powerpoint presentation by charlie cook

PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie CookCopyright © 2005 South-Western.

All rights reserved.

Chapter 10Chapter 10

MotivationMotivationMotivationMotivation

Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. 10–2

Motivation

• Motivation definedThe set of forces that initiate behavior and determine

its form, direction, intensity, and duration.

• NeedA drive to achieve a specific outcome.

• Thorndike’s Law of EffectPeople seek rewarding outcomes and avoid punishing

consequences. Hedonism—the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance

of pain.


Management Highlight: What Motivates a Worker?Management Highlight: What Motivates a Worker?


A Model of A Model of MotivationMotivation

Exhibit 10 . 1Exhibit 10 . 1


The Importance of Motivation

• Assumptions about human natureTheory X (McGregor)

Workers are passive (if not lazy) and in need of direction and control.

Workers need external management through the use of force, persuasion, rewards, and punishment.

Follows the traditional view of direction and control.


The Importance of Motivation (cont’d)

• Assumptions about human nature (cont’d)Theory Y (McGregor)

Workers are eager to learn, responsible, and creative. Workers’ capacities to learn are great and their abilities

are underutilized. If given the autonomy, workers are quite capable of

self-direction and self-control. An organization’s reward system must be supportive of

increased employee participation.



• The motivation processEffective worker performance requires motivation,

ability, and a reward system that encourages quality work.

• Motivation process terms:Need deprivation: a state of arousal induced by a

need deficit.Behavior: the specific work or task actions that result

from a need-deficit–induced arousal.Reward: an attractive or desired consequence or

outcome (either intrinsic or extrinsic) of behavior.



• Motivation process terms (cont’d)Feedback: knowledge about the cause-and-effect

sequence that either stimulates or suppresses future states of arousal.

Intrinsic rewards: intangible psychological results of work, controlled by the worker, that may have a strong impact on job satisfaction.

Extrinsic rewards: externally administered and controlled rewards that occur apart from the actual performance of work.

Ability: the physical and mental characteristics required of a a worker to perform a task successfully.


Content Theories of Motivation

• Content (needs) theoryThe idea that people are driven to meet basic needs

that produce satisfaction when they’re met.Theories include:

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Alderfer’s ERG theory Herzberg’s two-factor theory McClelland’s achievement motivation theory


Content Theories of Motivation (cont’d)

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needsKey assumptions:

Behavior is triggered by a need deficit that drives the individual to reduce the tension it creates.

Different needs are active at different times, and only needs not yet satisfied can influence behavior.

Needs are arranged in a fixed order of importance called a hierarchy. – Prepotency: the idea that the most basic unsatisfied need

(in the hierarchy) influences current behavior.



• Maslow’s categories of needsPhysiological needs

Food, sleep, and physical movementSafety needs

Freedom from fear or harm, stability, predictabilitySocial needs

Friendship, love, camaraderie, and teamworkSelf-esteem needs

Status and reputationSelf-actualization needs

The fulfillment human potential and personal growth



Exhibit 10 . 2Exhibit 10 . 2Source: Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper & Row, 1954).

Maslow’s Needs Maslow’s Needs HierarchyHierarchy



• Alderfer’s ERG TheoryFrustration regression—in a situation where a person

is unable to satisfy a need, that person will regress toward a lower need.

Three primary needs: Existence—basic needs for survival, food, shelter, and

clothing. Relatedness—needs that are part of building and

maintaining social relationships. Growth—intrinsic desires for knowledge, creativity, and

ability to learn new and different things.



• Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryKey assumptions:

Satisfaction and dissatisfaction function on two distinctly separate continuums.

Work factors (motivators) lead to satisfaction, but their absence does not necessarily lead to dissatisfaction.

Other work factors (hygiene factors) produce satisfaction but do not motivate performance.



• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (cont’d)Two factors separately explain satisfaction and

dissatisfaction: Hygiene (or maintenance) factors: extrinsic aspects of

the job context that prevent dissatisfaction but do not cause satisfaction.

Motivators: factors, directly related to specific intrinsic aspects of the job (job content), that can produce high levels of motivation and lead to satisfaction.



• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (cont’d) Hygiene factors include:

Company policy and administrative practices. Technical supervision by the manager. Interpersonal relations with the supervisor. Worker salary, job status, and job security. The worker’s personal life. Physical conditions of the work setting (e.g., air

conditioning).



• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (cont’d) Motivator factors include:

Achievement Recognition Advancement The task or work itself The worker’s potential for personal learning or growth The worker’s responsibility for results




Herzberg’s Two-Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryFactor Theory

Source: Frederick I. Herzberg,“One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees,” Harvard Business Review, January–February 1968, 53–62.



• Criticisms of Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryMethod of data collection

The information was collected via a potentially biased, structured interview format.

Individual differences Individual differences were discovered to affect the two

factors.Limited sample

Conclusions were based primarily on studies of professionals (i.e., engineers and accountants), whose tasks differ significantly from other kinds of workers.



• McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory Key assumptions:

Basic needs are transmitted or learned through culture and that the need for achievement is a powerful motivator.

A person’s unconscious mind is the key to unlocking his or her particular needs.

Once an individual’s dominant need is identified, it then becomes a matter of understanding how best to satisfy that need.



• McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory (cont’d) Identifying the need

A subject’s written description of a picture was believed to reveal the writer’s needs and motives.

Measuring the need Individual needs were measured using McClelland’s

scoring system for the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

Motivating the individual Once the dominant need of the individual is identified, a

strategy can be developed to satisfy the need.



• McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory (cont’d)Dominant individual needs include:

Need for achievement—a measure of a person’s desire for clear, self-set, moderately difficult goals, with feedback given based on goal achievement.

Need for affiliation—the desire to work with others, to interact with and support others, and to learn the lessons of life through the experiences of others.

Need for power—the desire to have influence and control over others.


Process Theories of Motivation

• Process theory concernsMotivation in relation to how workers’ explicit thought

processes (cognitions) and conscious decisions cause them to select and pursue a specific alternative (choice).

• Process theories:Expectancy theory (Vroom)Equity theory (Adams)


Process Theories of Motivation (cont’d)

• Vroom’s Expectancy (VIE) TheoryProcess people use to evaluate the likelihood that

their efforts will yield the desired outcome and how much they want the outcome; factors include: Expectancy—an individual’s subjective assessment that

an effort will lead to the desired results, or a first-order outcome.

Valence—the value of the outcome (i.e., the reward) to the individual.

Instrumentality—the likelihood that successful task performance will lead to a second-order outcome or a desired reward.




Expectancy Expectancy TheoryTheory



• Applying expectancy theory Ask what outcomes workers desire—workers often prefer

rewards that differ from management’s assumptions. Break down effort-to-performance barriers—provide

workers with tools, information, and an effective production support system.

Clarify and communicate instrumentalities—workers who know that performance will lead to rewards are more likely to work hard.

Develop meaningful self-administered rewards—intrinsic rewards have a perfect instrumentality correlation (–1.0 or 1.0) and require no management action to award them.



• Equity theoryKey assumptions:

In an assessment process, employees make comparisons of their personal reward-to-effort ratio to the perceived ratios of other employees or organizational benchmarks.

Through an adjustment process, employees will seek to rebalance their reward-to-effort ratios when they perceive either an under-reward or over-reward (inequity) condition in their ratios.



Exhibit 10 . 5Exhibit 10 . 5Source: Adapted from Ramon Aldag and T. Stearns. Management, 2nd Ed. (Cincinnati, OH: South-Western, 1991), 422–423.


Environmental Theories of Motivation

• Environmental theory concernsHow persons acquire knowledge used to express

behavior that is rewarded and to avoid behavior that is punished by the environment acting directly on us.

How persons learn indirectly by observing the success or failures of others.

• Environmental theoriesReinforcement theorySocial learning theory


Environmental Theories (cont’d)

• Reinforcement theoryOperant conditioning (reinforcement theory)

Behavior is a function of its consequences (Skinner). Motivation is largely determined by external factors.

– Workers are motivated by the consequences of their work behaviors.

– Behaviors that have positive consequences are likely to be repeated, and those that have negative consequences are likely to be avoided in the future.

– Reinforcement is the process of using contingent rewards to increase occurrences of a specific behavior.



• Reinforcement theory (cont’d)Rewards

Contingent rewards: consequences (outcomes) that are distributed based on a specific, preceding behavior.

Noncontingent rewards: consequences (outcomes) that are not closely linked to any specific behavior.



• Reinforcement theory (cont’d) Increasing the behavior

Positive reinforcement: occurs when a positive consequence (reward) is applied to a desired behavior to increase the frequency of the particular behavior that it follows.

Negative reinforcement: occurs when an unpleasant consequence is withdrawn after the desired behavior occurs.

Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that a desired behavior will occur.



• Reinforcement theory (cont’d)Decreasing behavior

Punishment: the process of administering an undesirable consequence for an undesirable behavior.

Hot stove rule: punishment should be swift, intense, impersonal, and consistent, and it should provide an alternative.

Extinction: the process of non-reinforcement of a behavior—if a behavior is unrewarded, its occurrence will diminish over time.




Contingencies of ReinforcementContingencies of Reinforcement



• Managerial application of reinforcement Immediate reinforcement

Reinforcement should coincide as closely as is practical with the completion of the target behavior.

Reinforcement size The larger the reinforcement after a target behavior, the

greater effect the reinforcement will have on frequency of the behavior in the future.

Relative reinforcement deprivation The more a person is deprived of reinforcement, the

greater the effect that reinforcement will have on future occurrence of the target behavior.



• Social learning theory (Bandura)Key assumptions:

Motivated behavior is a function of observing the success of other people and then doing what worked for them.

Learning is influenced by an individual’s cognitive assessment of what behaviors were previously rewarded in the environment.


Bandura’s Bandura’s Social Social

Learning Learning TheoryTheory


Source: Adapted from Albert Bandura. Social Learning Theory (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1977).


Goal Setting: Applied Motivation Theory

• Goal-setting theoryPeople who set goals outperform those who don’t set

goals.Goals are targeted levels of performance set before

doing the work.Goal setting is an organizational process:

Aligning personal and organizational goals. Rewarding goal attainment.


Goal Setting (cont’d)

• Goal-setting programsManagement by objectives (MBO)Self-management

• Advantages of goal settingSetting goals helps workers to translate general

intentions into a specific action by: Directing attention and action. Mobilizing effort. Creating persistent behavior over time. Leading to strategies for goal attainment.



• Attributes of effective goalsGoal specificity

Specific goals are more effective than ambiguous (such as “do your best”) goals.

Statements of specific goals include four elements: action verb, outcome, deadline, and cost.

Goal difficulty Difficult but attainable goals lead to higher performance

than easy goals. A difficult but attainable goal is typically established

based on relevant data, knowledge, and skills.



• Attributes of effective goals (cont’d)Goal feedback

Can occur at three levels:– In setting the goal (“What should I aim for?”)– In ongoing feedback after the goal is set and work

commences (“How am I doing?”)– In evaluating the final result (“How did I do?”)

Competition Defining a worker’s or work group’s goal in relation to

another worker or work group can increase the goal’s specificity and difficulty.



• Attributes of effective goals (cont’d) Participating in goal setting

Involvement in and control over setting goals encourages a higher degree of commitment to meeting those goals.

Types of goals: Assigned goals Interactive or negotiated goals Self-set goals

powerpoint presentation by charlie cook

Documents

motivation motivation

different needs

model of motivation

basic needs

factor theory contd

primary needs

need of direction

need deficit