power electronics for renewable energy systems ...9.1 distributed powergenerationsystems 231 9.1.1...
TRANSCRIPT
-
POWER ELECTRONICS
FOR RENEWABLE
ENERGY SYSTEMS,TRANSPORTATION AND
INDUSTRIAL
APPLICATIONS
Edited by
Haitham Abu-Rub
Texas A&M University at Qatar, Doha, Qatar
Mariusz Malinowski
Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
Kamal Al-Haddad
Ecole de Technologie Superieure, Montreal, Canada
IEEE PRESS
Wiley
-
Contents
Foreword xix
Preface xxi
Acknowledgements xxv
List of Contributors xxvii
1 Energy, Global Warming and Impact of Power Electronicsin the Present Century 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Energy 21.3 Environmental Pollution: Global Warming Problem 3
1.3.1 Global Wanning Effects 6
1.3.2 Mitigation of Global Warming Problems 81.4 Impact of Power Electronics on Energy Systems 8
1.4.1 Energy Conservation 8
1.4.2 Renewable Energy Systems 9
1.4.3 Bulk Energy Storage 161.5 Smart Grid 20
1.6 Electric/Hybrid Electric Vehicles 21
1.6.1 Comparison ofBattery EV with Fuel Cell EV 221.7 Conclusion and Future Prognosis 23
References 25
2 Challenges of the Current Energy Scenario:
The Power Electronics Contribution 27
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Energy Transmission and Distribution Systems 282.2.1 FACTS 28
2.2.2 HVDC 32
2.3 Renewable Energy Systems 34
2.3.1 Wind Energy 35
2.3.2 Photovoltaic Energy 372.3.3 Ocean Energy 40
2.4 Transportation Systems 41
-
viii Contents
2.5 Energy Storage Systems 42
2.5.1 Technologies 42
2.5.2 Application to Transmission and Distribution Systems 46
2.5.3 Application to Renewable Energy Systems 46
2.5.4 Application to Transportation Systems 47
2.6 Conclusions 47
References 47
3 An Overview on Distributed Generation and Smart Grid
Concepts and Technologies 50
3.1 Introduction 50
3.2 Requirements of Distributed Generation Systems and Smart Grids 51
3.3 Photovoltaic Generators 52
3.4 Wind and Mini-hydro Generators 55
3.5 Energy Storage Systems 56
3.6 Electric Vehicles 57
3.7 Microgrids 57
3.8 Smart Grid Issues 59
3.9 Active Management of Distribution Networks 60
3.10 Communication Systems in Smart Grids 61
3.11 Advanced Metering Infrastructure and Real-Time Pricing 62
3.12 Standards for Smart Grids 63
References 65
4 Recent Advances in Power Semiconductor Technology 69
4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 Silicon Power Transistors 70
4.2.1 Power MOSFETs 71
4.2.2 IGBTs 72
4.2.3 High-Power Devices 754.3 Overview of SiC Transistor Designs 75
4.3.1 SiCJFET 76
4.3.2 Bipolar Transistor in SiC 11
4.3.3 SiC MOSFET 78
4.3.4 SiC IGBT 79
4.3.5 SiC Power Modules 79
4.4 Gate and Base Drivers for SiC Devices 80
4.4.1 Gate Driversfor Normally-on JFETs 80
4.4.2 Base Driversfor SiC BJTs 84
4.4.3 Gate Driversfor Normally-qffJFETs 87
4.4.4 Gate Driversfor SiC MOSFETs 88
4.5 Parallel Connection of Transistors 89
4.6 Overview of Applications 97
4.6.1 Photovoltaics 98
4.6.2 AC Drives 99
4.6.3 Hybrid and Plug-in Electric Vehicles 994.6.4 High-Power Applications 99
4.7 Gallium Nitride Transistors 100
4.8 Summary 102References 102
-
Contents ix
5 AC-Link Universal Power Converters: A New Class of Power Converters
for Renewable Energy and Transportation 107
5.1 Introduction 107
5.2 Hard Switching ac-Link Universal Power Converter 108
5.3 Soft Switching ac-Link Universal Power Converter 1125.4 Principle of Operation of the Soft Switching ac-Link Universal Power Converter 113
5.5 Design Procedure 122
5.6 Analysis 123
5.7 Applications 126
5.7.1 Ac-ac Conversion (Wind Power Generation, Variable frequency Drive) 126
5.7.2 Dc-ac and ac-dc Power Conversion 128
5.7.3 Multiport Conversion 130
5.8 Summary 133
Acknowledgment 133References 133
6 High Power Electronics: Key Technology for Wind Turbines 136
6.1 Introduction 136
6.2 Development of Wind Power Generation 137
6.3 Wind Power Conversion 138
6.3.1 Basic Control Variablesfor Wind Turbines 139
6.3.2 Wind Turbine Concepts 140
6.4 Power Converters for Wind Turbines 143
6.4.1 Two-Level Power Converter 144
6.4.2 Multilevel Power Converter 145
6.4.3 Multicell Converter 147
6.5 Power Semiconductors for Wind Power Converter 149
6.6 Controls and Grid Requirements for Modern Wind Turbines 1506.6.1 Active Power Control 151
6.6.2 Reactive Power Control 152
6.6.3 Total Harmonic Distortion 152
6.6.4 Fault Ride-Through Capability 153
6.7 Emerging Reliability Issues for Wind Power System 155
6.8 Conclusion 156
References 156
7 Photovoltaic Energy Conversion Systems 160
7.1 Introduction 160
7.2 Power Curves and Maximum Power Point of PV Systems 162
7.2.1 Electrical Model ofa PV Cell 162
7.2.2 Photovoltaic Module I-V and P-V Curves 163
7.2.3 MPP under Partial Shading 164
7.3 Grid-Connected PV System Configurations 165
7.3.1 Centralized Configuration 167
7.3.2 String Configuration 171
7.3.3 Multi-string Configuration 177
7.3.4 AC-Module Configuration 178
7.4 Control of Grid-Connected PV Systems 181
7.4.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking Control Methods 181
7.4.2 DC-DC Stage Converter Control 185
-
X Contents
7.4.3 Grid-Tied Converter Control 186
7.4.4 Anti-islanding Detection 189
7.5 Recent Developments in Multilevel Inverter-Based PV Systems 1927.6 Summary 195
References 195
8 Controllability Analysis of Renewable Energy Systems 1998.1 Introduction 199
8.2 Zero Dynamics of the Nonlinear System 201
8.2.1 First Method 201
8.2.2 Second Method 202
8.3 Controllability of Wind Turbine Connected through L Filter to the Grid 202
8.3.1 Steady State and Stable Operation Region 203
8.3.2 Zero Dynamic Analysis 207
8.4 Controllability of Wind Turbine Connected through LCL Filter to the Grid 2088.4.1 Steady State and Stable Operation Region 208
8.4.2 Zero Dynamic Analysis 213
8.5 Controllability and Stability Analysis of PV System Connected to Current Source Inverter 2198.5.1 Steady State and Stability Analysis ofthe System 220
8.5.2 Zero Dynamics Analysis ofPV 221
8.6 Conclusions 228
References 229
9 Universal Operation of Small/Medium-Sized Renewable Energy Systems 2319.1 Distributed Power Generation Systems 231
9.1.1 Single-Stage Photovoltaic Systems 232
9.1.2 Small/Medium-Sized Wind Turbine Systems 233
9.1.3 Overview ofthe Control Structure 234
9.2 Control of Power Converters for Grid-Interactive Distributed Power Generation Systems 243
9.2.1 Droop Control 244
9.2.2 Power Control in Microgrids 2479.2.3 Control Design Parameters 252
9.2.4 Harmonic Compensation 256
9.3 Ancillary Feature 259
9.3.1 Voltage Support at Local Loads Level 2599.3.2 Reactive Power Capability 263
9.3.3 Voltage Support at Electric Power System Area 265
9.4 Summary 267References 268
10 Properties and Control of a Doubly Fed Induction Machine 27010.1 Introduction. Basic principles of DFIM 270
10.1.1 Structure of the Machine and Electric Configuration 27010.1.2 Steady-State Equivalent Circuit 27110.1.3 Dynamic Modeling 277
10.2 Vector Control of DFIM Using an AC/DC/AC Converter 28010.2.1 Grid Connection Operation 280
10.2.2 Rotor Position Observers 292
10.2.3 Stand-alone Operation 296
-
Contents xi
10.3 DFIM-Based Wind Energy Conversion Systems 30510.3.1 Wind Turbine Aerodynamic 305
10.3.2 Turbine Control Zones 307
10.3.3 Turbine Control 308
10.3.4 Typical Dimensioning ofDFIM-Based Wind Turbines 31010.3.5 Steady-State Performance of the Wind Turbine Based on DFIM 31110.3.6 Analysis ofDFIM-Based Wind Turbines during Voltage Dips 313
References 317
11 AC-DC-AC Converters for Distributed Power Generation Systems 319
11.1 Introduction 319
11.1.1 Bidirectional AC-DC-AC Topologies 31911.1.2 Passive Components Designfor an AC-DC-AC Converter 322
11.1.3 DC-Link Capacitor Rating 322
11.1.4 Flying Capacitor Rating 325
11.1.5 Land LCL Filter Rating 325
11.1.6 Comparison 327
11.2 Pulse-Width Modulation for AC-DC-AC Topologies 32811.2.1 Space Vector Modulation for Classical Three-Phase Two-Level Converter 32811.2.2 Space Vector Modulation for Classical Three-Phase Three-Level Converter 331
11.3 DC-Link Capacitors Voltage Balancing in Diode-Clamped Converter 334
11.3.2 Pulse-Width Modulationfor Simplified AC-DC-AC Topologies 33711.3.3 Compensation ofSemiconductor Voltage Drop and Dead-Time Effect 342
11.4 Control Algorithms for AC-DC-AC Converters 345
11.4.1 Field-Oriented Control ofan AC-DCMachine-Side Converter 34611.4.2 Stator Current Controller Design 348
11.4.3 Direct Torque Control with Space Vector Modulation 349
11.4.4 Machine Stator Flux Controller Design 350
11.4.5 Machine Electromagnetic Torque Controller Design 351
11.4.6 Machine Angular Speed Controller Design 351
11.4.7 Voltage-Oriented Control ofan AC-DC Grid-Side Converter 35211.4.8 Line Current Controllers of an AC-DC Grid-Side Converter 35211.4.9 Direct Power Control with Space Vector Modulation ofan AC-DC
Grid-Side Converter 354
11.4.10 Line Power Controllers ofan AC-DC Grid-Side Converter 35511.4.11 DC-Link Voltage Controllerfor an AC-DC Converter 356
11.5 AC-DC-AC Converter with Active Power FeedForward 356
11.5.1 Analysis ofthe Power Response Time Constant ofan AC-DC-AC Converter 358
11.5.2 Energy ofthe DC-Link Capacitor 358
11.6 Summary and Conclusions 361
References 362
12 Power Electronics for More Electric Aircraft 365
12.1 Introduction 365
12.2 More Electric Aircraft 367
72.2./ Airbus 380 Electrical System 369
72.2.2 Boeing 787 Electrical Power System 370
12.3 More Electric Engine (MEE) 372
12.3.1 Power Optimized Aircraft (POA) 372
-
xii Contents
12.4 Electric Power Generation Strategies 374
12.5 Power Electronics and Power Conversion 378
12.6 Power Distribution 381
12.6.1 High-voltage operation 383
12.7 Conclusions 384
References 385
13 Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles 387
13.1 Introduction 387
13.2 Electric, Hybrid Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Topologies 388
13.2.1 Electric Vehicles 388
13.2.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 389
13.2.3 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) 391
13.3 EV and PHEV Charging Infrastructures 392
13.3.1 EV/PHEV Batteries and Charging Regimes 392
13.4 Power Electronics for EV and PHEV Charging Infrastructure 404
13.4.1 Charging Hardware 405
13.4.2 Grid-Tied Infrastructure 406
13.5 Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) and Vehicle-to-Home (V2H) Concepts 407
13.5.1 Grid Upgrade 408
13.6 Power Electronics for PEV Charging 410
13.6.1 Safety Considerations 410
13.6.2 Grid-Tied Residential Systems 411
13.6.3 Grid-Tied Public Systems 412
13.6.4 Grid-Tied Systems with Local Renewable Energy Production 416
References 419
14 Multilevel Converter/Inverter Topologies and Applications 422
14.1 Introduction 422
14.2 Fundamentals of Multilevel Converters/Inverters 423
14.2.1 What Is a Multilevel Converter/Inverter? 423
14.2.2 Three Typical Topologies to Achieve Multilevel Voltage 424
14.2.3 Generalized Multilevel Converter/Inverter Topology and Its Derivations to
Other Topologies 425
14.3 Cascaded Multilevel Inverters and Their Applications 432
14.3.1 Merits of Cascaded Multilevel Inverters Applied to Utility Level 432
14.3.2 Y-Connected Cascaded Multilevel Inverter and Its Applications 433
14.3.3 ^-Connected CascadedMultilevel Inverter and Its Applications 438
14.3.4 Face-to-Face-Connected Cascaded Multilevel Inverter for Unified Power Flow
Control 441
14.4 Emerging Applications and Discussions 444
14.4.1 Magnetic-less DC/DC Conversion 444
14.4.2 Multilevel Modular Capacitor Clamped DC/DC Converter (MMCCC) 449
14.4.3 nX DC/DC Converter 451
14.4.4 Component Cost Comparison ofFlying CapacitorDC/DC Converter, MMCCC
and nX DC/DC Converter 453
14.4.5 Zero Current Switching: MMCCC 455
14.4.6 Fault Tolerance and Reliability ofMultilevel Converters 458
14.5 Summary 459
Acknowledgment 461
References 461
-
Contents xiii
15 Multiphase Matrix Converter Topologies and Control 463
15.1 Introduction 463
15.2 Three-Phase Input with Five-Phase Output Matrix Converter 464
15.2.1 Topology 464
15.2.2 Control Algorithms 46415.3 Simulation and Experimental Results 484
15.4 Matrix Converter with Five-Phase Input and Three-Phase Output 48815.4.1 Topology 48815.4.2 Control Techniques 489
15.5 Sample Results 499
Acknowledgment 501References 501
16 Boost Preregulators for Power Factor Correction
in Single-Phase Rectifiers 50316.1 Introduction 503
16.2 Basic Boost PFC 504
16.2.1 Converter's Topology and Averaged Model 50476.2.2 Steady-State Analysis 507
16.2.3 Control Circuit 507
16.2.4 Linear Control Design 509
16.2.5 Simulation Results 511
16.3 Half-Bridge Asymmetric Boost PFC 51116.3.1 CCM/CVM Operation and Average Modeling of the Converter 513
16.3.2 Small-Signal Averaged Model and Transfer Functions 514
16.3.3 Control System Design 51516.3.4 Numerical Implementation and Simulation Results 518
16.4 Interleaved Dual-Boost PFC 519
16.4.1 Converter Topology 52216.4.2 Operation Sequences 523
16.4.3 Linear Control Design and Experimental Results 526
16.5 Conclusion 528
References 529
17 Active Power Filter 534
17.1 Introduction 534
17.2 Harmonics 535
17.3 Effects and Negative Consequences of Harmonics 53517.4 International Standards for Harmonics 536
17.5 Types of Harmonics 53717.5.1 Harmonic Current Sources 537
17.5.2 Harmonic Voltage Sources 537
17.6 Passive Filters 539
17.7 Power Definitions 540
17.7.1 Loading Power and Power Factor 541
17.7.2 Loading Power Definition 541
17.7.3 Power Factor Definition in 3D Space Current Coordinate
System 541
17.8 Active Power Filters 543
17.8.1 Current Source Inverter APF 544
17.8.2 Voltage Source Inverter APF 544
-
xiv Contents
17.8.3 Shunt Active Power Filter 544
17.8.4 Series Active Power Filter 545
17.8.5 Hybrid Filters 545
17.8.6 High-Power Applications 547
17.9 APF Switching Frequency Choice Methodology 547
17.10 Harmonic Current Extraction Techniques (HCET) 54817.10.1 P-Q Theory 548
17.10.2 Cross-Vector Theory 550
17.10.3 The Instantaneous Power Theory Using the Rotating P-Q-R
Reference Frame 551
17.10.4 Synchronous Reference Frame 553
17.10.5 Adaptive Interference Canceling Technique 553
17.10.6 Capacitor Voltage Control 554
17.10.7 Time-Domain Correlation Function Technique 554
17.10.8 Identification by Fourier Series 555
17.10.9 Other Methods 555
17.11 Shunt Active Power Filter 555
17.11.1 Shunt APF Modeling 557
17.11.2 Shunt APFfor Three-Phase Four-Wire System 560
17.12 Series Active Power Filter 564
17.13 Unified Power Quality Conditioner 565
Acknowledgment 569
References 569
18A Hardware-in-the-Loop Systems with Power Electronics:
A Powerful Simulation Tool 573
18A.1 Background 573
18A.1.1 Hardware-in-the-Loop Systems in General 573
18A.1.2 "Virtual Machine" Application 574
18A.2 Increasing the Performance of the Power Stage 57518A.2.1 Sequential Switching 575
18A.2.2 Magnetic Freewheeling Control 577
I8A.2.3 Increase in Switching Frequency 58018A.3 Machine Model of an Asynchronous Machine 581
18A.3.1 Control Problem 581
18A.3.2 "Inverted" Machine Model 582
18A.4 Results and Conclusions 583
18A.4.1 Results 583
18A.4.2 Conclusions 589
References 589
18B Real-Time Simulation of Modular Multilevel Converters (MMCs) 591
18B.1 Introduction 591
18B.1.1 Industrial Applications of MMCs 591
18B. 1.2 Constraint Introduced by Real-Time Simulation ofPower Electronics
Converter in General 592
18B.1.3 MMC Topology Presentation 594
I8B.1.4 Constraints ofSimulating MMCs 595
18B.2 Choice of Modeling for MMC and Its Limitations 597
-
Contents xv
18B.3 Hardware Technology for Real-Time Simulation 59818B.3.1 Simulation Using Sequential Programming with DSP Devices 598
18B.3.2 Simulation Using Parallel Programming with FPGA Devices 59918B.4 Implementation for Real-Time Simulator Using Different Approach 601
/8B. 4.1 Sequential Programmingfor Average Model A Igorithm 602
18B.4.2 Parallel Programmingfor Switching Function Algorithm 60418B.5 Conclusion 606
References 606
19 Model Predictive Speed Control of Electrical Machines 60819.1 Introduction 608
19.2 Review of Classical Speed Control Schemes for Electrical Machines 60919.2.1 Electrical Machine Model 609
19.2.2 Field-Oriented Control 610
19.2.3 Direct Torque Control 611
19.3 Predictive Current Control 613
19.3.1 Predictive Model 614
19.3.2 Cost Function 615
19.3.3 Predictive Algorithm 61619.3.4 Control Scheme 616
19.4 Predictive Torque Control 617
19.4.1 Predictive Model 618
19.4.2 Cost Function 618
19.4.3 Predictive Algorithm 61819.4.4 Control Scheme 618
19.5 Predictive Torque Control Using a Direct Matrix Converter 619
19.5.1 Predictive Model 620
19.5.2 Cost Function 620
19.5.3 Predictive Algorithm 62019.5.4 Control Scheme 620
19.5.5 Control ofReactive Input Power 62119.6 Predictive Speed Control 622
19.6.1 Predictive Model 624
19.6.2 Cost Function 624
19.6.3 Predictive Algorithm 62519.6.4 Control Scheme 625
19.7 Conclusions 626
Acknowledgment 627
References 627
20 The Electrical Drive Systems with the Current Source Converter 63020.1 Introduction 630
20.2 The Drive System Structure 631
20.3 The PWM in CSCs 633
20.4 The Generalized Control of a CSR 636
20.5 The Mathematical Model of an Asynchronous and a Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motor 63920.6 The Current and Voltage Control of an Induction Machine 641
20.6.7 Field-Oriented Control 641
20.6.2 The Current Multi-Scalar Control 643
20.6.3 The Voltage Multi-Scalar Control 647
-
xvi Contents
20.7 The Current and Voltage Control of Permanent Magnet SynchronousMotor 651
20.7.1 The Voltage Multi-scalar Control ofa PMSM 651
20.7.2 The Current Control ofan Interior Permanent Magnet Motor 653
20.8 The Control System of a Doubly Fed Motor Supplied by a CSC 657
20.9 Conclusion 661
References 662
21 Common-Mode Voltage and Bearing Currents in PWM Inverters:
Causes, Effects and Prevention 664
21.1 Introduction 664
21.1.1 Capacitive Bearing Current 668
21.1.2 Electrical Discharge Machining Current 668
21.1.3 Circulating Bearing Current 669
21.1.4 Rotor Grounding Current 671
21.1.5 Dominant Bearing Current 671
21.2 Determination of the Induction Motor Common-Mode Parameters 671
21.3 Prevention of Common-Mode Current: Passive Methods 674
21.3.1 Decreasing the Inverter Switching Frequency 674
21.3.2 Common-Mode Choke 675
21.3.3 Common-Mode Passive Filter 678
21.3.4 Common-Mode Transformer 679
21.3.5 Semiactive CM Current Reduction with Filter Application 680
21.3.6 Integrated Common-Mode and Differential-Mode Choke 68121.3.7 Machine Construction and Bearing Protection Rings 682
21.4 Active Systems for Reducing the CM Current 682
21.5 Common-Mode Current Reduction by PWM Algorithm Modifications 683
21.5.1 Three Non-parity Active Vectors (3NPAVs) 685
27.5.2 Three Active Vector Modulation (3AVM) 687
21.5.3 Active Zero Voltage Control (AZVC) 688
21.5.4 Space Vector Modulation with One-Zero Vector (SVM1Z) 689
21.6 Summary 692
References 692
22 High-Power Drive Systems for Industrial Applications: Practical Examples 695
22.1 Introduction 695
22.2 LNG Plants 696
22.3 Gas Turbines (GTs): the Conventional Compressor Drives 697
22.3.1 Unit Starting Requirements 69722.3.2 Temperature Effect on GT Output 697
22.3.3 Reliability and Durability 69822.4 Technical and Economic Impact of VFDs 699
22.5 High-Power Electric Motors 70022.5.1 State-of-the-Art High-Power Motors 701
22.5.2 Brushless Excitation for SM 703
22.6 High-Power Electric Drives 70522.7 Switching Devices 705
22.7.1 High-Power Semiconductor Devices 70722.8 High-Power Converter Topologies 709
22.8.1 LCI 709
-
Contents xvii
22.8.2 VSI 710
22.8.3 Summary 711
22.9 Multilevel VSI Topologies 711
22.9.1 Two-Level Inverters 711
22.9.2 Multilevel Inverters 712
22.10 Control of High-Power Electric Drives 719
22.10.1 PWM Methods 721
22.11 Conclusion 723
Acknowledgment 724References 724
23 Modulation and Control of Single-Phase Grid-Side Converters 72723.1 Introduction 727
23.2 Modulation Techniques in Single-Phase Voltage Source Converters 729
23.2.1 Parallel-Connected H-Bridge Converter (H-BC) 12923.2.2 H-Diode Clamped Converter (H-DCC) 733
23.2.3 H-Flying Capacitor Converter (H-FCC) 736
23.2.4 Comparison 74323.3 Control of AC-DC Single-Phase Voltage Source Converters 748
23.3.1 Single-Phase Control Algorithm Classification 749
23.3.2 DQ Synchronous Reference Frame Current Control - Pl-CC 751
23.3.3 ABC Natural Reference Frame Current Control - PR-CC 75423.3.4 Controller Design 756
23.3.5 Active Power Feed-Forward Algorithm 759
23.4 Summary 763References 763
24 Impedance Source Inverters 76624.1 Multilevel Inverters 766
24.1.1 Transformer-Less Technology 766
24.1.2 Traditional CM1 or Hybrid CMI 767
24.1.3 Single-Stage Inverter Topology 767
24.2 Quasi-Z-Source Inverter 767
24.2.1 Principle ofthe qZSl 16124.2.2 Control Methods ofthe qZSI 111
24.2.3 qZSI with Battery'far PV Systems 113
24.3 qZSI-Based Cascade Multilevel PV System 775
24.3.1 Working Principle 775
24.3.2 Control Strategies and Grid Synchronization 779
24.4 Hardware Implementation 780
24.4.1 Impedance Parameters 780
24.4.2 Control System 781
Acknowledgments 782
References 782
Index 787