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Power And Politics Unit 11
Sikkim Manipal University 147
Unit 11 Power And Politics
Structure
11.1 Introduction
Objectives
11.2 Bases of Power
Self Assessment Questions 1
11.3 Power Tactics
Self Assessment Questions 2
11.4 Empowerment
Self Assessment Questions 3
11.5 Power in Groups: Coalitions
Self Assessment Questions 4
11.6 Politics: Power in Action
Self Assessment Questions 5
11. 7 Summary
Terminal Questions
Answer to SAQ’s and TQ’s
11.1 Introduction
Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either by self or by the
subordinates. The essence of power is control over the behavior of others (French & Raven, 1962).
Managers derive power from both organizational and individual sources. These sources are called
position power and personal power, respectively. Power also refers to a capacity that A has to
influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes. The greater B’s
dependence on A, the greater is A’s power in the relationship. Therefore, power is a function of
dependency (Robbins, 2003).
Contrasting Leadership and Power
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In an organizational context leadership and power are related to each others. Power is used by
leaders as a means to attain group goals. In other words, power is a means of facilitating their
achievement of goals and objectives that they have set for themselves in view of organizational
requirements. What are differences between leadership and power? The first is in the area of goal
compatibility which is as follows:
• Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence whereas leadership, requires
some congruence between the goals of the leader and the followers.
• The second factor is related to the direction of influence:
Whereas leadership focuses on the downward influence on one’s followers, power does not minimize
the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns. Evidence of the same is gained from
insights into research on power that has tended to encompass a broader area and focus on tactics
for gaining compliance.
Learning objectives:
The learning objectives of this unit are as follows:
1. Bases of Power 2. Power in Groups: Coalitions 3. Politics: Power in Action
11.2 Bases Of Power
Power can be categorized into two types: Formal and informal
A. Formal Power:
It is based on the position of an individual in an organization. Formal power is derived from either
one’s ability to coerce or reward others or is derived from the formal authority vested in the individual
due to his/ her strategic position in the organizational hierarchy. For example, a manager may
threaten to withhold a pay raise, or to transfer, demote, or even recommend the firing of a
subordinate who does not act as desired. Such coercive power is the extent to which a manager can
deny desired rewards or administer punishments to control other people. The availability of coercive
power also varies across organizations. The presence of unions and organizational policies on
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employee treatment can weaken this power base significantly. Formal power may be categorized
into four types which are as follows:
1. Coercive Power:
The coercive power base is being dependent on fear. It is based on the application, or the threat of
application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through
restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. In an
organization one can exercise power over another if they have the power to dismiss, suspend,
demote another assuming that the job is valuable to the person on whom power is being unleashed.
2. Reward Power:
The opposite of coercive power is reward power. Reward power is the extent to which a manager
can use extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to control other people. Examples of such rewards include
money, promotions, compliments, or enriched jobs. Although all managers have some access to
rewards, success in accessing and utilizing rewards to achieve influence varies according to the
skills of the manager.
3. Legitimate Power:
The third base of “position” power is legitimate power, or formal authority .It stems from the extent to
which a manager can use subordinates’ internalized values or beliefs that the “boss” has a “right of
command” to control their behavior. For example, the boss may have the formal authority to approve
or deny such employee requests as job transfers, equipment purchases, personal time off, or
overtime work. Legitimate power represents a special kind of power a manager has because
subordinates believe it is legitimate for a person occupying the managerial position to have the right
to command. The lack of this is legitimacy will result in authority not being accepted by subordinates.
Thus this type of power has the following elements:
• It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy.
• Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers.
• Legitimate power, however, is not limited to the power to coerce and reward. It encompasses the
acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.
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4. Information Power:
This type of power is derived from access to and control over information. When people have
needed information, others become dependant on them. (For example, managers have access to
data that subordinates do not have). Normally the higher the level, the more information would be
accessed by managers.
B. Personal Power
Personal power resides in the individual and is independent of that individual’s position. . Three
bases of personal power are expertise, rational persuasion, and reference.
Expert power is the ability to control another person’s behavior by virtue of possessing knowledge,
experience, or judgment that the other person lacks, but needs. A subordinate obeys a supervisor
possessing expert power because the boss ordinarily knows more about what is to be done or how it
is to be done than does the subordinate. Expert power is relative, not absolute. However the table
may turn in case the subordinate has superior knowledge or skills than his/ her boss. In this age of
technology driven environments, the second proposition holds true in many occasions where the
boss is dependent heavily on the juniors for technologically oriented support.
Rational persuasion is the ability to control another’s behavior, since, through the individual’s efforts,
the person accepts the desirability of an offered goal and a viable way of achieving it. Rational
persuasion involves both explaining the desirability of expected outcomes and showing how specific
actions will achieve these outcomes.
Referent power is the ability to control another’s behavior because the person wants to identify with
the power source. In this case, a subordinate obeys the boss because he or she wants to behave,
perceive, or believe as the boss does. This obedience may occur, for example, because the
subordinate likes the boss personally and therefore tries to do things the way the boss wants them
done. In a sense, the subordinate attempts to avoid doing anything that would interfere with the
pleasing boss–subordinate relationship. Followership is not based on what the subordinate will get
for specific actions or specific levels of performance, but on what the individual represents—a path
toward lucrative future prospects.
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Charismatic Power is an extension of referent power stemming from an individual’s personality and
interpersonal style. Others follow because they can articulate attractive visions, take personal risks,
demonstrate follower sensitivity, etc.
Dependency: The Key to Power
The General Dependency Equation is as follows:
• The greater B’s dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B. When an individual
possess anything that others require but that which alone the individual controls, he / she can make
others dependent and, therefore, gain power over them.
• Dependency, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply.
This is one of the reasons why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather using just one.
It also explains why individuals in general aspire to financial independence.
Three factors are responsible for dependency. They are as follows:
• Importance
To create dependency, the thing(s) you control must be perceived as being important.
Organizations actively seek to avoid uncertainty and hence, those individuals or groups who can
absorb an organization’s uncertainty will be perceived as controlling an important resource.
• Scarcity
A resource needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependency. For example, lowranking
members in an organization who have important knowledge unavailable to highranking members
gain power over the highranking members. The scarcitydependency relationship is also important in
the power of occupational categories. Individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is
low relative to demand can negotiate compensation and benefit packages, which are far more
attractive than can those in occupations where there is an abundance of candidates. Thus scarcity in
supply of certain types of skilled people can give them power to bargain over compensations and
other benefits.
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• Nonsubstitutability
The more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power that control over that resource
provides.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Formal power may be categorized into___________ types.
2. The opposite of coercive power is __________ power
3. Expert power is relative, not ______________.
11.3 Power Tactics
Using position and personal power well to achieve the desired influence over other people is a
challenge for most managers. There are many useful ways of exercising relational influence. The
most common strategies involve the following (Kipinis et. Al, 1984):
• Reason—Use of facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas
• Friendliness—Use of flattery, creation of goodwill, acting humble, and being friendly
• Coalition—Getting the support of other people in the organization to back up the request
• Bargaining—Use of negotiation through the exchange of benefits or favors
• Assertiveness—Use of a direct and forceful approach such as demanding compliance
• Higher authority—Gaining the support of higher levels in the organization to back up requests
• Sanctions—Use of organizationally derived rewards and punishments
Employees rely on the seven tactics variably. Depending on the situational factors, individuals tend
to use the above strategies accordingly to the suitability and the likelihood of the success to be
achieved by employing the same. The manager’s relative power impacts the selection of tactics in
two ways.
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• First, managers who control resources that are valued by others, or who are perceived to be in
positions of dominance, use a greater variety of tactics than do those with less power.
• Second, managers with power use assertiveness with greater frequency than do those with less
power.
• Resistance leads to managers using more directive strategies.
The manager’s objectives for wanting to influence causes them to vary their power tactics. The
objectives may be as follows:
• When seeking benefits from a superior, they use friendliness.
• When they are in need to make superiors accept new ideas, they usually rely on reason.
• Managers use reason to sell ideas to employees and friendliness to obtain favors.
Research evidence also supports the following with regard to use of tactics and the choice used by
managers with regard to power:
The manager’s expectation of the target person’s willingness to comply is an important factor. When
past experience indicates a high probability of success, managers use simple requests to gain
compliance. Where success is less predictable, managers are more likely to use assertiveness and
sanctions to achieve their objectives. The organization’s culture also plays an important role in
deciding the use of power tactics. The organizational culture in which a manager works, will have a
significant bearing on defining which tactics are considered appropriate. The organization itself will
influence which subset of power tactics is viewed as acceptable for use by managers. People in
different countries tend to prefer different power tactics. For example in US people prefer use of
reason in contrast to China where coalition as a tactic is preferred. Differences are consistent with
values among countries—reason is consistent with American’s preference for direct confrontation
and coalition is consistent with the Chinese preference for using indirect approaches.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Where success is less predictable, managers are more likely to use __________ and sanctions
to achieve their objectives
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2. US people prefer use of reason in contrast to China where _____________ as a tactic is
preferred
11.4 Empowerment
Empowerment is the process by which managers help others to acquire and use the power required
to make decisions affecting both themselves and their work. Moreover, today, managers in
progressive organizations are expected to be competent at empowering the people with whom they
work. Rather than concentrating power only at higher levels as found in the traditional “pyramid” of
organizations, this concept views power to be shared by all working in flatter and more collegial
structures.
The concept of empowerment is part of the decentralized structures which are found in today’s
corporations. Corporate staff is being cut back; layers of management are being eliminated; the
number of employees is being reduced as the volume of work increases. The trend clearly is towards
creating leaner and more responsive organizations which are flexible and capable of taking faster
decisions with minimum bottlenecks created out of power struggles, typical of bureaucratic tall
structures. The need clearly is towards having fewer managers who must share more power as they
go about their daily tasks. Hence, empowerment is a key foundation of the increasingly popular self
managing work teams and other creative worker involvement groups.
For the empowerment process to set in and become institutionalized, power in the organization will
be changed. The following are important in this context:
Changing Position Power: When an organization attempts to move power down the hierarchy, it must
also alter the existing pattern of position power. Changing this pattern raises some important issues
• Can “empowered” individuals give rewards and sanctions based on task accomplishment?
• Has their new right to act been legitimized with formal authority?
Expanding the Zone of Indifference: When embarking on an empowerment program, management
needs to recognize the current zone of indifference and systematically move to expand it. All too
often, management assumes that its directive for empowerment will be followed; management may
fail to show precisely how empowerment will benefit the individuals involved, however.
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Thus in empowerment the basic issues which should be addressed are:
Training people in lower ranks how to function in the new empowered position. Using or unleashing
power correctly is also an issue and most importantly the authority, responsibility and the
accountability process should be clearly outlined so as not to upset organizational power equations.
Just apportioning power at lower levels without giving the knowledge of how to use it can actually
create havoc in the organizations.
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. _____________ is the process by which managers help others to acquire and use the power
required to make decisions affecting both themselves and their work.
2. When an organization attempts to move power down the ________, it must also alter the existing
pattern of position power
11.5 Power In Groups: Coalitions
Individuals who lose power or are out of power seek to increase their power individually. If they fail to
do so, then the alternative is to form a coalition—an informal group bound together by the active
pursuit of a single issue. The natural way to gain influence is to become a power holder but this may
be difficult, risky, costly, or impossible.
• In such an event, efforts are directed towards forming a coalition of two or more “outs” who, by
coming together, can combine their resources to increase rewards for themselves. Successful
coalitions have been found to contain fluid membership and are able to form swiftly, achieve their
target issue, and quickly disappear disintegrate.
There are a couple of predictions about coalition formation. They are as follows:
• First, coalitions in organizations often seek to maximize their size. Decisionmaking in
organizations does not end just with selection from among a set of alternatives, but require to be
implemented. The implementation of an commitment to the decision is as important as the
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decision. It is essential for coalitions within organizations to seek a broad constituency and there
may be expansion in coalition to help in consensus building
• Another prediction relates to the degree of interdependence within the organization. More
coalitions are likely be created where there is a great deal of task and resource interdependence.
In contrast, there will be less interdependence among subunits and less coalition formation
activity where subunits are largely selfcontained or resources are in plenty.
• Finally, coalition formation will be influenced by the actual tasks that workers perform. In general,
the more routine the task of a group, the greater the likelihood that coalitions will form.
Self Assessment Questions 4
1. Successful coalitions have been found to contain ___________ membership.
2. More coalitions are likely be created where there is a great deal of task and resource __________________.
3. Coalition formation will be influenced by the __________ tasks that workers perform.
11.6 Politics: Power In Action
Politics is defined as those activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the
organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and
disadvantages within the organization.
Organizational politics is the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the
organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through nonsanctioned means and the art of creative
compromise among competing interests. The above definition clearly points out the following:
a. Political behavior fall outside the ambit of one’s specified job requirements.
b. It includes efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes employed for decisionmaking.
c. It includes a variety of political behaviors such as, withholding vital information from decision
makers, whistleblowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information, etc.
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In this context, it is necessary to make a distinction between legitimate and illegitimate power
dimensions within organizational contexts.
The “LegitimateIllegitimate” Dimension may be explained in terms of the following (Farrell &
Peterson, 1988):
• Legitimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politics—complaining to your supervisor,
bypassing the chain of command, forming coalitions, etc.
• Illegitimate political behaviors that violate the implied rules of the game, such as sabotage,
whistle blowing, and symbolic protests, etc.
• The vast majority of all organizational political actions are legitimate. The extreme illegitimate
forms of political behavior pose a very real risk of loss of organizational membership or extreme
sanction.
There are two quite different schools of thought found existing in the analysis of literature on
organizational politics.
The first tradition builds on Machiavelli’s philosophy and defines politics in terms of selfinterest and
the use of nonsanctioned means. In this tradition, organizational politics may be formally defined as
the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to obtain
sanctioned ends through nonsanctioned influence means. Managers are often considered political
when they seek their own goals or use means that are not currently authorized by the organization or
that push legal limits. Where there is uncertainty or ambiguity, it is often extremely difficult to tell
whether a manager is being political in this selfserving sense (Pfeffer, 1981).
The second tradition treats politics as a necessary function resulting from differences in the self
interests of individuals. Here, organizational politics is viewed as the art of creative compromise
among competing interests. In a heterogeneous society, individuals will disagree as to whose self
interests are most valuable and whose concerns should, therefore, be bounded by collective
interests. Politics come into play as individuals need to develop compromises, avoid confrontation,
and coexist together. The same holds true in organizations, where individuals join, work, and stay
together because of their selfinterests being served. It is equally important to remember that the
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goals of the organization and the acceptable means are established by organizationally powerful
individuals in negotiation with others. Thus, organizational politics is also the use of power to develop
socially acceptable ends and means that balance individual and collective interests.
Factors Contributing to Political Behavior
1. Individual factors:
Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are likely to be
related to political behavior. They are as follows:
a. Employees who are high selfmonitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high
need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior.
b. The high selfmonitor is more sensitive to social cues and in all probability be more likely to be
skilled in political behavior than the low selfmonitor.
c. Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt
to manipulate situations in their favor.
d. The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self
interest and does not see it as an unethical action..
A person’s investment in the organization, perceived alternatives, and expectations of success will
influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political action. The following alternatives are
possible in this context:
a. The more that a person has invested and the more a person has to lose, the less likely he/she is
to use illegitimate means.
b. The more alternative job opportunities an individual has, a prominent reputation, or influential
contacts outside the organization, the more likely he/she will risk illegitimate political actions.
c. A low expectation of success in using illegitimate means reduces the probability of its use.
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1. Organizational factors:
Political activity has got to do more with the organization’s characteristics than of individual difference
variables. When an organization’s resources are declining, and the existing pattern of resources is
changing, as also when there is opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to come into play
and surface. Certain important findings in this regard are:
• Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems,
zerosum reward allocation practices, democratic decisionmaking, high pressures for
performance, and selfserving senior managers will create fertile grounds for politicking.
• When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people may engage in political actions to
safeguard their existing statusquo.
• Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political in organizations.
• The less trust there is within the organization, the higher the level of political behavior and the
more likely it will be illegitimate.
• Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behaviors of the employee are not clear. The greater
the role ambiguity, the more one may engage in political activity since there is little chance of it
being visible..
• Making organizations less autocratic by asking managers to behave more democratically is not
necessarily embraced by all individual managers. Internally if the managers believe in autocracy
they would use the required committees, conferences, and group meetings in a superficial way as
arenas for maneuvering and manipulating.
• Top management may set the climate for politicking by engaging in certain behaviors, thereby
giving a signal to people below in the order that is alright to engage in such behavior. When
employees see top management successfully engaging in political behavior, a climate is created
that supports politicking.
To counter the effects of politicking and protect oneself in organizational contexts, individuals may
use three strategies :
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(1) Avoid action and risk taking
(2) Redirect accountability and responsibility
(3) Defend their turf.
Avoidance: Avoidance is quite common in controversial areas where the employee must risk being
wrong or where actions may yield a sanction. The most common reaction is to “work to the rules.”
That is, employees are protected when they adhere strictly to all the rules, policies, and procedures
or do not allow deviations or exceptions.
Redirecting Responsibility: Politically sensitive individuals will always protect themselves from
accepting blame for the negative consequences of their actions. Again, a variety of wellworn
techniques may be used for redirecting responsibility. “Passing the buck” is a common method
employees and managers use. The trick here is to define the task in such a way that it becomes
someone else’s formal responsibility.
Defending Turf : Defending turf is a timehonored tradition in most large organizations. This results
form the coalitional nature of organizations. That is, the organization may be seen as a collection of
competing interests held by various departments and groups. As each group tries to increase its
influence, it starts to encroach on the activities of other groups.
There are certain other interesting findings regarding people’s responses to organizational politics
Research evidence indicates strong points out that perception of organizational politics are
negatively related to job satisfaction. The perception of politics results in anxiety or stress. And when
it gets too much to handle, employees leave the organizations. It may thus be a demotivating force
and performance may suffer as a result. The effect of politics is moderated by the knowledge the
individual has of the decision making system and his/her political skills. In this regard the following
observations have been made:
• High political skills individuals often have improved performance.
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• Low political skills individuals often respond with defensive behaviors—reactive and protective
behaviors to avoid action, change, or blame.
Reaction to organizational politics is also influenced by culture. In countries that are more unstable
politically, workers will tolerate higher levels of politicking than more politically stable counties
Self Assessment Questions 5
1. Organizational politics is viewed as the art of creative _____________ among competing
interests
2. Employees who are ___________ selfmonitors, possess an internal locus of control
3. The ______________ personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self
interest and does not see it as an unethical action..
11.7 Summary Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either by self or by the
subordinates. The essence of power is control over the behavior of others (French & Raven, 1962).
Managers derive power from both organizational and individual sources. These sources are called
position power and personal power, respectively. In an organizational context leadership and power
are related to each others. Power is used by leaders as a means to attain group goals. In other
words, power is a means of facilitating their achievement of goals and objectives that they have set
for themselves in view of organizational requirements. Power can be categorized into two types:
Formal and informal. Formal Power: is based on the position of an individual in an organization.
Formal power is derived from either one’s ability to coerce or reward others or is derived from the
formal authority vested in the individual due to his/ her strategic position in the organizational
hierarchy. Formal power may be categorized into four types: Coercive Power, Reward Power,
Legitimate Power, Information Power. Personal power resides in the individual and is independent of
that individual’s position. . Three bases of personal power are expertise, rational persuasion, and
reference. Using position and personal power well to achieve the desired influence over other people
is a challenge for most managers. There are many useful ways of exercising relational influence. The
most common strategies involve: Reason, Friendliness, Coalition, Bargaining, Assertiveness, Higher
authority, and Sanctions. Empowerment is the process by which managers help others to acquire
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and use the power required to make decisions affecting both themselves and their work. Moreover,
today, managers in progressive organizations are expected to be competent at empowering the
people with whom they work. Rather than concentrating power only at higher levels as found in the
traditional “pyramid” of organizations, this concept views power to be shared by all working in flatter
and more collegial structures. Individuals who lose power or are out of power seek to increase their
power individually. If they fail to do so then the alternative is to form a coalition—an informal group
bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue. The natural way to gain influence is to
become a power holder but this may be difficult, risky, costly, or impossible. Politics is defined as
those activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, but that
influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the
organization. Organizational politics is the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by
the organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through nonsanctioned means and the art of creative
compromise among competing interests.
Terminal questions
1. Contrast leadership and power.
2. Describe various types of formal and informal power.
3. What do you mean by organizational politics? Explain the “LegitimateIllegitimate” dimension in
organizational politics.
Answers to Self Assessment Questions Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Four
2. Reward
3. Absolute
Self Assessment Questions 2
1.Assertiveness
2. Coalition
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Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Empowerment
2. Hierarchy
Self Assessment Questions 4
1. Fluid
2. Interdependence
3. Actual
Self Assessment Questions 5
1. Compromise
2. High
3. Machiavellian
Answers to Terminal Questions
1. Refer section 11.1
2. Refer section 11.2
3. Refer section 11.6