosphate 18 13 10

Calcite/Lime 10 10 10

Salt 3 3 3

Vitamins 1 1 1

Trace minerals 2 2 2

6.3. How much to feed?

A major economic advantage of the free-range or semi-intensive production systems over

the intensive systems is the ability of poultry to scavenge for feed from their surroundings.

Scavenging resources will change over the seasons based on climate, geography and pro-

duction systems in the area.

Depending on the season, the chicken may find nearly all their needs from the surrounding

(e.g. during harvest) or nothing (during dry season).

Table 9: Feed intake by age

Age (wks.) Intake/bird/day

(g dry weight)

1 12-15

2 15-21

3 21-35

4-6 35-50

7-8 55-60

16-27 68-80

28 100

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Feeding Broilers

A. Broiler Chicks – Feed ad libitum for 35 to 42 days to an average of 1.2 to 1.8 kg. B. Broilers have a feed conversion ratio of 1.6 to 2.0; feed represents 60-75% of the to-

tal production cost. C. Use a 2-stage feeding programme (starters and finishers); the starter for the first 3

weeks, finisher for the remainder,

6.4. Layer and breeder feeds

Once your chickens begin laying eggs, you can choose between layer and breeder feeds.

Your choice of feed at this stage depends on how the eggs will be used.

Layer feeds are formulated for chickens that are laying table eggs (those used for food).

Layer feeds contain about 16 percent protein and extra calcium so the chickens will lay eggs

with strong shells. Start feeding layer feeds at about 20 weeks of age or when the first egg is

laid, whichever occurs first.

Breeder feeds are formulated for chickens that are producing eggs for hatching. These feeds

basically are layer feeds containing slightly more protein and fortified with extra vitamins for

proper chick development and hatching. However, use of breeder feeds is somewhat ques-

tionable for the small flock producer, since the increased cost may not be justified by the po-

tentially slight increase in hatchability.

You also may give both laying and breeding chickens access to ground oyster shell. Some

high-producing laying birds may require the extra calcium provided by oyster shell, even

though the prepared diet is a complete feed. The need to feed oyster shell can be deter-

mined by shell quality. If eggs are laid with thin shells that are easily cracked or shells that

are rough with almost a sandpaper feel, oyster shell may help to increase shell strength and

quality. When feeding oyster shell, provide a separate feeder allowing free choice feeding on

oyster shell.

To ensure sustained egg and meat production, offer feeds on a continuous basis rather than

large quantities during the harvest season and none during the dry season. Reduce the flock

size when feed costs are high rather than reducing the amount of feed given to each bird.

Page | 34

Layer Feeding

Table 10: Feed consumption Layers per week

Age In weeks Weight in grams

1st week 2nd week 3rd week 4th week 5th week 6th week 7th week 8th week

9th week 10th week 11th week 12th week 13th week 14th week 15th week 16th week 17th week 18th week 19th week 20th week 21st week

22nd week 23rd week

Full feed (ad-libitum) Full feed (ad-libitum) 35gm/bird/day 40gm/bird/day 43gm/bird/day 46gm/bird/day 49gm/bird/day 52gm/bird/day

55gm/bird/day 59gm/bird/day 62gm/bird/day 65gm/bird/day 68gm/bird/day 71gm/bird/day 74gm/bird/day 77gm/bird/day 80gm/bird/day 85gm/bird/day 90gm/bird/day 95gm/bird/day 108gm/bird/day 116gm/bird/day 125gm/bird/day

6.5. Common feedstuff problems include:

• Fish meal can give a fishy taste to meat and eggs. Can contain excessive amount of

salt.

• Cassava tubers contain cyanide, which is toxic, and the tubers must be sliced and

dried in the sun before feeding.

• Oil seed cakes can contain excessive amount of oil and fiber, which lower the digest-

ibility of the feed.

• Beans and peas contain a number of anti-nutritional components and should be dried

in the sun or cooked for a short period (chick pea and pigeon pea are exceptions and

can be fed raw after crushing).

6.6. Feeders and Drinkers

Feeders and drinkers are similar across the production systems. Feeders and drinkers

should always be kept clean to prevent the spread of diseases. They should be big enough

for all birds of the same age to feed at the same time. A one meter trough or a 35 cm (diam-

eter) tube feeder is big enough for 20 adult birds to eat and for 40 to drink.

Feeders and drinkers may easily be produced out of local materials. An empty tin placed up-

side down on a plate forms a drinker. By keeping the tin upside down the water is not con-

Page | 35

taminated with dirt. Make two small holes near the rim diagonal to each other. Pour clean

water in the can. Put a flat plate with a small rim on top and turn the can and plate upside

down, while pressing them against each other. Gently place the drinker on the ground.

Note: The rim of the plate should be low enough for young chicks to drink, but also

high enough for adult birds to dip their wattles to keep them cool during the hot

weather

Usually several waterers in different sizes should be used. Ensure that feeders minimize

feed wastage. Feed wastage's can be minimized when feeders are not filled to the top. Fill

feeders half full and check them regularly for refills

Commercial feeders and drinkers may also be bought at the market, either in metal or plas-

tic. However they are often expensive and normally not any better than locally produced

feeders or drinkers.

Figure 8: Different Drinkers and Feeders

1) Simple drinker made of an old tin can and a plate.

2) Feeders and drinkers may also be made locally of wood, clay, or metal.

3) Commercial drinker/feeder in plastic or metal

Page | 36

Chicken feeding and drinking from a feeding trough and drinker located in-

side the chicken run.

Figure 9: Locally made Feeder and Drinker inside chicken run

7. POULTRY SELECTION AND BREEDING

Introduction

Selection of healthy and sound-looking chicken in the villages or markets is important, if you

want to assure a healthy flock and high productivity. Judging a day old chick, a full grown

cock or a laying hen, requires different skills. The features to look for become even more

complicated, when dealing with different breeds with distinct looks, behavior and purpose,

i.e. egg laying or meat producing.

7.1. Chicken Selection It is important to look for different features in chicks, growers, hens and cocks. Select or buy

your new animals early in the day, as stress from lack of water, feed and rest, will make

most animals look rather sick and drowsy.

Breeds and selection

a) Chicks

A soft belly and a clean, dry navel are important features of a healthy, newly hatched chick.

The following are the key features of a healthy chick:

• Well-developed body length and depth

• Shiny, dry, thick and colored down feathers

• Soft belly

• Clean, dry navel and clean feathers around the vent

• Thick shanks with spaced and straight toes

• Big clear eyes

• Lively behavior

b) Grower/pullets

A healthy and good grower should have the following features:

• should appear healthy and lively

• feathering shiny and normal (depends on the breed)

• large size for the age

Page | 37

• eyes clear and shiny

• clean, dry beaks and nostrils

• clean feathers around the vent

• straight legs and toes

c) Laying birds

A healthy and good egg-layer should have the following features

• should appear healthy and lively

• feathering normal for the breed

• A red comb (more colored when in lay

• eyes clear and shiny

• clean, dry beaks and nostrils

• clean feathers around the vent

• straight legs and toes, with no signs of scaly legs

• Legs less colored in lay

• The breast bone should not be too sharp

• A big broad bottom (laying status can be checked, see pictures)

Figure 10: Laying Birds

d) Cocks

A healthy and good cock should have the following features:

• alert and protective nature

• shiny and normal feathering for the breed

Page | 38

• clear and shiny eyes

• clean, dry beaks and nostrils

• clean feathers around the vent

• straight legs and toes with no signs of scaly legs

• large size relative to the hens

Figure 11: Cocks

7.2. Breeding

It may be an advantage to keep records on the growth and productivity of each bird in order

to select birds according to features such as egg production, growth (meat production) and

broody behavior. Keeping records may help you select the best layers or the best mother to

protect the chicks. If new birds are bought on the market it is possible to isolate the new

birds in separate boxes for the first two weeks. This will enable you to discover possible dis-

eases or disorders in the new birds. If they show signs of any kind of illness you should re-

turn them to the seller or slaughter them. When you have succeeded in improving your

productivity and survival of your local free-range poultry through improved management,

housing, feeding, chick protection etc., you may want to further increase productivity by in-

troducing better breeds.

A breed is a group of poultry with a characteristic body form and feather contours. These

unique characteristics are inherited from one generation to the next. Also features such as

the comb, color of ear lobes and shank colors and length are usually determined by breed.

In every breed, different varieties can occur usually determined by plumage color. Thus a

white and a black hen may just be different varieties of the same breed.

Different types of chicken breeds

Frizzled Feathers, Naked-Neck and the Dwarf are commonly found in the tropics. Naked-

Neck genes are found in almost every village, and are believed to be a natural adaptation

to avoid heat stress. Frizzled feathers may look ill at a first glance, but is common in most

village based systems. In some countries frizzled Feathers are higher priced in the mar-

Page | 39

kets than normally feathered poultry. Dwarf poultry show standard colors and plumage, but

tend to be 2/3 of the normal size for poultry, mostly because of the short shanks.

Figure 12: Breeds of indigenous chicken (Dwarf, Frizzled Feathers and Naked Neck)

Chickens and ducks in industrialized systems are usually kept for two distinct purposes, that

is either egg or meat production. A high productivity in either egg or meat production is a re-

sult of specialized breeding programme. The dual purpose breed is also a result of breeding

programs, and may produce more eggs as well as more meat than traditional birds. It is im-

portant to select birds, which are suited for the kind of production you have in mind, and

which are suited for the conditions under which they are kept, e.g. free- range or confine-

ment.

The features of birds specialized in egg production, meat production or both (dual purpose)

are shown in figures below

Figure 13: Typical breeds producing eggs, meat and dual purpose

Page | 40

Laying hens are “boat-shaped” with a long straight back and a big bottom. Meat producers

(broilers) are long- legged, in a more upright position and wings in high position on the body.

A dual-purpose breed is a form in between the layers and broilers. Local breeds often have

the form of a dual- purpose breed, although much less heavy in body form and size. The

commercial sector has developed highly specialized hybrids (crosses of several breeds) of

which layers can produce 300 eggs per year and broilers can reach 2kg in 6 weeks. To ob-

tain this high production, the hybrids have very requirements to management, feeding, dis-

ease management and production costs are high. They are therefore not normally suited in

free-range and improved free-range systems.

Cross-breeding

To increase production from local chickens, crossbreeding with other breeds can be prac-

ticed. It is however, important to consult professional breeders or breeding companies, who

may recommend suitable and available breeds to increase egg production, growth or both. It

is important to be aware that the offspring will obtain different qualities depending on wheth-

er the cock or the hen of the new breed is used. This is because some qualities are sex-

linked and thus it is important to consult a breeder.

Note: If a cross-breed is introduced, it is crucial that management, feeding and health pro-

tection schemes are improved.

7.3. Cockerel exchange programs

In many countries, a common attempt to increase production from local chickens has been

to establish cockerel exchange schemes. The idea was to improve the productivity of local

birds by mating them with improved cocks.

Disadvantages of the cockerel exchange scheme:

the introduced breeds may not adapt to the local climatic conditions,

inadequate feeding and management practices and thus many of them may not

achieve their potential,

the improved cocks may not be as aggressive as the local cocks and may be lost in

the mating competition for the hens,

if reproduction succeeds, the first generation of these cocks often show a slight in-

crease in production, but if no strict breeding schemes are maintained, the effect will

be lost after a few generations

loss of broodiness,

reduced scavenging capacity,

Reduced survival, diseases such as Newcastle Disease, Gumboro, Fowl Typhoid

etc., may be introduced to new areas result in high mortality among local birds.

For all these reasons it is very important that selection of breeding birds takes place

in the existing environment. Simple cockerel exchange programs are as such not

recommended.

Page | 41

8. RECORD KEEPING

Management of poultry requires detailed records on a daily or weekly basis. It is important to

spend some time each day observing your stock carefully.

Keeping of records is a useful management practice for farmers, service providers and busi-

ness people in order to identify problems and optimize profitability of the enterprise. In this

way early signs of disease, malnutrition, or other problems may be detected and the neces-

sary action taken.

Important parameters to record on a daily, weekly or monthly basis include:

Production records:

• flock size

• mortality (clinical signs and/or suggested cause) - flock statistics

• general laying ability/ percentage lay (number of eggs per clutch)

• number of clutches per year

• number of chicks hatched

• number of chicks reared

• age of chicks/chicken

• Vaccination and other treatments applied (when and with what).

Income records:

• number of chickens and eggs sold

• number of chickens and eggs consumed at household level

• number of chickens and eggs consumed at household level

• Other sales e.g. empty bags, manure

Expenditure records:

• Feed - types, cost, brand, consumption

• Vaccines - types, cost, batch number

• Drugs

• Disinfectants

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Figure 14: A farmer selling chicken and eggs at the market

9. MARKETING

9.1. Understanding marketing and business analysis

Introduction

Marketing your products is an important requisite for any successful business. If you are not

able to supply the market with a suitable product or service your business is doomed to fail.

“It is the customer who determines what a business is”, Peter Drucker, 2006, The Practice of

Management.

In order for you to be able to sell your products some tips have been summarized:

What is marketing?

Marketing simply means satisfying customer needs, wants and demands through providing

products/services at a profit.

Why do we need marketing?

....because customers don’t know who you are!

• They don’t know your business

• They don’t know your business’ products

• They don’t know what your business stands for

• They don’t know your business’ record

• They don’t know your business reputation

Therefor it is important to produce the right product, at the right time, with the right quality

and quantity!

Customers expect poultry and eggs to be a constant product which is available throughout

the year. Therefor for poultry businesses it is extremely important to be able to supply prod-

ucts continuously in sufficient volumes. Staggered production is key for any poultry venture

Page | 43

to succeed. In this way long term trade relationships can be built with buyers who can be

supplied throughout the year. To build trust, supply contracts need to be adhered to and

should be fulfilled at all times. Not only consistent supply is important, but also delivering

constant quality i.e. the right size of bird, quality day old chicks or eggs.

9.2. Market research

The below mentioned points are a guide to conduct basic market research and it will assist

you in asking the right questions. Before you start a poultry business you need to ask your-

self the following questions:

1. Why do the customers want to buy my products and can I out-compete my competi-

tors in the market?

2. Can I supply the market with my products for a profit?

3. What does the market want in terms of volumes, type of product and frequency?

4. How should I deliver my product to the buyers?

The four questions are linked to the 4 Ps of marketing (product, price, promotion and

place/distribution).

The first step is to gather information about the existing market, what are some of the chal-

lenges and opportunities. This would inform you what kind of products, volumes and for

which prices people are willing to buy your products. It will give you information about poten-

tial buyers like restaurants, hotels, retail market and how it should be transported to the buy-

ers.

The second step is to determine what the markets want, e.g. which type (or which size) of

bird is the market requesting and what price are they willing to pay. This would assist you in

determining if you are able to supply the market and make a profit.

The third step is to examine the services the customers require. What are the volumes the

buyers usually buy, how do they want to receive the product. Should it be delivered at the

door step or are they buying from the farm gate.

For the fourth step, what are the main competitors in the market? Are you able to out-

compete them? What are the services they offer and is there scope to deliver better prod-

ucts for a better price. Remember people won’t buy from you unless you have a competitive

product.

9.3. Products to be marketed

Birds for sale

Broilers should follow all-in - all-out system where a batch is raised and the entire batch is

sold when they attain the market weight of between 1.3-1.5 kg. The birds should be sold or

slaughtered and kept in cold storage awaiting sale as soon as they attain the market weight

because continued stay in the unit results in birds feeding and eating into the profit margins.

Eggs for sale

Eggs should be collected and sold while fresh, particularly when cooling is not possible. Col-

lect eggs from the laying boxes at least once, but rather two times a day, and store them in a

dark, cool place. Eggs should normally not be cleaned. When the eggs are dirty, clean them

Page | 44

with a dry sponge or cloth and sell them immediately. Cleaning eggs with water often de-

stroys the shells natural protection against infection.

Pack eggs in boxes, egg trays or other suitable containers to avoid breakage. If profitable

and the market dictates, grade your eggs according to size. Always keep records of your

production and sale.

9.4. Business analysis

Before an investment is being made a business and market analysis needs to be conducted.

In the previous section marketing was discussed the section below provides an example of

an investment choice between broilers, kuroilers and layers.

A good way to assist you in the decision making is to conduct a cost benefit analysis (CBA).

By comparing costs and benefits from various choices, it can be determined which one is

more profitable. However it should be noted that a CBA is just one of the tools you should

use in your decision making. Also your market research, technical knowhow and expertise

determine what type of business you should invest in.

An example (broiler vs kuroilers vs layers)

In the below mentioned example three different costings are provided. We will look at the

different costs and its unit costs per end product (either broilers/kuroilers or eggs). When ex-

amining the costs you have to note that investment costs are not incorporated in the calcula-

tions, only variable costs are included.

Cost calculations layers

Table 11: Cost calculation for 500 Layers

TECHNICAL RATIOS LAYERS

Birds per Drinker 30 birds

Chick Mash per birds per cycle 2 kg

Growers Mash per bird per cycle 8 kg

Layers Mash per bird per cycle 50 kg

Month per cycle 18 months

Months of laying 12 months

Labour 2 unit

Survival rate 95% %

Birds per unit 500 birds

Selling price 10 Egg

Vaccination: Gumboro 2 units

Vaccination: New Castle (NCD) 9 units

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Vaccination: Infectious Bronchi-tis(IB)

1 units

Vaccination: Fowl Typhoid (FT) 9 units

Vaccination: Fowl pox 1 units

De-wormers 50% chance

Coccids 50% chance

No. of Eggs per bird 270 per year

Laying percentage 90% per year

COSTS FOR ONE PRODUCTION UNIT PER CYCLE (LAYERS)

ITEM No. Units Unit Cost/Unit Total Cost

Day-Old-Chicken 500 bird 90 45,000

Feed 30,000 kg 30 900,000

Labourers 1 labourer 36,000 36,000

Water 1 m3 0 -

Vaccinations

Vaccination: Gumboro 1000 units 0.5 500

Vaccination: New Castle (NC) 4500 units 0.5 2,250

Vaccination: Infectious bronchi-tis(IB)

500 units 0.5 250

Vaccination: Fowl Typhoid (FT) 4500 units 0.5 2,250

Vaccination: Fowl pox 500 Units 0.5 250

Medicines

Antibiotics 6 Pkt. 200 1,200

Coccids 5 Pkt. 100 500

Brooding

Plywood 2 sheets 500 1,000

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COSTS FOR ONE PRODUCTION UNIT PER CYCLE (LAYERS)

ITEM No. Units Unit Cost/Unit Total Cost

Sawdust 50 bags 10 500

Charcoal 3 bags 450 1,350

Light -

Liquid paraffin 1 250 250

Disinfectants 100 per liter 10 1,000

TOTAL DIRECT COSTS PER PRODUCTION CYCLE

992,300

TOTAL DIRECT COSTS PER BIRD

2,089.1

TOTAL COST OF PRODUCING AN EGG

7.7

Cost calculations Broilers

Table 12: Cost calculation for 500 Broilers

TECHNICAL RATIOS (Broilers)

Item No. Unit

Birds per Drinker (4 liters) 30 birds

Birds per Feeder 20 birds

Feed per birds per cycle 5 kg

Month per cycle 3 months

Labour per unit 2 unit

Survival rate 95 %

Selling price 360 bird

Vaccination: Gumboro 2 units

Vaccination: New Castle (NC) 2 units

Vaccination: Infectious Bronchi-tis(IB)

1 units

De-wormers 50% chance

Coccids 50% chance

Page | 47

COSTS FOR ONE PRODUCTION UNIT PER CYCLE (Broilers)

ITEM No. Units Unit Cost /Unit Total cost

Day-Old-Chicken 500 bird 80 40,000

Feed 2500 kg 45 112,500

Labourers 3 labourer 1,400 4,200

Water 1 m3 0 -

Vaccinations

Vaccination: Gumboro 2 Vial 200 400

Vaccination: NCD, NCD/IB 2 Vial 200 400

Medicines

Antibiotics 3 Pkt. 200 600

Coccids 2 Pkt. 250 500

Brooding

Plywood 3 sheets 50 150

Sawdust 3 bags 5 15

Charcoal 3 bags 450 1,350

Liquid paraffin 1 60 60

Disinfectants 1 per liter 300 300

TOTAL DIRECT COSTS PER PRODUCTION CYCLE 160,475

TOTAL DIRECT COSTS PER BIRD 320.95

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Kuroilers/Rainbow Roosters

Table 13: Cost calculation for 500 Kuroilers/Rainbow Roosters

TECHNICAL RATIOS KUROILERS/Rainbow Roosters

ITEM No UNIT

Birds per Drinker 30 Bird

Feeds per bird per cycle 6.9 Kg

Labour per unit 2 Unit

Survival rate 95 %

Months per cycle 3 Month

Selling price 400 bird

Vaccination: Gumboro 2 units

Vaccination: New Castle (NCD)

2 units

Vaccination: Infectious Bronchitis (IB)

1 units

Vaccination: Fowl pox 1 Units

Vaccination: Fowl typhoid 1 Units

De-wormers 50% Chance

Coccids 50% Chance

COSTS FOR ONE PRODUCTION UNIT PER CYCLE (RAINBOW ROOSTERS/ KUROILERS)

ITEM Cost/Units Unit No. of Units Total Cost

Day old Chicks 100 Chicks 500 50,000

Feeds 30 kg 3,450 103,500

Labourers 3,000 Laborer 2 6,000

Water

Vaccinations

Vaccination: Gum-boro

0.5 Unit 1,000 500

Vaccination: NCD 0.5 Unit 500 250

Vaccination: IB 0.5 Unit 500 250

Page | 49

COSTS FOR ONE PRODUCTION UNIT PER CYCLE (RAINBOW ROOSTERS/ KUROILERS)

ITEM Cost/Units Unit No. of Units Total Cost

Vaccination: Fowl pox

0.5 Unit 500 250

Vaccination: Fowl Typhoid

0.5 Unit 500 250

Medicines

Antibiotics 0.2 250 600

Coccids 0.2 N0 250 500

Brooding

Plywood 500 Sheets 2 1,000

Wood Shav-ings/Sawdust

10 bags 40 400

Charcoal 450 bag 3 1,450

Liquid Paraffin 250 Bottle 1 250

Disinfectants 500 litre 1 500

COST PER PRODUCTION CYCLE 165,850

COST PER BIRD 331.70

Overview of gross profit comparing the 3 products

Table 14: Gross profit comparison of 3 products

Product Unit Cost (SSP) Market Price (SSP) Gross Profit (SSP)

Eggs 7.70 10 2.3

Broilers (live bird) 320.95 360 39.05

Kuroilers (live bird) 331.70 400 68.30

The table above captures the direct cost of production and the gross profit for eggs from red

layers, broilers and dual purpose chicken for meat. From the table above it can be depicted

that the kuroilers have a higher market price and high gross profit per bird though the cycles

done per year are fewer than the broilers. As said before a cost benefit analysis is only one

of the tools that can be used when making a business decision. For example the demand for

kuroilers could be higher and more sustainable than broilers. Customers might prefer the

taste of kuroilers meat. The CBA can be used to interpret potential gross profits, as an indi-

cation of what will happen with your gross profits if production costs increase or market pric-

es decrease/increase. You can also use the CBA to see where you can reduce costs, e.g.

through sourcing local feeds instead of importing all feeds.