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PURDUE UNIVERSITY COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE • WEST LAFAYETTE, IN 47907

PPP-30

PURDUE PESTICIDE PROGRAMSPURDUE PESTICIDE PROGRAMS

Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service

PESTICIDES AND WILDLIFEAn Introduction to Testing, Registration, and Risk Management

Fred Whitford, Coordinator, Purdue Pesticide ProgramsBrian Miller, Wildlife Specialist, Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service

Richard Bennett, Research Ecologist, U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyMargaret Jones, Endangered Species Specialist, U.S. EPA Region 5

Larry Bledsoe, Field Crops Pest Management Specialist, Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service

Edited by

Arlene Blessing, Purdue Pesticide ProgramsDiana Doyle, Purdue University Agricultural Communication Service

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 3

Benefits of Wildlife .............................................................................................................................................. 4

Pesticide Impact Depends on Wildlife Ecology ................................................................................................... 5

Pesticide Poisoning of Wildlife ............................................................................................................................ 6

Investigating Pesticide Effects on Wildlife ........................................................................................................... 7

Federal Pesticide Testing Requirements for Wildlife .......................................................................................... 8

Scientific Research and Regulatory Review of the Pesticide Label ................................................................... 18

Manufacturers Must Report Adverse Effects on Wildlife ..................................................................................... 20

The EPA Special Review Process for Wildlife .................................................................................................... 21

Wildlife Stewardship and Pesticide Management................................................................................................ 21

Practical Suggestions to Benefit Wildlife ............................................................................................................. 22

Special Wildlife Programs ................................................................................................................................... 25

General Instructions for Dealing with Injured or Poisoned Wildlife ..................................................................... 29

The Triangle of Wildlife Protection ...................................................................................................................... 31

Wildlife and Pesticide Resource Agencies ......................................................................................................... 32

Statutes Governing Wildlife and Pesticides ........................................................................................................ 34

Sources of Information ........................................................................................................................................ 37

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................................... 39

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INTRODUCTIONThe diversity of wildlife habitats throughout our country is

surprising. In rural areas fence rows, fields, pastures, ponds,wetlands, and woodlands comprise important habitats for manyspecies of wildlife. Wild species also inhabit urban landscapes,finding food and shelter in lawns, cemeteries, golf courses, parks,etc. Collectively, these habitats—urban, rural, public forest, andpristine areas—provide resources to support plants (flora) andanimals (fauna) that are important and necessary.

Lands that provide habitat for wildlife also may bring them intocontact with human activities. Wildlife species living adjacent tofarmlands may benefit from the crops grown but may be inadvert-ently exposed to pesticides used to reduce insect, weed, anddisease pests of those crops. Urban expansion for new housing,manufacturing facilities, and other activities not only consumesvaluable habitat but also may bring wildlife into contact withpesticides used on turf, ornamental and landscape plantings,gardens, highway rights-of-way, parks, and rodent and mosquitoabatement programs. Pesticides and Wildlife introduces itsreaders to the potential effects of pesticides on wildlife andaquatic organisms; to the process by which ecological safetyassessments are made for registered pesticides; and to pesticideuse recommendations to protect wildlife.

Stephen Adduci

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butterfly slide

observe wildlife. Wildlife viewing tours organized byprofessional wildlife biologists are in demand, andtourism is supported by a cadre of jobs related tolodging, meals, transportation, art, equipment, and themedia. Taxes dedicated from the sale of hunting andfishing licenses and certain outdoor equipment providerevenue to purchase, maintain, and restore wildlifehabitats while monetary support from some govern-ment agencies is dwindling. These user-based taxesalso help finance scientific research on wildlife commu-nities. It is important that we as a society do all we canto maintain and preserve the natural world and benefitfrom its existence.

Fewer than 20 plant species are responsible forfeeding most of the world’s population. However, it isestimated that 80,000 species of edible plants mayhave potential as new food sources; and wild plant andanimal species may become sources of new geneticmaterial with agricultural or medical applications. Forexample, the purple cone flower (a native prairie plant)has an oilseed content greater than that of commer-cially grown sunflowers; and the South American corn

BENEFITS OF WILDLIFEWatching wildlife in natural settings appeals to

persons of all ages and all ethnic, educational, andsocial backgrounds. Eighty-five percent of Americansparticipate in some wildlife observation activity (e.g.,whale, bird, and butterfly watching). Ecotourism hasbecome a lucrative market; many businesses andcommunities actively advertise and attract tourists to

Gen

e W

hite

Endangered species: Mitchell's Satyr (Euptychia mitchellii)

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variety Zea diploperennis has been used to breedresistance to northern corn leaf blight into NorthAmerican corn hybrids, thereby curtailing the likelihoodof a major blight outbreak which might impact grainmarkets. Plants (e.g., Pacific Yew, which producestaxol) and animals also have been shown to harbor anarray of pharmaceutical chemicals whose medicinalproperties may be used to combat disease. Wildlifealso play a role as natural enemies of pest species(e.g., birds eat mosquitoes; snakes consume rodents).

Many of these relationships are known, but manyare yet to be discovered. It is for this reason that wemust ensure that the vast array of plants and animalson our planet is maintained for future generations. It islikely that important connections exist between speciesdiversity, environmental quality, and the long-termsustainability—and profitability—of farming operations.

PESTICIDE IMPACT DEPENDS ONWILDLIFE ECOLOGY

The term wildlife as used here shall include insects,spiders, mammals, birds, fish, amphibians, reptiles,and plants. Each species fills a certain niche whichincludes its specific food, cover, water, space, andbreeding site preferences. The location where aspecies can meet all of its living requirements becomesthat species’ habitat. Wildlife habitats are not just theGrand Canyon, ancient forests of the Pacific North-west, or rich coastal marshes off of the eastern sea-board; they exist across the American landscape.Wildlife habitats—large and small, native and man-made—exist in urban settings, in agricultural fields, andin the wilderness.

Wildlife ecologists and natural resource managersstudy the needs and habits of wildlife. An importantgoal of wildlife research is to discover and understandthe critical factors that affect survival and sustainabilityof viable populations. Most wildlife will adapt andflourish, given sufficient quantity of quality habitat, evenin the presence of people. While ecological studiesmay pinpoint very specific requirements for individualspecies, the lives of plants and animals and theirhabitats can be integrated collectively into a matrix(ecosystem).

Knowledge of the biological and ecological relation-ships of any given plant or animal and the role thatspecies plays in the ecosystem is required to evaluatethe potential impact of a specific pesticide on a specific

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species. The impact of a specific pesticide may benegative, neutral, or positive to a species or its habitatas the chemical’s residues move through the soil,water, food, or air. The interaction of wildlife, its habitat,and pesticides is evaluated by scientists trained inwildlife ecology, population dynamics, physiology, andenvironmental chemistry.

PESTICIDE POISONING OFWILDLIFE

Pesticides are applied in many forms via variousdelivery methods to forests, rangeland, aquatic habi-tats, farmland, rights-of-way, urban turf, and gardens.Their widespread use makes contact with pesticideresidues inevitable for some wildlife. Pesticide poison-ings to wildlife may result from acute or chronic expo-sure. Additionally, pesticides may impact wildlife viasecondary exposure or through indirect effects to theanimal or its habitat.

Acute PoisoningShort exposures to some pesticides may kill or

sicken wildlife. Examples of acute wildlife poisoninginclude fish kills that are caused by pesticide residuescarried to ponds, streams, or rivers by surface runoff orspray drift, and bird die-offs caused by foraging onpesticide-treated vegetation or insects, or by consump-tion of pesticide-treated granules, baits, or seeds.These types of poisonings generally can be substanti-ated by analyzing tissues of affected animals for thesuspected pesticide or by investigating impacts onbiochemical processes (e.g., cholinesterase levels inblood and brain tissue). In general, acute poisoning towildlife takes place over a relatively short time, impactsa very localized geographical area, and is linked to asingle pesticide.

Chronic PoisoningExposure of wildlife over an extended period of time

to pesticide levels not immediately lethal may result inchronic poisoning. The most well-known example of achronic effect in wildlife is that of the organochlorineinsecticide DDT (via the metabolite DDE) on reproduc-tion in certain birds of prey. DDT and other organochlo-rine pesticides such as dieldrin, endrin, and chlordanehave been implicated in bird mortality resulting fromchronic exposure. The reduction of these compoundsin the 1970s and early 1980s has resulted in decreasedorganochlorine residues in most areas, and reproduc-tion in birds such as the bald eagle has greatly

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improved. Organochlorine pesticides used in someforeign countries may pose risk to migratory birdswhich overwinter there.

Secondary PoisoningPesticides may impact wildlife through secondary

poisoning when an animal consumes prey species thatcontain pesticide residues. Examples of secondarypoisoning are (1) birds of prey becoming sick afterfeeding on an animal that is dead or dying from acuteexposure to a pesticide, and (2) the accumulation andmovement of persistent chemicals in wildlife foodchains.

Indirect EffectsA pesticide may affect wildlife in ways other than

direct or secondary poisoning. Pesticides may impactwildlife indirectly when a part of its habitat or foodsupply is modified. For instance, herbicides mayreduce food, cover, and nesting sites needed by insect,bird, and mammal populations; insecticides maydiminish insect populations fed on by bird or fishspecies; insect pollinators may be reduced, therebyaffecting plant pollination. The study of indirect effectsis an emerging area and one that may be difficult toinvestigate.

INVESTIGATING PESTICIDEEFFECTS ON WILDLIFE

Not all pesticides have detrimental effects on allwildlife, nor do pesticide residues necessarily lead toserious consequences for wildlife. The potential impactmust be evaluated by simultaneously considering theavailability of the pesticide or its degradationproduct(s), the toxicological properties of the pesticide,and the ecological characteristics of the exposure. Dueto the complexity of these issues, many scientificdisciplines must play a role in both the studies and theinterpretation of results. The results from scientificstudies aid numerous federal and state natural re-source agencies to assess and manage the effects ofpesticides on wildlife, including endangered species.

The degree of direct impact a pesticide has onwildlife is determined by the sensitivity of a species tothe chemical and the degree to which the species isexposed. Just how safe are pesticides to wildlife? Thefollowing questions help to summarize the complexitythat biologists and toxicologists face when attemptingto evaluate pesticidal effects on wildlife.

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• What level of a pesticide residue or its breakdownproduct (metabolite) is introduced into a wildlife habitatthrough direct application or via the transportation ofresidues in air, water, food, or soil?

• How long does the pesticide remain in theenvironment?

• Is the animal or plant exposed to the pesticide bymechanisms including dermal contact, inhalation, orconsumption of contaminated food or water?

• Is the pesticide capable of producing biochemicaleffects, illness, or death through either single ormultiple exposures?

FEDERAL PESTICIDE TESTINGREQUIREMENTS FOR WILDLIFE

Ultimately, in making decisions and adoptingattitudes about pesticides, one should consider boththe potential benefits and the potential risks of theiruse. Pesticides contribute many positives to oursociety: reduction of insect-vectored and waterbornediseases; production of an abundant food supply thattakes only 10 percent of our disposable income; apositive impact on our balance of trade; nourishmentfor the world; and reduction of soil erosion in conserva-tion tillage programs. Pesticides facilitate the produc-tion of grains, meats, and fibers by less than twopercent of our population, freeing the rest of us topursue other vocations. With the world’s humanpopulation steadily increasing (to 8 billion by the year2025), and with limits on the amount of “new” land thatcan be converted into production, it is likely thatpesticides will continue to play an important role inmeeting our demands for food and fiber.

Though chemical technology has great potential tobenefit humankind, we should act carefully. Thebenefits need to be evaluated continually so that thebalance sheet clearly favors the benefit quotients. Inorder to prevent the use of pesticides that might causeunacceptable adverse effects, testing requirements andreview processes are implemented to identify problemchemicals and allow development of precautions andinstructions for proper use.

The Law Mandates that Pesticides beTested on Wildlife

Pesticide registration is a process that is mandatedby the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and RodenticideAct (FIFRA). The details of implementation are de-scribed in the Code of Federal Regulations Section 40.Both FIFRA and the regulations outline the basic

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framework for registration, rules of conduct, implemen-tation mechanisms, and decision-making guidelines.

Congress delegates the U.S. Environmental Protec-tion Agency (EPA) to assume regulatory responsibili-ties and decision-making authority to administer thefederal pesticide registration process. The registrationprocess is complex and takes considerable time,resources, and expertise on the part of EPA, thepesticide manufacturing industry, and various publicinterest groups. This process is ever-evolving toanswer new questions and meet challenges posed bythe use of pesticides. An expanding series of tests isrequired in response to public concern and improvedtechnology that provides more precise pesticideresidue detections and toxicological assessments. Inaddition, improved methods for hazard predictions,novel approaches to hazard reduction measures, andincorporation of the broadening scope of relevantscientific knowledge into industry and governmentpolicy decisions contribute to changes and improve-ments in the pesticide registration process.

The basic pathway for pesticide registration is: (1)research conducted by the manufacturer prior to itsdecision to pursue registration; (2) data submissionreport by the manufacturer to EPA; (3) EPA review;and (4) a decision by EPA either to register the pesti-cide based on the merits of the data submitted, or todeny registration. The congressional mandate that

EPA

REPORT

REPORT

RESEARCH REPORT

REVIEWPestcide Label

REGISTRATION

Ste

phen

Add

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Ecotoxicology Studies for U.S. Pesticide Registration

Oral LD50

Duck Acute LC50

Trout Nontarget Plants (Tier 1) Acute Honeybee

Oral LD50

Quail Acute LC50

Bluegill Nontarget Plants (Tier 2) Honeybee Foliage

Dietary LC50

Duck Acute LC50

Daphnia Field Testing (Tier 3) Field Testing - Pollinators

Dietary LC50

Quail Acute LC50

Marine Fish

Wild Mammal LC50

Acute LC50

Marine Shrimp

Duck Reproduction Oyster Shell Growth

Quail Reproduction Fish Early Life Stage

Field Pens Invertebrate Life Cycle

Field Monitoring Fish Full Life Cycle

Microcosms

Replicated Ponds (Mesocosm)

Field Monitoring

LD50

= Single oral dose estimated to kill 50% ofexposed organisms

LC50

= Concentration in food or water estimatedto kill 50% of exposed organisms

guides EPA decisions to register a pesticide hinges ona benefit-to-risk analysis of the data. Evaluation ofavailable registration data must provide EPA with anassurance that the pesticide will perform its intendedfunction without unreasonable adverse effects onpeople, wildlife, and the environment.

The EPA registration process for a single chemicalrequires the manufacturer (registrant) to conduct,analyze, and pay for 142 different scientific tests.These tests define product chemistry, risks to humansand domestic animals, the environmental fate of thepesticide, and the pesticide’s impact on nontargetwildlife. Generation of such data for a single compoundmay take 6–10 years and cost millions of dollars.

The following table illustrates the scientific informa-tion required by EPA when considering the registrationof a pesticide.

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UPLAND GAME BIRDS WATERFOWL ESTUARINE/MARINE FISH MAMMALS

northern bobwhite mallard sheepshead minnow mink, rat

--------------- FRESHWATER FISH --------------- ------------------ CRUSTACEAN ------------------

COLD-WATER WARM-WATER FRESHWATER ESTUARINE/MARINE

rainbow trout bluegill Daphnia mysid shrimp

TERRESTRIAL PLANTS AQUATIC PLANTS INSECTS MARINE MOLLUSK

corn, soybeans, lettuce, green algae, diatoms, honeybee eastern oysterryegrass, carrot , sugar beets duckweed

Use of Indicator Species to DetermineImpacts of Pesticides on Wildlife

It is impossible, inadvisable, and illegal to test everyspecies—abundant, threatened, or endangered—witheach pesticide. In the regulatory testing process, thetest species selected are intended to broadly representnontarget organisms. Chosen wildlife species typicallysatisfy the following criteria: ecologically significant;abundant and broadly distributed geographically;susceptible to chemical exposure; commerciallyavailable for testing; and easy to handle in the labora-tory. For life cycle tests, the species must have arelatively short life span. When possible, species thatare aesthetically, recreationally, or commerciallyimportant are studied. These indicator species providethe research scientist and the regulatory decision-maker with an information base for assessing potentialrisks to a broad range of nontarget birds, mammals,fish, aquatic invertebrates, predatory insects, insectpollinators, and plants. The following table lists typicalindicator species.

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Wildlife Testing Must Be Conducted byScientifically Accepted Methods

Toxicological testing and scientific measurementsare conducted under stringent guidelines, approvedmethodologies, and specified reporting requirements.Exacting standards are necessary for consistency inevaluations of pesticide safety and for comparisonsamong chemicals. EPA’s pesticide assessment guide-lines stipulate the following general practices whichmust be adhered to when conducting the various testsrequired for registration:

• Toxicological or phytotoxicological testing nor-mally is not performed on endangered or threatenedspecies.

• Only EPA-recommended wildlife and aquaticorganisms should be used for laboratory testingpurposes.

• The test organisms should be uniform in weight,size, and age.

• Control groups—those not exposed to pesti-cides—should be maintained in a manner similar tothat of the test groups.

• The substance to be tested—the technical gradeof the active ingredient, or the end-use product—isclearly specified. If the test substance is diluted ordissolved for administration, the carrier should notinterfere with adsorption, distribution, or metabolism ofthe test material; alter the chemical properties of thesubstance; enhance or reduce the toxic characteristicsof the test substance; affect food and water consump-tion; or impact the physiological processes of the testorganism.

• Detailed descriptions of the nature, incidence,time of occurrence, severity, and duration of all ob-served toxic effects should be recorded.

• All data generated must be in accordance withestablished Good Laboratory Practices for handlingand care of test organisms.

• Final reports should include all informationnecessary to provide a complete and accurate descrip-tion of test procedures and evaluation of the testresults.

• Responsible parties must confirm by signaturethat appropriate quality assurance and quality controlmethods were followed.

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Examples to Illustrate Wildlife Testing

Test species are exposed to measured amounts ofpesticide to establish acute and chronic responses tovarying concentrations. A dose can be delivered to thetest organisms by various means, depending on thetest: mixed with water in aquarium tanks stocked withfish or invertebrates; given as a single oral dose tomammals and birds; applied topically to honey bees; orincorporated into the diet. Typically, in every short-termtest ten organisms each are exposed at four to fivedose levels to determine mortality or other end pointeffects.

In addition to short-term mortality studies, theeffects of long-term (chronic) pesticide exposures onreproduction, survival, and behavior are measured. Iflaboratory studies indicate that the pesticide has apotential for adverse effects on wildlife, the researchmay be expanded beyond laboratory settings to includestudying and monitoring impacts under actual useconditions.

Northern bobwhites (upland game species) andmallards (waterfowl) are used to conduct a series oftoxicological tests to quantify the short- and long-termimpacts of pesticides on avian wildlife. These speciesgenerally are obtained from pen-reared stock andmaintained under temperature, humidity, lighting, andpen size that conform to good husbandry practices andprotocols established by EPA.

Single-Dose Acute Oral Toxicity LD50 Test

The purpose of this test is to determine thechemical’s acute oral toxicity, expressed as a singledose of material (milligrams per kilogram of bodyweight) that will result in 50 percent mortality amongtest birds. The test provides a measure of a species’sensitivity to a toxic substance. Birds tested must be ingood health, from the same source, and preferablyfrom the same hatch. Birds must be at least 16 weeksold at test initiation and must have been preconditionedto the test facilities for at least 15 days prior to experi-mentation. The standard study uses ten birds for eachof five dose levels. The test material is administeredorally to each bird by direct injection into the stomachor crop, or through the use of capsules. Birds areobserved for a minimum of 14 days, and any mortalityor signs of intoxication are recorded. In addition, aninternal examination is made to determine the conditionof major organs.

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bobwhite slide

Eight-day LC50 Test

The purpose of this test is to determine a chemical’stoxicity to birds, expressed as a concentration of thepesticide in the diet (parts per million) that will produce50 percent mortality among test birds. Birds selectedfor experimentation must be in good health and prefer-ably from the same source and hatch. Bobwhites

should be from 10 to 14 days old at the beginning ofthe test. Birds are preconditioned from hatch on astandard commercial game bird diet. Three to five daysprior to testing, bobwhites or mallards are randomlysegregated into six groups, ten birds per group. Fivegroups are given unrestricted access to feed containingknown concentrations of the pesticide; one groupserves as a control and receives standard commercialfeed that contains no pesticide. Birds are allowed tofeed on the test diets for five days and observed for anadditional three days. During the study period, mortalityand all signs of intoxication, such as immobility and anyabnormal behavior, are recorded daily.

Reproduction TestThe most commonly used test for chronic pesticide

effects on terrestrial wildlife is the avian reproductiontest. The objectives of the study are to determinepesticidal effects on the health and reproductiveperformance of egg-laying adults, on embryo viability,and on the survival of hatchlings. One control and threepesticide-treated dietary concentrations (selected tobracket environmental exposures) are fed to four testgroups of first year breeders. Exposures begin 10weeks prior to egg laying and continue during 10weeks of egg laying. Eggs are collected daily, artificiallyincubated, and checked periodically for embryonicdevelopment; hatchlings are grown on untreated feedfor two weeks to check their viability and growth. Thistest is now conducted for virtually all pesticides.

Jim

Rat

hert

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Risk Assessment: Interpretation ofEnvironmental Effects from ToxicityTesting Data

The first tier of testing consists of short-term, acutetoxicity tests that determine lethal dosages and thegeneral responses of the test animal to the pesticide.These tests include the single-dose oral test for birds,the 8-day dietary subacute test for birds, a 96-hourLC

50 test for fish, and a 48-hour test for aquatic inverte-

brates. A fundamental end point of these tests is todetermine the lethal dose (LD) or lethal concentration(LC) required to kill 50 percent of the test organisms.

Testing Under Field Conditions

From 1987 to 1992, EPA’s Office of PesticidePrograms increasingly required ecotoxicological fieldstudies both for new chemical registrations and as partof the ongoing reregistration process for older pesti-cides. Two major documents, Guidance for ConductingTerrestrial Field Studies and Guidance for ConductingAquatic Mesocosm Studies, were issued to providedetailed recommendations on the implementation ofthese tests. The former document was concernedprimarily with field monitoring of pesticidal impact onbirds under actual use conditions; the latter concernedthe use of test systems composed of constructedponds (0.1 to 0.25 acre surface area) treated withpesticides at rates approximating chemical contamina-tion that might result from runoff and spray drift follow-ing agricultural applications.

After approximately five years of ecotoxicologicalfield testing under these guidance documents, morethan 45 avian field studies and 10 aquatic mesocosmstudies were conducted. But the results did not addsufficient information to agency risk assessments tojustify the time and resources necessary to support thetesting, so EPA discontinued it. In the absence of suchfield testing, EPA is evaluating the risks of pesticidesbased largely on laboratory test results, estimation ofenvironmental exposures through the use of computermodels and literature sources, measured pesticideresidues, and pesticide incident data. When suchanalyses indicate a potential for adverse environmentaleffects, EPA requires pesticide registrants to implementchanges in product use recommendations to lessenthat potential. Under this new testing approach, EPAmay still require field testing in special circumstancesor may require field monitoring to determine if pesticideuse changes have adequately reduced exposures oreffects.

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This value is calculated statistically and expressed asan LD

50 value (single oral dose) or LC

50 value (dietary

exposure or concentration in water). The LD50

valuesare expressed in milligrams of a pesticide per kilogramof animal body weight (mg/kg). The LC

50 values are

expressed in milligrams of a pesticide per kilogram offeed (mg/kg) or per liter of water (mg/l). The metricunits are normally converted to parts per million (ppm)to aid in comparison to environmental residue data.

An initial interpretation of these statistical laboratoryvalues concerns their magnitude: the lower the LD

50 or

LC50

value, the less chemical is required to kill testorganisms. Toxicologists have developed rating scalesfor interpretation of the potency of pesticides, asfollows:

FOR AVIAN DIETARY LC50

LC50

< 50 ppm very highly toxic pesticide

LC50

= 50–500 ppm highly toxic pesticide

LC50

= 501–1000 ppm moderately toxic pesticide

LC50

= 1001–5000 ppm slightly toxic pesticide

LC50

> 5000 ppm practically non-toxic pesticide

FOR AVIAN ACUTE ORAL LD50

LD50


LD50


LD50


LD50


LD50


FOR MAMMAL ACUTE ORAL LD50

LD50


LD50


LD50


LD50


LD50


FOR FISH OR AQUATIC INVERTEBRATE LC50

LC50

< 0.1 ppm very highly toxic pesticide

LC50

= 0.1–1 ppm highly toxic pesticide

LC50


LC50


LC50


Tests in the second tier evaluate longer-termimpacts that might occur. These tests evaluate survival,growth, reproduction, body weight, physiologicalabnormalities, and other effects that may be chemicallyinduced. An important statistical end point of thesestudies is the highest concentration producing noobserved effect: the No Observed Effect Level(NOEL).

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Creek, fence row, field slide

and estimate the direct risks to wildlife from the use of apesticide. Hazard analysis is a comparison betweentoxicity information and the estimated environmentalconcentrations. If the EEC is significantly less than levelsfound to pose acute or chronic problems, the assumptionis that the pesticide will not have a significant adverseimpact on wildlife. Conversely, if the EEC exceeds levelsknown to produce problems, the pesticide residues being

Understanding the short- and long-term toxicologi-cal effects from exposure is the first step for measuringhazards, but pesticide toxicity is only a partial indicationof relative risks to wildlife. Potential exposures have tobe evaluated in order to assess risks accurately. Anestimation of the exposure of wildlife to pesticideresidue in the environment must be determined. It iscalled the Estimated Environmental Concentration(EEC). The EEC for birds and mammals is the concen-tration of the pesticide in or on foods that they mightconsume. This may be determined in special fieldstudies but is most often estimated from variouspublished sources. The EEC for aquatic organismsmay be a range of concentrations representing typicaland worst-case exposures (caused by runoff or spraydrift) that may occur in bodies of water adjacent totreated fields. Aquatic EECs usually are calculated,often with the aid of computer models, but also may bederived from field studies. Field monitoring of exposureand ecological effects still may be required on a case-by-case basis to assess the effectiveness of riskreduction measures.

Cumulative evaluation of laboratory toxicity studies,chemical fate analyses, and (when appropriate)evaluations under actual use conditions provides themanufacturer and EPA with data necessary to evaluate

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evaluated may be expected to produce harm. If thedata indicate a high likelihood of hazard to wildlife, theEPA may require additional or more refined testing,mandate specific label language, classify the pesticidefor restricted use, or recommend against registration.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ANDREGULATORY REVIEW OF THEPESTICIDE LABEL

Each pesticide must receive an EPA registrationbefore it can be sold, distributed, or used in the UnitedStates. EPA’s Office of Pesticide Programs grantsregistration of a product only at the conclusion of athorough evaluation process wherein toxicological,environmental, and product use information is exam-ined. The EPA’s review of the data and the issuance ofa registration complies with the agency’s mandate bythe Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Actthat the potential benefits of use outweigh any potentialrisks: that use according to label directions will notcause unreasonable adverse effects on humans,wildlife, or the environment.

Presumption of Presumption ofMinimal Risk Unacceptable Risk

Non-endangered Endangered

species species

Acute Toxicity

Mammals EEC < 1/5 of LC50 EEC ≥≥≥≥≥ 1/2 of LC50 EEC >1/10 of LC50

EEC < 1/5 of LD50 EEC > 1/2 of LD50 EEC > 1/10 of LD50

Birds EEC < 1/5 of LC50 EEC1 ≥≥≥≥≥ 1/2 of LC50 EEC > 1/10 of LC50

Aquatic Organisms EEC < 1/10 of LC50 EEC ≥≥≥≥≥ 1/2 of LC50 EEC > 1/20 of LC50

Chronic Toxicity EEC < lowest effect level EEC ≥≥≥≥≥ lowest effect level EEC ≥≥≥≥≥ lowest effect level

1Another criterion for birds and mammals specific to granular products is whether the amount of exposedgranules per square foot of soil surface exceeds 1/2 of the LD50 for non-endangered species or is greater than1/10 of the LD50 for endangered species.

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A pesticide’s label is its primary communication tousers. It reflects the numerous scientific studies andregulatory reviews generated by the registrationprocess. The law requires pesticide users to read andfollow label specifications. Through specific andgeneral language, the label addresses potential andactual risks to wildlife (e.g., a label might state that driftand runoff from treated areas may be hazardous toaquatic organisms in neighboring areas).

Environmental Hazards Statement The Environmental Hazards Statement forewarns

the user of potential adverse effects on wildlife and/orthe environment which might result from the use of theproduct. This section of the pesticide label also identi-fies precautions to reduce or prevent exposure ofwildlife and contamination of the environment. Much ofthe label language is determined by the reaction of theindicator species during laboratory toxicity testing or asa result of actual cases of wildlife poisoning attributedto the pesticide. For example:

The following advisory statement must appear in theenvironmental hazard statement if the product isintended for outdoor use other than aquatic applica-tions:

• For terrestrial uses, do not apply directly to water,or to areas where surface water is present, or tointertidal areas below the mean high water mark. Donot contaminate water by the cleaning of equipment ordisposal of wastes.

If the toxicological data indicates... Then the label must give thefollowing instructions:

...Mammalian acute oral LD50 of 100 ppm or less This pesticide is toxic to wildlife.

...Fish acute LC50 of 1 ppm or less This pesticide is toxic to fish.

...Avian acute oral LD50 of 100 ppm or less This pesticide is toxic to wildlife.

...Avian dietary LC50 of 500 ppm or less This pesticide is toxic to wildlife.

...Bee acute toxicity of 2 micrograms or less This pesticide is highly toxic to bees.

...Field studies or investigations indicate This pesticide is extremely toxic tothat the use of the pesticide may result wildlife or fish.in fatality to birds, fish, or mammals.

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Where a hazard to a nontarget organism (excludinghumans and domestic animals) exists, statementsdescribing the nature of the hazard and the appropriateprecautions to avoid potential accident, injury, ordamage are required. These hazard statements areprescribed according to toxicological data (LD

50 or LC

50

values) and field testing.Examples

• This pesticide is extremely toxic to fish andwildlife. Birds and wild mammals utilizing treated areasmay be killed. Do not apply directly to water or to areaswhere surface water is present.

• This product is highly toxic to bees exposed todirect treatment or residues on crops or bloomingweeds. Do not apply this product or allow it to drift toblooming crops or weeds if bees are visiting the areasto be treated.

Information designed to protect valuable resourcesand potential habitats may be indicated in the environ-mental hazards statement of the label by the listing ofthese advisories.Examples

• Pesticide X is a chemical which can travel (seepor leach) through soil and contaminate ground water.Users are advised not to apply pesticide X where thewater table (ground water) is close to the surface andwhere the soils are very permeable.

• Do not apply when weather conditions favor driftfrom target areas.

• This product may not be mixed or loaded within50 feet of intermittent streams and rivers, or natural orimpounded lakes and reservoirs.

MANUFACTURERS MUST REPORTADVERSE EFFECTS ON WILDLIFE

Pesticide registration does not end the oversightprocess by EPA or the responsibility of the manufac-turer. Employees of manufacturers are required underpenalty of fine and/or imprisonment to report anyadverse pesticidal effects not previously submitted toEPA. Manufacturers may become cognizant of newinformation as a result of continued laboratory testingor learn of incidents where field use of a productharmed wildlife or contaminated the environment. EPA,in cooperation with the pesticide manufacturer, mayreview labels as new information becomes available toensure that the language is specific enough to protectwildlife. In addition, EPA may undertake a specialreview to determine whether their prior registrationdecisions continue to provide adequate environmentalprotection.

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THE EPA SPECIAL REVIEWPROCESS FOR WILDLIFE

The special review process (40 CFR Part 154.7)allows EPA legal recourse to reconsider all data,wildlife incidents, and regulatory decisions relevant to aprior registration of a pesticide. Four of the six criterialisted for special review specifically mention nontargeteffects, effects on endangered species, habitat destruc-tion, and the environment. Wildlife considerations,therefore, are important to decisions on the continuedregistration of pesticides.

A special review can be initiated anytime there isevidence that the use of a pesticide will cause unrea-sonable adverse effects on wildlife. Typically, a specialreview goes beyond the comparison of estimatedenvironmental concentration to toxicity values andincludes evaluations of field studies or field incidents.Following a comprehensive reevaluation of the pesti-cide, EPA may 1) take no action, 2) alter the pesticidelabel language to further minimize risk, 3) classify thepesticide for restricted use, 4) eliminate specific uses,or 5) cancel or suspend the registration.

WILDLIFE STEWARDSHIP ANDPESTICIDE MANAGEMENT

Often there is more than one product or manage-ment practice available to control a particular pest. But,ideally, the decision to purchase a pesticide should bebased on more than a comparison of cost and perfor-mance among product choices. An important consider-ation is a review of the various pesticide labels forhazards to wildlife; users should select a product that isefficacious and presents the least potential for hazardto nontarget wildlife in the area to be treated.

The decision to protect wildlife and practice pesti-cide stewardship goes hand and glove with any pur-chasing decision. For wildlife protection and productstewardship to occur simultaneously, special attentionhas to be given to the biological and environmentaluniqueness of the application site and to any adjoiningwildlife habitats. The decision to use a pesticide impliesthat the user is willing to follow precisely all instruc-tional and precautionary language and accepts thelabel as a legal document; yet the label cannot predictand give precise advice for every situation where thatpesticide may be applied. The pesticide user shouldexercise common sense and be alert to wildlife thatinhabits the application site and surrounding areas.

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Users also can supplement label directions withadditional measures beyond label guidelines to protectthe integrity of a habitat and its corresponding wildlifepopulations.

Waterway in pasture

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS TOBENEFIT WILDLIFE

Seek the advice of wildlife, conservation, andpesticide professionals at universities, state and federalagencies, and private foundations for strategies toimprove wildlife habitat and for advice on the use ofpesticides and alternative pest control strategies.Implementation of the management suggestions thatfollow will benefit wildlife and simultaneously allow forcontrol of damaging insect, weed, and disease pests.Remember, with all of these suggestions the user mustbe consistent with the pesticide label.

Be Careful around Natural Areas onYour Property

• All wildlife need natural areas in which to feed,rest, reproduce, raise young, and take shelter. Createwildlife habitat by encouraging and promoting thegrowth of native vegetation. This also reduces mowingcosts and saves time.

• Select disease and insect resistant trees andshrubs to plant on your property, thereby reducing theneed for pesticide use.

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• Prevent wildlife poisonings by storing pesticidesand wildlife feed separately.

• Do not feed wildlife near pesticide storage andmixing areas.

Wildlife Will Benefit When YouUnderstand and Follow Pesticide Labels

• Keep wildlife habitats in mind when readinglabels.

• Compare labels and select highly specific prod-ucts which pose reduced risks to nontarget species.Read the label carefully and use the lowest effectiverate.

• Calibrate equipment carefully to assure that thepesticide is applied at labeled rates.

• Ask the retail outlet for the Endangered SpeciesBulletin when indicated by the label, or contact federaland state agricultural and conservation agencies forbulletins.

• Take heed of the label. The environmental andwildlife precautions on labels are based on scientificand regulatory actions. They must be followed. It’s thelaw, good business, and the right thing to do!

• Consult state agricultural agency and Coopera-tive Extension Service educators for additional assis-tance on label clarification or to determine potentialpesticidal impacts on wildlife. Also, consult state naturalresource agencies, natural heritage programs, and theNature Conservancy for additional information aboutwildlife, native vegetation, and endangered species.

Geese feeding near urban pond

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Be on the Alert for Wildlife Before andDuring Pesticide Applications

• If you can identify areas that are frequented bywildlife–especially flocks of birds–avoid spraying nearthose areas or, if possible, reduce the application rates.

• Homeowners should search for bird and mammalnests prior to spraying fruit trees, shrubs, or lawns,then avoid spraying near those areas.

• Investigate the use of alternative pest controltactics—mechanical, cultural, biological—when avail-able and practical (e.g., tillage, crop rotation, pest

resistant plants,natural predators,trapping).

• Scouting andpest identificationare critical compo-nents of wisepesticide use. Tosave money andreduce impacts onwildlife, applypesticides onlywhen pests are

present at unacceptable levels. Your CooperativeExtension educator can provide guidelines.

• Remember, it is important to guard againstpesticide drift and runoff. Apply pesticides under low,directional wind conditions; and use adjuvants whenappropriate. Use buffer zones of unsprayed crops orgrass strips adjacent to important habitats to helpprotect wildlife.

• Adjust application schedules to reduce likelihoodof runoff. Do not make pesticide applications when rainis imminent. Surface runoff may move some pesticidesinto ponds, streams, and wetlands inhabited by wildlife.In urban areas, such runoff may flow into storm drainsleading directly to streams and rivers, without treat-ment. Moreover, pesticide that is washed off is moneylost.

• Multiple pesticide applications may have cumula-tive effects, especially during breeding seasons.Reduce frequency of applications, when possible, andtarget each application to the specific site of the pestinstead of making broad applications over entire fieldsor lawns.

• Control weeds and insects in home lawns andgardens by spot treating to reduce the amount ofpesticide applied.

• Where practical, eliminate the use of pesticides inand around field edges and corners, fence rows, set-

Robin slide

Gen

e W

hite

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aside acreage, nesting sites, vegetation near streamsand wetlands, and areas that are dedicated to wildlife(except for spot treatment to control state listed noxiousweeds). Especially important are sensitive areas suchas endangered species habitats, native plant communi-ties, and sinkholes.

• Check the label for instructions on incorporatingpesticide granules into the soil or watering them intoturf: The product reaches the target pests morereadily, and foraging birds are less likely to ingestgranules.

• Never spray leftover pesticides or wash offequipment near wetlands, rivers, streams, creeks,potholes, ponds, marshes, sinkholes, other wildlifehabitats, or drains leading to these areas. Dispose ofleftover pesticide in an approved manner as specifiedby the label.

SPECIAL WILDLIFE PROGRAMS

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service(United States Department of the Interior)

National Marine Fisheries Service(United States Department of Commerce)

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 and itssubsequent amendments comprise the major federallegislation that protects not only threatened or endan-gered wild plants and animals, but also critical habitatsand ecosystems that support those and many otherspecies. Referring to endangered or threatened plantsand animals, ESA states in the preamble that “thesespecies of fish, wildlife, and plants are of aesthetic,ecological, educational, historical, recreational, andscientific value to the nation and its people.”

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the NationalMarine Fisheries Service are responsible for identifyingcandidate species for federal endangered speciesprotection. Species proposed for listing are madepublic through a notice of review in the Federal Regis-ter. This notice of review is the process whereby thesetwo federal agencies ask all interested persons andorganizations for biological and ecological informationon each species on the proposed list. Currently 3,600species or subspecies of plants and animals have beenidentified as candidates for listing.

In the United States, information sufficient to moveapproximately 600 species from candidate status to theUnited States List of Endangered and ThreatenedWildlife and Plants has been gathered. Federally listedspecies are given full federal protection: No one shall

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“harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap,capture, or collect, or attempt to engage in any suchconduct.” All federal agencies (e.g., EnvironmentalProtection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers)must comply with ESA by ensuring that their activitieswill not jeopardize the continued existence of a listedspecies.

EPA Office of Pesticide Programs’Endangered Species Protection Program

ESA mandates that federal agencies shall notundertake activities or make decisions whose conse-quences will adversely impact the existence of federallythreatened or endangered species or their habitats.EPA must comply with the provisions of ESA in assur-ing that a pesticide registration does not create thepotential for exposure of, or otherwise jeopardize, afederally listed species. The scope of this programcovers all outdoor uses of pesticides, including homeand garden uses.

The Endangered Species Protection Program hastwo phases: consultation and implementation. TheEPA’s “may affect” determination takes place prior toformal consultation with the United States Fish andWildlife Service (FWS) and is the key to initiatingconsultation. Following are the fundamental steps inthe process:

• Species which potentially could be impacted bythe use of pesticides are identified. EPA, the UnitedStates Department of Agriculture, and FWS havecollaboratively ranked approximately 93 species forpesticide vulnerability.

• Pesticides that may impact any of these speciesare identified. EPA identifies the pesticides registeredfor use in areas within the range of a protected speciesand issues what is known as “may affect” determina-tion.

• EPA may eliminate a “may affect” determination.EPA may remove a “may affect” determination throughpesticide use limitations that are sufficient to achieve a“no effect” determination.

• Environmental Protection Agency consults withthe Fish and Wildlife Service on the remaining “mayeffect” determinations. EPA requests a formal consulta-tion with the Fish and Wildlife Service. A thoroughreview of the species allows FWS to develop a Biologi-cal Opinion, which indicates if harm is likely to resultfrom pesticide exposure to a specific organism in aspecific habitat. This Biological Opinion will specifyreasonable and prudent measures, such as specificpesticide use limitations, that EPA must implement toprotect the species.

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Marsh drawing

• Habitat maps are developed. Where there ispotential for impact, EPA develops species habitatmaps within an Endangered Species Bulletin. Thebulletin identifies pesticides that may harm the speciesand describes use limitations necessary to protectthem.

• Pesticide users must read labels. Pesticide labelsalert the pesticide user to refer to county EndangeredSpecies Bulletins. If the area in which the user will bemaking an application is included in the bulletin, theuser must comply with all of the provisions. Thebulletin becomes a part of the labeling and thereforecarries the full force of law if not properly followed.

Program implementation includes several compo-nents, depending on the approach to protection se-lected by state pesticide regulatory agencies. Currently,there is an EPA interim program in which some pilotstates are conducting activities to protect endangeredspecies from pesticides. The federal approach toprotection is through labels, bulletins, and fact sheets.The label refers the user to a bulletin and a toll-freeendangered species hotline number to call for informa-tion about endangered species, such as whether thereis a bulletin available for the county. The user mustcomply with use restrictions in the bulletin, whichcontains a map, a list of pesticides, and use limitationssuch as buffer zones or limitations on applicationmethods.

State “Protection from Pesticides” PlansAbout one-fourth of the states manage or are

developing their own programs to protect federallylisted species from pesticide injury as an alternative to,or in addition to, the EPA labeling program. In manycases, protection is accomplished by providing informa-tion and education on endangered species and pesti-cides directly to affected landowners, land managers,operators, applicators, and dealers. Pesticide manage-ment plans are negotiated jointly with users for landsnear these species. Some states are involved inmapping, developing protection guidelines, or in otherways providing protection from potential harm frompesticides. State plans need the approval of FWS andEPA and can substitute for EPA bulletins and factsheets. Some excellent brochures have been devel-oped by state programs.

State Wildlife Resource ManagementPrograms

States have considerable responsibility in protectingwildlife. State biologists are actively creating speciesinventories from which a better understanding ofdistribution and abundance can be obtained. Using the

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guidelines established by the Minnesota Department ofNatural Resources, most states adopt similar strategiesto help protect wildlife and habitat.

• Identification of Species and Habitats and SettingPriorities for Conservation. A comprehensive biologicalinventory of the state’s endangered species and naturalhabitats is the first step toward their protection. Withoutthis information, responsible management decisionscannot be made concerning the fauna and flora of anarea.

• Protection by Saving the Best and the Rarest.After identification, ecologically significant lands areprotected by acquisition, conservation easement, orlandowner registry. Creative partnerships among publicagencies, private conservation organizations, andprivate landowners are the key to protecting all themajor types of wildlife habitat.

• Stewardship by Managing EndangeredSpecies and Unique Habitats. The protectionof threatened natural lands is critical in theconservation process. Active management,including monitoring and restoration, often isrequired to maintain the ecological conditionsnecessary for long-term survival of endan-gered species and their habitats.

• Promoting Public Awareness ThroughEducation. Educational programs enhancepublic awareness of the loss of natural habitatand the potential jeopardy to endangered

Marsh drawing

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species will result in increased public support forconservation initiatives.

Federal/State Pesticide ApplicatorCertification Programs

The certification process was established to providetechnical knowledge for those using restricted-usepesticides—those pesticides that pose the greatest riskof harm to people, wildlife, and the environment ifhandled improperly. The certification process generallyinvolves educa-tional training andexaminations thatcover pest biology,human health andsafety, environ-mental issues(e.g., water qualityand endangeredspecies), regula-tory updates, labelinterpretation, andother job-specificinformation.Nationally, thereare approximately one million applicators certified topurchase and apply restricted-use pesticides. Certifiedapplicators are generally required to retest periodicallyor attend pesticide education programs to maintaintheir certification.

P/A training slide:people sitting attables

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FORDEALING WITH INJURED ORPOISONED WILDLIFE

The handling of listed species requires a federalendangered species permit except for employees oragents of a state or federal conservation agency whoare acting in an official capacity. If you discover injuredor dead wildlife, do not handle it. Call a wildlife lawenforcement agent with either your state conservationagency or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for infor-mation and instructions; both should be listed in yourtelephone directory under government agencies.

The primary objective for sick or injured wildlife iseffective treatment and care; for carcasses, the objec-tive is preservation for proper diagnosis of the cause ofdeath. If pesticides are suspected or known to be thecause—whether the species is endangered or not—information on pesticides known to have been used inthe area will be useful: product name, EPA registrationnumber, date of application, conditions before and afterapplication, etc.

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Stephen Adduci

31

THE TRIANGLE OF WILDLIFEPROTECTION

Among the goals of society is our ambition toprovide citizens with meaningful employment, appropri-ate food, good health, decent housing, a safe environ-ment, and quality education. Government, industry,and the general public must approach economicproductivity in a manner that is ecologically and envi-ronmentally sound. Most wildlife species do not havethe luxury of moving to new habitats when exposed topesticides. Wildlife species must adapt to changes intheir habitat—or cease to exist.

A diverse, healthy flora and fauna are indicators of ahealthy ecosystem. It behooves each of us to take ourenvironmental responsibilities seriously and to take allreasonable steps necessary to protect wildlife fromhazards posed by pesticides.

The responsibility for ensuring that wildlife isprotected from potential adverse pesticidal effects canbe viewed as a triangle of wildlife protection: manufac-turers, government, and the pesticide user. Themanufacturer must develop products, supported bysound scientific studies, that allow for the maximumbenefits of use with minimal risk to wildlife and itshabitat. Local, state, and federal government mustestablish standards for pesticide use and promoteresearch addressing wildlife contaminant issues. Thepesticide user—farmer, homeowner, and professionalapplicator—must follow pesticide label instructions andstrive to apply pesticides as carefully as possible, withwildlife protection in mind. Protection and sustainabilityof our environmental heritage is a task requiring thesupport of all.

32

Purdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indiana

• Purdue Pesticide Programs, Purdue UniversityCooperative Extension Service. (765) 494-4566

~ For pesticide applicator education and public outreach

• Department of Forestry and Natural Resources.(765) 494-3591

~ For wildlife management education

• Office of the Indiana State Chemist. (765) 494-1492

~ For pesticide applicator certification and licensing;pesticide registration; enforcement

Indiana Department of Natural Resources402 West Washington Street, Room W296Indianapolis, Indiana 46204

• Division of Forestry~ For forest management assistance

• Division of Fisheries and Wildlife~ For wildlife management assistance

U.S. Department of AgricultureNational Program Leader, Cooperative Extension ServiceSouth Ag Building1400 Independence Avenue, SWWashington, DC 20450-0900

• National Pesticide Program~ Liaison between federal government and state pesticide

educators

• National Integrated Pest Management Program~ Liaison between federal government and state IPM

specialists

• National Fish and Wildlife Program~ Liaison between federal government and state wildlife

specialists

WILDLIFE AND PESTICIDERESOURCE AGENCIES

33

U.S. Department of the Interior

• Fish and Wildlife Service1849 C Street, NW

Washington, DC 20240

~ For wildlife management—research, technical assistance,and enforcement

• Patuxent Wildlife Research CenterLaurel, Maryland 20708

~ For wildlife research—pesticide and contaminant effectson wildlife

• Division of Endangered SpeciesFort Snelling Federal Building

Twin Cities, Minnesota 55111

~ For fisheries research—pesticide hazards to aquaticorganisms

• National Fish Contaminants Research CenterRoute 2, 4200 New Haven Road

Columbia, Missouri 65201

~ Fisheries research—pesticide hazards to aquaticorganisms

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency401 M Street, SWWashington, DC 20406

• Office of Pesticide Programs~ For pesticide registration, environmental risk assessment,

and evaluation of environmental and wildlife data forregistration

• Regional Offices~ Atlanta (404) 562-9900

~ Boston (617) 918-1111

~ Chicago (312) 353-2000

~ Dallas (214) 655-2000

~ Denver (303) 312-6312

~ Kansas City, KS (913) 551-7003

~ New York (212) 637-3000

~ Philadelphia (215) 814-5000

~ San Francisco (415) 744-1305

~ Seattle (206) 553-

WILDLIFE AND PESTICIDERESOURCE AGENCIES (continued)

34

16 U.S.C. 688-668C Eagle Protection Prohibits import, Civil: $5,000Act 1940 export, taking of Criminal:

bald and golden $100,000/one year,eagles. $250,000/two years

(second offense)

16 U.S.C. 703-712 Migratory Bird Prohibits hunting, Criminal:Treaty Act 1918 taking, possession, $25,000/six months,

etc., of migratory $250,000/two yearsbirds. (felony sale)

16 U.S.C. 718 Migratory Bird Requires hunting Criminal:Hunting and stamps prior to taking $25,000/six monthsConservation migratory waterfowl.Stamp Act 1934

18 U.S.C. 42; Lacey Act 1981 Ensures humane Civil: $10,00016 U.S.C. 3371-3378 treatment for wildlife Criminal:

shipped to U.S. $100,000/one yearControls smuggling/ $250,000/five yearstrade in illegally (felony sale/purchase)taken fish andwildlife.

16 U.S.C. 1361-1407 Marine Mammal Moratorium on Civil: $10,000Protection Act taking and importation Criminal:1972 of marine mammals. $100,000/one year

Defines federalresponsibility forconservation ofmarine mammals.

U.S. Code Title Intent Fine/Penalty

STATUTES GOVERNING WILDLIFEAND PESTICIDES

35

16 U.S.C. 742j-1 The Airborne Prohibits taking wild- Criminal:Hunting Act 1956 life from aircraft $100,000/one year.

except when protecting Allows forfeiture ofwildlife, livestock, or guns, aircraft, andhuman health. equipment.

16 U.S.C. National Wildlife Guidelines and Criminal:668dd-668ee Refuge System directives for manage- $100,000/one year

Administration Act ment of wildlife1966 refuges and areas

for protection of fish,wildlife, etc.

16 U.S.C. 1531-1543 Endangered Prohibits importation, Civil: $25,000Species Act 1973 taking, etc., of fish, Criminal:

wildlife, and plants $100,000/one yearthat are listed as (knowing violation)threatened andendangered. Alsoimplements the conven-tion on internationaltrade in endangeredspecies of wild faunaand flora (CITES).

16 U.S.C. 721-731 Upper Mississippi Guidelines for the Criminal:Refuge Act 1924 upper Mississippi $25,000/six months.

National Wildlife and Forfeiture of fish,Fish Refuge. wildlife, guns, fishing

equipment, and boatsused contrary to thestatute.


STATUTES GOVERNING WILDLIFEAND PESTICIDES (continued)

36

16 U.S.C. 4901 et seq. Wild Bird Conser- Moratorium on all Civil: $25,000vation Act 1992 imports of exotic Criminal: 2 years

birds except forscientific research,breeding, personallyowned pets.

7 U.S.C 121-136y Federal Insecticide, Registration of Civil: $5,000Fungicide, and pesticides; risk/ (companies andRodenticide Act benefit standard; commercial),1947* data requirements. $1,000 (farmer).

Criminal:$50,000/one year(companies),$25,000/one year(applicator),$1,000/30 days(farmer)

33 U.S.C. 2401-2410 Organotin Prohibits use of Civil: $5,000Antifouling Paint antifouling paints on Criminal:Control Act 1988 ships <25 meters; $25,000/one year

toxicity to shellfish.

16 U.S.C. 4701-4751 Aquatic Nuisance Research into Civil: $25,000/dayPrevention and environmental effects of Criminal:Control Act 1990 ballast; zebra mussel $250,000 (indiv.) or

demonstration project; 2 x value of the lossprevention and control or damage;of aquatic nuisance $500,000 (corp.)species. or 2 x the value of

the loss or pecuniarygain/0-25 years


(continued)

STATUTES GOVERNING WILDLIFEAND PESTICIDES

*The first legislation regulating pesticide use was the Insecticide Act of 1910.

37

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Bryan, G. and J. Pease. 1992. Agricultural Pesticides andWildlife: A Balancing Act. Iowa State University CooperativeExtension Service.

Edge, W. and L. Ketchum. 1992. Endangered Speciesand Pesticides: Balancing Protection and Production. OregonState University Cooperative Extension Service. VTP 006.

Environmental Protection Agency. 1988. PesticideAssessment Guidelines Subdivision E Hazard Evaluations:Wildlife and Aquatic Organisms. U.S. Environmental Protec-tion Agency.

Environmental Protection Agency. 1992. Framework forEcological Rish Assessment. U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency. EPA 630/R-92/001.

Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. A Review ofEcological Assessment Case Studies from a Risk Assess-ment Perspective. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.EPA 630/R-92/005.

Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. Status ofPesticides in Reregistration and Special Review. U.S.Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 738/R-94/008.

Fish and Wildlife Service. 1991. Why Save EndangeredSpecies? United States Department of the Interior.

Fish and Wildlife Service. 1991. Placing Animals andPlants on the List of Endangered and Threatened Species.United States Department of the Interior.

Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. National Survey ofFishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation. UnitedStates Department of the Interior.

Fite, E., L. Turner, N. Cook and C. Stunkard. 1988.Guidance Document for Conducting Terrestrial Field Studies.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 540/09-88-109.

Hamilton, S. and J. Pease. 1993. Agricultural PesticideImpacts on Prairie Wetlands. Iowa State University Coopera-tive Extension Service.

Hill, E. and D. Hoffman. 1984. Avian Models for ToxicityTesting. Journal of the American College of Toxicology,Vol. 3:357-76.

Hudson, R., R. Tucker and M. Haegele. 1984. Handbookof Toxicity of Pesticides To Wildlife. United States Depart-ment of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service. ResourcePublication 153.

Martin, A., F. Whitford, J. Becovitz and C. Rew. 1993.Pesticides and Applicator Certification. Purdue UniversityCooperative Extension Service. PPP-25.

Messmer, T. and G. Dahl. 1991. Wildlife and Pesticides:A Practical Guide to Reducing the Risk. North Dakota StateUniversity Extension Service. WL-1017.

38

Miller, B. 1993. Hoosier Farmland Wildlife Notes: Foster-ing Wildlife in Agriculture. Purdue University CooperativeExtension Service.

Miller, J. 1991. National Program Guidance StatementExtension Wildlife and Recreational Fisheries. CooperativeExtension Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Miller, B. and J. Seifert. 1992. Forestry and WildlifeManagement Assistance Available to Indiana Landowners.Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service. FNR-87.

Miller, B., V. Stiles and S. Wilds. 1990. Managing Forestand Wildlife Resources: An Integrated Approach. PurdueUniversity Cooperative Extension Service, FNR-125.�

Palmer, W. and P. Bromley. 1992. Pesticides and Wildlife.North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Ag-463-1through AG-463-7.

Palmer, W. and P. Bromley. 1992. Wildlife and Agricul-tural Pesticide Use. North Carolina State CooperativeExtension Service. AG-475.

Smith, G. 1987. Pesticide Use and Toxicology in Relationto Wildlife: Organophosphorus and Carbamate Compounds.Fish and Wildlife Service. U.S. Department of the Interior.Resource Publication 170.

Stinson, E. and P. Bromley. 1991. Pesticides and Wildlife:A Guide to Reducing Impacts on Animals and Their Habitat.Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. Pub. 420-004.

Touart, L. 1988. Technical Guidance Document forAquatic Mesocosm Tests to Support Pesticide Registrations.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Urban, D. and N. Cook. 1986. Ecological Risk Assess-ment. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 540/9-85-001.

Whitford, F. 1993. Pesticide Facts and Perceptions:Communicating with Producers and Consumers. Journal ofExtension. Vol. 31: 9-11.

Whitford, F., D. Barber, E. Scott, C. Edwards and J.Caravetta. 1993. Pesticides and the Label. Purdue UniversityCooperative Extension Service. PPP-24.

Whitford, F., R. Corrigan, G. Ruhl, B. Lerner, Z. Reicherand T. Gibb. 1994. Pesticides and the Home, Lawn, andGarden. Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service.PPP-29.

Whitford, F., J. Neu, B. Brousseau, T. Hardy, J. Impsonand D. Rider. 1991. State Departments of Agriculture:Pesticide and Environmental Specialists of the 1990’s.American Entomologist. Vol. 37: 27-34.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION (continued)

39

Partial funding for this publication was made availablefrom the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 5.Support also was provided by the Branch of Extension andPublications, Office of Training and Education, U.S. Fish andWildlife Service.

The senior author is extremely grateful to RichardBalcomb, Ciba Plant Protection, for his expertise and techni-cal assistance; to Stephen Adduci for his original illustrations;and to Gene White, Eugene White Photography, and JimRathert, Missouri Conservation Department, for their wildlifephotographs. The authors are very grateful to to the followingreviewers for comments and suggestions that greatly im-proved the breadth and scope of Pesticides and Wildlife.

Robert Bielarski, Certification and Training Branch, U.S.Environmental Protection Agency

Peter Bromley, Extension Wildlife Specialist, NorthCarolina Cooperative Extension Service

Richard Brown, Manager, Environmental Fate & EffectsSection, Zeneca

David Deegan, Certification and Training Branch, U.S.Environmental Protection Agency

David Fischer, Terrestrial Group Leader, Miles Inc.Julie Fry, Certification and Training Branch, U.S. Environ-

mental Protection AgencyThomas Hampton, Purdue University Cooperative

Extension Service County EducatorWoody Hill, Wildlife Toxicologist, U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Services Patuxent Wildlife Research CenterRon Johnson, Extension Wildlife Specialist, Nebraska

Cooperative Extension ServiceLinda Lyon, Fish and Wildlife Biologist, U.S. Fish and

Wildlife ServiceTerry Messmer, Extension Wildlife Specialist, Utah State

UniversityEllen Mihaich, Environmental Toxicologist, Rhone-PoulencJim Miller, National Program Leader–Fish and Wildlife

Natural Resources and Rural Development, U.S. Departmentof Agriculture Extension Service

Lisa Mueller, Endangered Species Protection Program,Minnesota Department of Agriculture

Ursula Petersen, Endangered Species Specialist, Wiscon-sin Department of Agriculture, Trade and Consumer Protec-tion

Ann Stavola, Supervisory Biologist, Ecological EffectsBranch, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Larry Turner, Project Manager, EPA Endangered SpeciesProtection Program, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Barry Wilson, Department of Avian Sciences, University ofCalifornia at DavisCopies of this publication can be obtained from the Purdue University Media

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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The information given herein is supplied with the understanding that no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by the Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service is implied.

It is the policy of the Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service that all persons have equal opportunity and access to its educational programs, services, activities, and facilities without regardto race, religion, color, sex, age, national origin or ancestry, marital status, parental status, sexual orientation, disability or status as a veteran. Purdue University is an affirmative Action institution.This material may be available in alternative formats.

REVIEWED 3/08

ppurdueurdue p pesticideesticide p …wildlife ecology the term wildlife as used here shall include...

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