Prayer

For other uses, see Prayer (disambiguation).“Pray” redirects here. For other uses, see Pray (disam-biguation).Prayer (from the Latin precari “to ask earnestly, beg,

Praying Hands by Albrecht Dürer

entreat”)[1] is an invocation or act that seeks to activatea rapport with an object of worship through deliberatecommunication.Prayer can be a form of religious practice, may be ei-ther individual or communal and take place in public orin private. It may involve the use of words, song or com-plete silence. When language is used, prayer may take theform of a hymn, incantation, formal creedal statement,or a spontaneous utterance in the praying person. Thereare different forms of prayer such as petitionary prayer,prayers of supplication, thanksgiving, and praise. Prayermay be directed towards a deity, spirit, deceased person,or lofty idea, for the purpose of worshipping, request-ing guidance, requesting assistance, confessing transgres-sions (sins) or to express one’s thoughts and emotions.Thus, people pray for many reasons such as personal ben-

efit, asking for divine grace, spiritual connection, or forthe sake of others.Some anthropologists believe that the earliest intelligentmodern humans practiced a form of prayer. Today, mostmajor religions involve prayer in one way or another;some ritualize the act of prayer, requiring a strict se-quence of actions or placing a restriction on who is per-mitted to pray, while others teach that prayer may bepracticed spontaneously by anyone at any time.Scientific studies regarding the use of prayer have mostlyconcentrated on its effect on the healing of sick or injuredpeople. Meta-studies of the studies in this field have beenperformed showing evidence only for no effect or a po-tentially small effect. For instance, a 2006 meta analy-sis on 14 studies concluded that there is “no discernableeffect” while a 2007 systemic review of studies on inter-cessory prayer reported inconclusive results, noting that 7of 17 studies had “small, but significant, effect sizes” butthe review noted that the most methodologically rigorousstudies failed to produce significant findings.[2][3] Somestudies have indicated increased medical complicationsin groups receiving prayer over those without.[4][5] Theefficacy of petition in prayer for physical healing to a de-ity has been evaluated in numerous other studies, withcontradictory results.[6][7][8][9] There has been some crit-icism of the way the studies were conducted.[5][10]

1 Act of prayer

Christians inprayer

Muslim men

1

2 2 ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS

prostrating during prayer in a mosque

The act of prayer is attested in written sources as earlyas 5000 years ago.[11] Some anthropologists, such asSir Edward Burnett Tylor and Sir James George Frazer,believed that the earliest intelligent modern humanspracticed something that we would recognize today asprayer.[12]

Various spiritual traditions offer a wide variety of de-votional acts. There are morning and evening prayers,graces said over meals, and reverent physical gestures.Some Christians bow their heads and fold their hands.Some Native Americans regard dancing as a form ofprayer.[13] Some Sufis whirl.[14] Hindus chant mantras.[15]Jewish prayer may involve swaying back and forthand bowing.[16] Muslims practice salat (kneeling andprostration) in their prayers. Quakers keep silent.[17]Some pray according to standardized rituals and liturgies,while others prefer extemporaneous prayers. Still otherscombine the two.Friedrich Heiler is often cited in Christian circles for hissystematic Typology of Prayer which lists six types ofprayer: primitive, ritual, Greek cultural, philosophical,mystical, and prophetic.[18] Some forms of prayer requirea prior ritualistic form of cleansing or purification such asin ghusl and wudhu.[19]

Prayer may be done privately and individually, or it maybe done corporately in the presence of fellow believers.Prayer can be incorporated into a daily “thought life”,in which one is in constant communication with a god.Some people pray throughout all that is happening dur-ing the day and seek guidance as the day progresses. Thisis actually regarded as a requirement in several Christiandenominations,[20] although enforcement is not possiblenor desirable. There can be many different answers toprayer, just as there are many ways to interpret an answerto a question, if there in fact comes an answer.[20] Somemay experience audible, physical, or mental epiphanies.If indeed an answer comes, the time and place it comes isconsidered random. Some outward acts that sometimesaccompany prayer are: anointing with oil;[21] ringing abell;[22] burning incense or paper;[23] lighting a candle orcandles; See, for example, facing a specific direction (i.e.towards Mecca[24] or the East); making the sign of thecross. One less noticeable act related to prayer is fasting.A variety of body postures may be assumed, often withspecific meaning (mainly respect or adoration) associatedwith them: standing; sitting; kneeling; prostrate on thefloor; eyes opened; eyes closed; hands folded or clasped;hands upraised; holding hands with others; a laying on ofhands and others. Prayers may be recited from memory,read from a book of prayers, or composed spontaneouslyas they are prayed. They may be said, chanted, or sung.They may be with musical accompaniment or not. Theremay be a time of outward silencewhile prayers are offeredmentally. Often, there are prayers to fit specific occasions,

such as the blessing of a meal, the birth or death of a lovedone, other significant events in the life of a believer, ordays of the year that have special religious significance.Details corresponding to specific traditions are outlinedbelow.

2 Abrahamic religions

2.1 Bible

Our Father who art in heaven,hallowed be thy name.Thy kingdom come,Thy will be done,on earth, as it is in heaven.Give us this day our daily bread,and forgive us our trespasses,as we forgive those who trespass against us.And lead us not into temptation,but deliver us from evil.—known as "The Lord’s Prayer"[25]

In the common Bible of the Abrahamic religions, var-ious forms of prayer appear; the most common formsbeing petition, thanksgiving, and worship. The longestbook in the Bible is the Book of Psalms, 150 religioussongs which are often regarded as prayers. Other well-known Biblical prayers include the Song of Moses (Exo-dus 15:1–18), the Song of Hannah (1 Samuel 2:1–10),and the Magnificat (Luke 1:46–55). The most recog-nized prayers in the Christian Bible are the Lord’s Prayer(Matthew 6:9–13; Luke 11:2–4) and the Grace (2 Cor13:14). Whilst the Hail Mary (Luke 1:28; Luke 1:42) ispredominantly Roman Catholic.See also: Tanakh, New Testament, Prayer in the HebrewBible, and Prayer in the New Testament

2.2 Judaism

Main article: Jewish prayerObservant Jews pray three times a day, Shacharit,Mincha, and Ma'ariv with lengthier prayers on specialdays, such as the Shabbat and Jewish holidays includingMusaf and the reading of the Torah. The siddur is theprayerbook used by Jews all over the world, containinga set order of daily prayers. Jewish prayer is usually de-scribed as having two aspects: kavanah (intention) andkeva (the ritualistic, structured elements).The most important Jewish prayers are the Shema Yisrael(“Hear O Israel”) and the Amidah (“the standing prayer”).

2.3 Christianity 3

Captain Samuel Cass, a rabbi, conducting the first prayer servicecelebrated on German territory by Jewish personnel of the 1stCanadian Army near Cleve, Germany, 18 March 1945

Communal prayer is preferred over solitary prayer, anda quorum of 10 adult males (a minyan) is considered byOrthodox Judaism a prerequisite for several communalprayers.

Orthodox Jewish women praying in Jerusalem's Western Walltunnel

There are also many other ritualistic prayers a Jew per-forms during their day, such as washing before eatingbread, washing after one wakes up in the morning, anddoing grace after meals.

2.2.1 Rationalist approach to prayer

In this view, the ultimate goal of prayer is to help train aperson to focus on divinity through philosophy and in-tellectual contemplation. This approach was taken by

Maimonides and the other medieval rationalists. Oneexample of this approach to prayer is noted by RabbiSteven Weil, who was appointed the Orthodox Union’sExecutive-Vice President in 2009. He notes that theword “prayer” is a derivative of the Latin “precari”, whichmeans “to beg”. The Hebrew equivalent “tefilah”, how-ever, alongwith its root “pelel” or its reflexive “l’hitpallel”,means the act of self-analysis or self-evaluation.[26] Thisapproach is sometimes described as the person prayinghaving a dialogue or conversation with God.[27]

2.2.2 Educational approach to prayer

In this view, prayer is not a conversation. Rather, it ismeant to inculcate certain attitudes in the one who prays,but not to influence. This has been the approach ofRabbenu Bachya, Yehuda Halevy, Joseph Albo, SamsonRaphael Hirsch, and Joseph Dov Soloveitchik. This viewis expressed by Rabbi Nosson Scherman in the overviewto the Artscroll Siddur (p. XIII); note that Scherman goeson to also affirm the Kabbalistic view (see below).

2.2.3 Kabbalistic approach to prayer

Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism) uses a series of kavanot, di-rections of intent, to specify the path the prayer ascendsin the dialog with God, to increase its chances of beinganswered favorably. Kabbalists ascribe a higher meaningto the purpose of prayer, which is no less than affectingthe very fabric of reality itself, restructuring and repairingthe universe in a real fashion. In this view, every word ofevery prayer, and indeed, even every letter of every word,has a precise meaning and a precise effect. Prayers thusliterally affect the mystical forces of the universe, and re-pair the fabric of creation.[28]

Among Jews, this approach has been taken by theChassidei Ashkenaz (German pietists of the Middle-Ages), the Arizal’s Kabbalist tradition, Ramchal, most ofHassidism, the Vilna Gaon, and Jacob Emden.

2.3 Christianity

Main articles: Prayer in Christianity and Christian wor-shipChristian prayers are quite varied. They can be com-pletely spontaneous, or read entirely from a text, like theAnglican Book of Common Prayer. The most commonprayer among Christians is the Lord’s Prayer, which ac-cording to the gospel accounts (e.g. Matthew 6:9–13)is how Jesus taught his disciples to pray.[29] The Lord’sprayer is a model for prayers of adoration, confession andpetition in Christianity.[29]

Christians generally pray to God or to the Father. SomeChristians (e.g., Catholics, Orthodox) will also ask therighteous in heaven and “in Christ,” such as Virgin Mary

4 2 ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS

Jesus praying in Gethsemane depicted by Heinrich Hofmann

or other saints to intercede by praying on their be-half (intercession of saints). Formulaic closures include“through our Lord Jesus Christ, Your Son, who lives andreigns with You, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, God,through all the ages of ages,” and “in the name of theFather, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit.”It is customary among Protestants to end prayers with “InJesus' name, Amen” or “In the name ofChrist, Amen.”[30]However, the most commonly used closure in Christian-ity is simply "Amen" (from a Hebrew adverb used as astatement of affirmation or agreement, usually translatedas so be it).In the Western or Latin Rite of the Roman CatholicChurch, probably the most common is the Rosary; Inthe Eastern Church (the Eastern rites of the CatholicChurch and Orthodox Church), the Jesus Prayer. The Je-sus Prayer is also often repeated as part of the meditativehesychasm practice in Eastern Christianity.[31]

Roman Catholic tradition includes specific prayers anddevotions as acts of reparation which do not involve apetition for a living or deceased beneficiary, but aim torepair the sins of others, e.g. for the repair of the sin ofblasphemy performed by others.[32]

Other forms of prayer among Catholics would be medita-tive prayer, contemplative prayer and infused prayer dis-cussed at length by Catholic Saints St. John of the Crossand St. Theresa of Jesus.

2.3.1 Pentecostalism

In Pentecostal congregations, prayer is often accompa-nied by speaking in a foreign tongue, a practice nowknown as glossolalia.[33] Practitioners of Pentecostal glos-solalia may claim that the languages they speak in prayerare real foreign languages, and that the ability to speakthose languages spontaneously is a gift of the HolySpirit.[34][35][36]

Some people outside of the movement, however, have of-fered dissenting views. George Barton Cutten suggestedthat glossolalia was a sign of mental illness.[37] FelicitasGoodman suggested that tongue speakers were under aform of hypnosis.[38] Others suggest that it is a learnedbehaviour.[39][40] Some of these views have allegedly beenrefuted.[41][42]

2.3.2 Christian Science

Christian Science teaches that prayer is a spiritualizationof thought or an understanding of God and of the natureof the underlying spiritual creation. Adherents believethat this can result in healing, by bringing spiritual reality(the "Kingdom of Heaven" in Biblical terms) into clearerfocus in the human scene. The world as it appears to thesenses is regarded as a distorted version of the world ofspiritual ideas. Prayer can heal the distortion. ChristianScientists believe that prayer does not change the spiritualcreation but gives a clearer view of it, and the result ap-pears in the human scene as healing: the human pictureadjusts to coincide more nearly with the divine reality.[43]Christian Scientists do not practice intercessory prayer asit is commonly understood, and they generally avoid com-bining prayer with medical treatment in the belief that thetwo practices tend to work against each other. (However,the choice of healing method is regarded as a matter forthe individual, and the Christian Science Church exertsno pressure on members to avoid medical treatment ifthey wish to avail of it as an alternative to Christian Sci-ence healing.) Prayer works through love: the recogni-tion of God’s creation as spiritual, intact, and inherentlylovable.[44]

2.3.3 Prevalence of prayer for health

Some modalities of alternative medicine employ prayer.A survey released in May 2004[45] by the National Cen-ter for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, partof the National Institutes of Health in the United States,found that in 2002, 43% of Americans pray for their ownhealth, 24% pray for others’ health, and 10% participatein a prayer group for their own health.

2.5 Bahá'í 5

2.4 Islam

Main articles: Salat and DuaThe Arabic word for prayer is salah. In Islam, there are

Important positions during salat in certain Sunni Islamic sects

five daily obligatory prayers that are considered as one ofthe pillars of the religion. The command to ritual prayeris in the Qur'an in several chapters (surahs). The prayer isperformed by the person while they are facing the Kaabain Mecca. There is the “call for prayer” (adhan), wherethemuezzin calls for all the followers to stand together forthe prayer. The prayer consists of actions such as glori-fying and praising God (such as mentioning ‘Allāhu Ak-bar’ (‘Allāh (God) is Great) while standing, recitation ofchapters of the Qur'an (such as the opening chapter ofthe book (Al-Fatiha), bowing down then praising God,prostrating (sujud) then again praising God and it endswith the words: “Peace be with you and God’s mercy”.During the prayer, a Muslim cannot talk or do anythingelse besides pray. Once the prayer is complete, one canoffer personal prayers or supplications to God for theirneeds that are known as dua. There are many standardinvocations in Arabic to be recited at various times (e.g.after the prayer) and for various occasions (e.g. for one’sparents) with manners and etiquette such as before eat-ing. Muslims may also say dua in their own words andlanguages for any issue they wish to communicate withGod in the hope that God will answer their prayers.[24]

It is believed that the prophet Muhammed showed eachMuslim the true method of offering prayers thus the samemethod is believed to have been preserved and observed

up to the present timewith the schools of thought having afew differences in the belief in the way it was performed.Certain Shi'a sects pray the five daily prayers divided intothree separate parts of the day, providing several Hadithas supporting evidence.[46]

2.5 Bahá'í

Main article: Prayer in the Bahá'í Faith

Bahá'u'lláh, the Báb, and `Abdu'l-Bahá wrote manyprayers for general use, and some for specific occasions,including for unity, detachment, spiritual upliftment, andhealing among others. Bahá'ís are also required to re-cite each day one of three obligatory prayers composedby Bahá'u'lláh. The believers have been enjoined to facein the direction of the Qiblih when reciting their Obliga-tory Prayer. The longest obligatory prayer may be recitedat any time during the day; another, of medium length, isrecited once in the morning, once at midday, and once inthe evening; and the shortest can be recited anytime be-tween noon and sunset. Bahá'ís also read from and med-itate on the scriptures every morning and evening.[47]

3 Animism

Main articles: Animism and Shamanism

Although prayer in its literal sense is not used in animism,communication with the spirit world is vital to the ani-mist way of life. This is usually accomplished through ashaman who, through a trance, gains access to the spiritworld and then shows the spirits’ thoughts to the peo-ple. Other ways to receive messages from the spirits in-clude using astrology or contemplating fortune tellers andhealers.[48] The native religions in some parts of North,East and South Asia, America, Africa, and Oceania areoften animistic.

3.1 Americas

Main article: Aztec religion

The Aztec religion was not strictly animist. It had anever increasing pantheon of deities, and the shamans per-formed ritual prayer to these deities in their respectivetemples. These shamans made petitions to the properdeities in exchange for a sacrifice offering: food, flow-ers, effigies, and animals, usually quail. But the largerthe thing required from the God the larger the sacrificehad to be, and for the most important rites one would of-fer one’s own blood; by cutting his ears, arms, tongue,thighs, chest or genitals, and often a human life; eitherwarrior, slave, or even self-sacrifice.[49]

6 4 EASTERN RELIGIONS

The Pueblo Indians are known to have used prayer sticks,that is, sticks with feathers attached as supplicatory of-ferings. The Hopi Indians used prayer sticks as well, butthey attached to it a small bag of sacred meal.[50]

3.2 Australia

Main articles: Australian Aboriginal mythology andDreamtime

In Australia, prayers to the “Great Wit” are performedby the “clever wapmen” and “clever women”, or kadji.These Aboriginal shamans use maban or mabain, the ma-terial that is believed to give them their purported magicalpowers.[51]

4 Eastern religions

In contrast with Western religion, Eastern religion forthe most part discards worship and places devotional em-phasis on the practice of meditation alongside scripturalstudy. Consequently, prayer is seen as a form of medita-tion or an adjunct practice to meditation.

4.1 Buddhism

Buddhists praying with incense at Wat Phra Kaew, Thailand

In certain Buddhist sects, prayer accompaniesmeditation.Buddhism for the most part sees prayer as a sec-ondary, supportive practice to meditation and scripturalstudy. Gautama Buddha claimed that human beings pos-sess the capacity and potential to become liberated, orenlightened, through contemplation (Sanskrit: bhāvanaand dhyāna), leading to insight. Prayer is seen mainlyas a powerful psycho-physical practice that can enhancemeditation.[52]

In the earliest Buddhist tradition, the Theravada, and inthe later Mahayana tradition of Zen (or Chán), prayer

plays only an ancillary role. It is largely a ritual expres-sion of wishes for success in the practice and in helpingall beings.[53][54][55][56]

The skillful means (Sanskrit: upāya) of the transfer ofmerit (Sanskrit: pariṇāmanā) is an evocation and prayer.Moreover, indeterminate buddhas are available for inter-cession as they reside in awoken-fields (Sanskrit: buddha-kshetra).The nirmānakāya of an awoken-field is what is gener-ally known and understood as a mandala. The openingand closing of the ring (Sanskrit: maṇḍala) is an ac-tive prayer. An active prayer is a mindful activity, anactivity in which mindfulness is not just cultivated butis.[57] A common prayer is “May the merit of my practice,adorn Buddhas’ Pure Lands, requite the fourfold kind-ness from above, and relieve the suffering of the threelife-journeys below. Universally wishing sentient beings,Friends, foes, and karmic creditors, all to activate thebodhi mind, and all to be reborn in the Pure Land of Ul-timate Bliss.” (

)[58]

The Generation Stage (Sanskrit: utpatti-krama) of Va-jrayana involves prayer elements.[59]

The Tibetan Buddhism tradition emphasizes an instruc-tive and devotional relationship to a guru; this may in-volve devotional practices known as guru yoga whichare congruent with prayer. It also appears that TibetanBuddhism posits the existence of various deities, but thepeak view of the tradition is that the deities or yidamare no more existent or real than the continuity (Sanskrit:santana; refer mindstream) of the practitioner, environ-ment and activity. But how practitioners engage yidam ortutelary deities will depend upon the level or more appro-priately yana at which they are practicing. At one level,onemay pray to a deity for protection or assistance, takingamore subordinate role. At another level, onemay invokethe deity, on a more equal footing. And at a higher levelone may deliberately cultivate the idea that one has be-come the deity, whilst remaining aware that its ultimatenature is śūnyatā. The views of the more esoteric yanaare impenetrable for those without direct experience andempowerment.Pure Land Buddhism emphasizes the recitation by devo-tees of prayer-like mantras, a practice often calledNembutsu.[60]:190 On one level it is said that recitingthese mantras can ensure rebirth into a Sambhogakāyaland (Sanskrit: buddha-kshetra) after bodily dissolution,a sheer ball spontaneously co-emergent to a buddha’s en-lightened intention. According to Shinran, the founderof the Pure Land Buddhism tradition that is most preva-lent in the US,[60]:193[61] “for the long haul nothing is asefficacious as the Nembutsu.”[60]:197[62] On another, thepractice is a form of meditation aimed at achieving real-ization.But beyond all these practices the Buddha emphasizedthe primacy of individual practice and experience. He

4.3 Jainism 7

said that supplication to gods or deities was not necessary.Nevertheless, today many lay people in East Asian coun-tries pray to the Buddha in ways that resemble Westernprayer—asking for intervention and offering devotion.

4.2 Hinduism

Main article: Prayer in HinduismHinduism has incorporated many kinds of prayer (San-

Shakta Hindus in Dhaka, Bangladesh, pray to the goddess duringDurga Puja, October 2003

skrit: prārthanā), from fire-based rituals to philosophi-cal musings. While chanting involves 'by dictum' recita-tion of timeless verses or verses with timings and nota-tions, dhyanam involves deep meditation (however shortor long) on the preferred deity/God. Again the objectto which prayers are offered could be a persons referredas devtas, trinity or incarnation of either devtas or trinityor simply plain formless meditation as practiced by theancient sages. These prayers can be directed to fulfill-ing personal needs or deep spiritual enlightenment, andalso for the benefit of others. Ritual invocation was partand parcel of the Vedic religion and as such permeatedtheir sacred texts. Indeed, the highest sacred texts ofthe Hindus, the Vedas, are a large collection of mantrasand prayer rituals. Classical Hinduism came to focus onextolling a single supreme force, Brahman, that is mademanifest in several lower forms as the familiar gods of theHindu pantheon. Hindus in India have numerous devo-tional movements. Hindus may pray to the highest abso-lute God Brahman, or more commonly to Its three mani-festations namely creator god called Brahma, preservergod called Vishnu and destroyer god (so that the cre-ation cycle can start afresh) Shiva, and at the next level toVishnu’s avatars (earthly appearances) Rama and Krishnaor to many other male or female deities. Typically, Hin-dus pray with their hands (the palms) joined together inpranam.[63] The hand gesture is similar to the popular In-dian greeting namaste.

4.3 Jainism

Although Jainism believes that no spirit or divine beingcan assist them on their path, these figures do hold someinfluence on believers, and on special occasions, Jains willpray for right knowledge to the twenty-four Tirthankaras.

4.4 Shinto

Main articles: Shinto and Ema (Shintō)The practices involved in Shinto prayer are heavily influ-

A man praying at a Japanese Shinto shrine

enced by Buddhism; Japanese Buddhism has also beenstrongly influenced by Shinto in turn. The most com-mon and basic form of devotion involves throwing a coin,or several, into a collection box, ringing a bell, clap-ping one’s hands, and contemplating one’s wish or prayersilently. The bell and hand clapping are meant to wake upor attract the attention of the kami of the shrine, so thatone’s prayer may be heard.Shinto prayers quite frequently consist of wishes or favorsasked of the kami, rather than lengthy praises or devo-tions. Unlike in certain other faiths, it is not consideredirregular or inappropriate to ask favors of the kami in thisway, and indeed many shrines are associated with partic-ular favors, such as success on exams.In addition, one may write one’s wish on a small woodentablet, called an ema, and leave it hanging at the shrine,where the kami can read it. If the wish is granted, onemay return to the shrine to leave another ema as an act ofthanksgiving.

4.5 Sikhism

The Ardās (Punjabi: ਅਰਦਾਸ) is a Sikh prayer that isdone before performing or after undertaking any signif-icant task; after reciting the daily Banis (prayers); orcompletion of a service like the Paath (scripture read-ing/recitation), kirtan (hymn-singing) program or anyother religious program. In Sikhism, these prayers arealso said before and after eating. The prayer is a plea to

8 5 OTHER RELIGIONS

A Sikh holy man, doing Sikh Prayer (Ardās)

God to support and help the devotee with whatever he orshe is about to undertake or has done.The Ardas is usually always done standing up with foldedhands. The beginning of the Ardas is strictly set by thetenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh. When it comesto conclusion of this prayer, the devotee uses words like"Waheguru please bless me in the task that I am aboutto undertake” when starting a new task or "Akal Purakh,having completed the hymn-singing, we ask for your con-tinued blessings so that we can continue with your mem-ory and remember you at all times”, etc. The word“Ardās” is derived fromPersianword 'Arazdashat', mean-ing a request, supplication, prayer, petition or an addressto a superior authority.Ardās is a unique prayer based on the fact that it is one ofthe few well-known prayers in the Sikh religion that wasnot written in its entirety by the Gurus. The Ardās cannotbe found within the pages of the Guru Granth Sahib be-cause it is a continually changing devotional text that hasevolved over time in order for it to encompass the feats,accomplishments, and feelings of all generations of Sikhswithin its lines. Taking the various derivation of the wordArdās into account, the basic purpose of this prayer is anappeal toWaheguru for his protection and care, as well asbeing a plea for the welfare and prosperity of all mankind,and a means for the Sikhs to thank Waheguru for all thathe has done.[64][65]

4.6 Taoism

Taoism in its earliest form, before being influenced by thearrival of Buddhism in China, was a philosophy ratherthan a religion. In Taoism there is no deity to pray to,there is only the Tao. In practice Taoists seek to connect

Prayer in Mengjia Longshan Temple, Taiwan.

with, become one with and embody the Tao in everydaylife. This often involves meditative practices includingmartial, healing and other arts such as Fulu, which is thedrawing and writing of supernatural talismans.[66][67]

Taoism is often blended with other practices such as an-cestor worship, which can give rise to prayer directed atthe ancestors or other deceased historical figures.

5 Other religions

5.1 Wicca

Wiccan prayers can include meditation, rituals and incan-tations. Prayers are seen as a form of communicationwith the God and Goddess. This may include prayers foresbat and sabbat celebrations, for dinner, for pre-dawntimes or for your own or others safety, for healing or forthe dead.[68]

5.2 Raëlism

In Raëlism rites and practises vary from initiation cere-monies, to sensual meditation. An initiation ceremonyusually involves a Raelian putting water on the foreheadof a new member. Such ceremonies are performed oncertain special days on the Raelian calendar.[69] Sensualmeditation techniques include breathing exercises andvarious forms of erotic meditation.[70]

5.3 Eckankar

In Eckankar, one of the basic forms of prayer includessinging the word “HU” which is pronounced as “hue”, aholy name of God. This can be done with eyes closed oropen, aloud or silently. Practitioners may experience thedivine ECK or Holy Spirit.[71]

9

6 Pre-Christian Europe

6.1 Etruscan, Greek, and Roman pagan-ism

In the pre-Christian religions of Greeks and Romans(Ancient Greek religion, Roman religion), ceremonialprayer was highly formulaic and ritualized.[72][73] TheIguvine Tables contain a supplication that can be trans-lated, “If anything was said improperly, if anything wasdone improperly, let it be as if it were done correctly.”The formalism and formulaic nature of these prayersled them to be written down in language that may haveonly been partially understood by the writer, and ourtexts of these prayers may in fact be garbled. Prayers inEtruscan were used in the Roman world by augurs andother oracles long after Etruscan became a dead language.The CarmenArvale and the Carmen Saliare are two spec-imens of partially preserved prayers that seem to havebeen unintelligible to their scribes, and whose languageis full of archaisms and difficult passages.[74]

Roman prayers and sacrifices were often envisioned aslegal bargains between deity and worshipper. The Romanprinciple was expressed as do ut des: “I give, so that youmay give.” Cato the Elder's treatise on agriculture con-tains many examples of preserved traditional prayers; inone, a farmer addresses the unknown deity of a possiblysacred grove, and sacrifices a pig in order to placate thegod or goddess of the place and beseech his or her per-mission to cut down some trees from the grove.[75]

6.2 Germanic paganism

An amount of accounts of prayers to the godsin Germanic paganism survived the process ofChristianization, though only a single prayer hassurvived without the interjection of Christian references.This prayer is recorded in stanzas 2 and 3 of the poemSigrdrífumál, compiled in the 13th century Poetic Eddafrom earlier traditional sources, where the valkyrieSigrdrífa prays to the gods and the earth after beingwoken by the hero Sigurd.[76]

A prayer to the bigger god Odin is mentioned in chap-ter 2 of the Völsunga saga where King Rerir prays fora child. His prayer is answered by Frigg, wife of Odin,who sends him an apple, which is dropped on his lap byFrigg’s servant in the form of a crow while Rerir is sit-ting on a mound. Rerir’s wife eats the apple and is thenpregnant with the hero Völsung. In stanza 9 of the poemOddrúnargrátr, a prayer is made to “kind wights, Friggand Freyja, and many gods,” although since the poem isoften considered one of the youngest poems in the PoeticEdda, the passage has been the matter of some debate.[77]

In chapter 21 of Jómsvíkinga saga, wishing to turn thetide of the Battle of Hjörungavágr, Haakon Sigurdsson

The valkyrie Sigrdrífa says a pagan Norse prayer inSigrdrífumál; Illustration by Arthur Rackham

eventually finds his prayers answered by the goddessesÞorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa (the first of the two de-scribed as Haakon’s patron goddess) who appear in thebattle, kill many of the opposing fleet, and cause the rem-nants of their forces to flee. However, this depiction of apagan prayer has been criticized as inaccurate due to thedescription of Haakon dropping to his knees.[78]

The 11th-century manuscript for the Anglo-Saxon charmÆcerbot presents what is thought to be an originallypagan prayer for the fertility of the speaker’s crops andland, though Christianization is apparent throughout thecharm.[79] The 8th-century Wessobrunn Prayer has beenproposed as a Christianized pagan prayer and comparedto the pagan Völuspá[80] and the Merseburg Incantations,the latter recorded in the 9th or 10th century but of mucholder traditional origins.[81]

7 Theurgy and Western esoteri-cism

Practitioners of theurgy and western esotericism maypractice a form of ritual which utilizes both pre-sanctioned prayers and names of God, and prayers “fromthe heart” that, when combined, allows the participant toascend spiritually, and in some instances, induce a trancein which God or other spiritual beings may be realized.Very similar to hermetic qabala, and orthodox qabala,it is believed that prayer can influence both the physicaland non-physical worlds. The use of ritualistic signs and

10 8 APPROACHES TO PRAYER

names are believed to be archetypes in which the sub-conscious may take form as the Inner God, or anotherspiritual being, and the “prayer from the heart” to be thatspiritual force speaking through the participant.

7.1 Thelema

Many Thelemites recite “Resh” (Liber Resh vel Helios, or “LiberCC”) facing the direction of the ever present sun as it rises in theEast, triumphs in the South, sets in the West, and “hides” in theNorth. Photo shows a close-up of the Stele of Revealing.

In Thelema (a religion or system of philosophy[82] that in-cludes both theist as well as atheist practitioners) adher-ents share a number of practices that are forms of individ-ual prayer, including basic yoga; (asana and pranayama);various forms of ritual magick; rituals of one’s own de-vising (often based upon a syncretism of religions, orWestern Esotericism, such as the Lesser Banishing Rit-ual of the Pentagram and Star Ruby); and performanceof Liber Resh vel Helios (aka Liber 200), which consistsof four daily adorations to the sun (often consisting of 4hand/body positions and recitation of a memorized song,normally spoken, addressing different godforms identi-fied with the sun).[83]

While there is no dogma within Thelema that expressesthe purpose behind any individual aspirant who choosesto perform “Resh”, it may be noted that the practice of“Resh” is not a simple petition toward the sun, nor a formof “worshiping” the celestial body that we call the Sun,but instead uses the positioning of that source of light,which enables life on our planet, as well as uses mytho-logical images of that solar force, so that the individ-ual can perform the prayer, possibly furthering a self-identification with the sun, so “that repeated applicationof the Liber Resh adorations expands the consciousnessof the individual by compelling him to take a differentperspective, by inducing him to 'look at things from thepoint of view of the Sun'.[84]

8 Approaches to prayer

8.1 Direct petitions to God

From Biblical times to today, the most common form ofprayer is to directly appeal to God to grant one’s requests.This in many ways is the simplest form of prayer. Somehave termed this the social approach to prayer.[85] In thisview, a person directly enters into God’s rest, and asks fortheir needs to be fulfilled. God listens to the prayer, andmay so or not choose to answer in the way one asks ofhim. This is the primary approach to prayer found in theHebrew Bible, the New Testament, most of the Churchwritings, and in rabbinic literature such as the Talmud.

8.2 Educational approach

In this view, prayer is not a conversation. Rather, itis meant to inculcate certain attitudes in the one whoprays, but not to influence. Among Jews, this has beenthe approach of Rabbenu Bachya, Rabbi Yehuda Halevi,Joseph Albo, Samson Raphael Hirsch, and Joseph B.Soloveitchik. This view is expressed by Rabbi NossonScherman in the overview to the Artscroll Siddur (p.XIII).AmongChristian theologians, E.M. Bounds stated the ed-ucational purpose of prayer in every chapter of his book,The Necessity of Prayer. Prayer books such as the Bookof Common Prayer are both a result of this approach andan exhortation to keep it.[86]

8.3 Rationalist approach

In this view, the ultimate goal of prayer is to help traina person to focus on divinity through philosophy and in-tellectual contemplation. This approach was taken by theJewish scholar and philosopher Maimonides [87] and theother medieval rationalists;[88] it became popular in Jew-ish, Christian, and Islamic intellectual circles, but neverbecame the most popular understanding of prayer amongthe laity in any of these faiths. In all three of these faithstoday, a significant minority of people still hold to thisapproach.

8.4 Experiential approach

In this approach, the purpose of prayer is to enable theperson praying to gain a direct experience of the recipi-ent of the prayer (or as close to direct as a specific theol-ogy permits). This approach is very significant in Chris-tianity and widespread in Judaism (although less popu-lar theologically). In Eastern Orthodoxy, this approach isknown as hesychasm. It is also widespread in Sufi Islam,and in some forms of mysticism. It has some similari-ties with the rationalist approach, since it can also involve

11

contemplation, although the contemplation is not gener-ally viewed as being as rational or intellectual. Christianand Roman Catholic traditions also include an experien-tial approach to prayer within the practice of Lectio Div-ina, historically a Benedictine practice in which scriptureis read aloud; actively meditated upon using the intel-lect (but not analysis) possibly using the mind to placethe listener within a relationship or dialogue with thetext that was read; a prayer spoken; and finally concludeswith contemplation, a more passive experiential approachthan the previous meditation, which is characterized bythe Catechism of the Catholic Church as an experienceof consciously being attentive, and having a silent lovetoward God, which the individual experiences withoutdemanding to receive an experience.[89] The experienceof God within Christian mysticism has been contrastedwith the concept of experiential religion or mystical ex-perience because of a long history or authors living andwriting about experience with the divine in a mannerthat identifies God as unknowable and ineffable, the lan-guage of such ideas could be characterized paradoxicallyas “experiential”, as well as without the phenomena ofexperience.[90]

8.4.1 Origins of an idea of prayer as “experiential”

The notion of “religious experience” can be traced backto William James, who used a term called “religious ex-perience” in his book, The Varieties of Religious Experi-ence.[91] The origins of the use of this term can be datedfurther back.In the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, several historicalfigures put forth very influential views that religion and itsbeliefs can be grounded in experience itself. While Kantheld that moral experience justified religious beliefs, JohnWesley in addition to stressing individual moral exertionthought that the religious experiences in the Methodistmovement (paralleling the Romantic Movement) werefoundational to religious commitment as a way of life.[92]

Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of “re-ligious experience” to the German theologian FriedrichSchleiermacher (1768–1834), who argued that religionis based on a feeling of the infinite. The notion of “reli-gious experience” was used by Schleiermacher andAlbertRitschl to defend religion against the growing scientificand secular critique, and defend the view that human(moral and religious) experience justifies religious be-liefs.Such religious empiricism would be later seen as highlyproblematic and was — during the period in-betweenworld wars — famously rejected by Karl Barth.[93] Inthe 20th century, religious as well as moral experi-ence as justification for religious beliefs still holds sway.Some influential modern scholars holding this liberal the-ological view are Charles Raven and the Oxford physi-cist/theologian Charles Coulson.[94]

The notion of “religious experience” was adopted bymany scholars of religion, of which William James wasthe most influential.[95][note 1]

8.4.2 General criticism arising from the concept of“experiential prayer”

The notion of “experience” has beencriticised.[100][101][102] Robert Sharf points out that“experience” is a typical Western term, which hasfound its way into Asian religiosity via westerninfluences.[100][note 2] The notion of “experience” intro-duces a false notion of duality between “experiencer”and “experienced”, whereas the essence of kensho isthe realisation of the “non-duality” of observer andobserved.[104][105] “Pure experience” does not exist; allexperience is mediated by intellectual and cognitiveactivity.[106][107] The specific teachings and practices ofa specific tradition may even determine what “experi-ence” someone has, which means that this “experience”is not the proof of the teaching, but a result of theteaching.[108] A pure consciousness without concepts,reached by “cleaning the doors of perception”,[note 3]would be an overwhelming chaos of sensory inputwithout coherence.[110]

9 Prayer groups

A prayer group is a group of people that meet to praytogether. These groups, formed mostly within Christiancongregations but occasionally among Muslim groupsas well,[111] gather outside of the congregation’s regularworship service to pray for perceived needs, sometimeswithin the congregation, sometimes within their religiousgroup at large. However, these groups often pray also forthe world around them, including people who do not sharetheir beliefs.Many prayer group meetings are held according to a reg-ular schedule, usually once a week. However, extraor-dinary events, such as the September 11 attacks[112] ormajor disasters spawned a number of improvised prayergroup meetings. Prayer groups do not need to meet inperson, and there are a vast array of single-purpose prayergroups in the world.

10 Prayer requests

A prayer request is a religious practice in which personalrequests for others, including organized prayer groups, topray on behalf of the requester for any specific reasons.Requests are often collected in order to act upon themeither as an organized prayer gathering or as individuals.

12 11 PRAYER HEALING

11 Prayer healing

Main article: Faith healing

Prayer is often used as a means of faith healing in an at-tempt to use religious or spiritual means to prevent illness,cure disease, or improve health. Some attempt to heal byprayer, mental practices, spiritual insights, or other tech-niques, claiming they can summon divine or supernaturalintervention on behalf of the ill. Others advocate that illpeople may achieve healing through prayer performed bythemselves.[113] According to the varied beliefs of thosewho practice it, faith healing may be said to afford grad-ual relief from pain or sickness or to bring about a sud-den “miracle cure”, and it may be used in place of, or intandem with, conventional medical techniques for allevi-ating or curing diseases. Faith healing has been criticizedon the grounds that those who use it may delay seekingpotentially curative conventional medical care. This isparticularly problematic when parents use faith healingtechniques on children.

11.1 Efficacy of prayer healing

Main article: Efficacy of prayerIn 1872, Francis Galton conducted a famous statistical

To pray over an individual while laying hands on them is a formof faith healing in Christianity.

experiment to determine whether prayer had a physicaleffect on the external environment. Galton hypothesizedthat if prayer was effective, members of the British Royalfamily would live longer, given that thousands prayed fortheir wellbeing every Sunday. He therefore comparedlongevity in the British Royal family with that of the gen-eral population, and found no difference.[6] While the ex-periment was probably intended to satirize, and sufferedfrom a number of confounders, it set the precedent for anumber of different studies, the results of which are con-tradictory.Two studies claimed that patients who are being prayedfor recovermore quickly ormore frequently although crit-

ics have claimed that the methodology of such studies areflawed, and the perceived effect disappears when controlsare tightened.[114] One such study, with a double-blinddesign and about 500 subjects per group, was publishedin 1988; it suggested that intercessory prayer by bornagain Christians had a statistically significant positive ef-fect on a coronary care unit population.[7] Critics contendthat there were severe methodological problems with thisstudy.[10] Another such study was reported by Harris etal.[8] Critics also claim that the 1988 study was not fullydouble-blinded, and that in the Harris study, patients ac-tually had a longer hospital stay in the prayer group, ifone discounts the patients in both groups who left beforeprayers began,[115] although the Harris study did demon-strate the prayed for patients on average received lowercourse scores (indicating better recovery).One of the largest randomized, blind clinical trials was aremote retroactive intercessory prayer study conducted inIsrael by Leibovici. This study used 3393 patient recordsfrom 1990–96, and blindly assigned some of these to anintercessory prayer group. The prayer group had shorterhospital stays and duration of fever.[116]

Several studies of prayer effectiveness have yielded nullresults.[9] A 2001 double-blind study of the Mayo Clinicfound no significant difference in the recovery rates be-tween people who were (unbeknownst to them) assignedto a group that prayed for them and those who werenot.[117] Similarly, the MANTRA study conducted byDuke University found no differences in outcome of car-diac procedures as a result of prayer.[118] In another sim-ilar study published in the American Heart Journal in2006,[5] Christian intercessory prayer when reading ascripted prayer was found to have no effect on the recov-ery of heart surgery patients; however, the study found pa-tients who had knowledge of receiving prayer had slightlyhigher instances of complications than those who did notknow if they were being prayed for or those who did notreceive prayer.[4][5] Another 2006 study suggested thatprayer actually had a significant negative effect on the re-covery of cardiac bypass patients, resulting in more fre-quent deaths and slower recovery time for those patientwho received prayers.[5]

Many believe that prayer can aid in recovery, not dueto divine influence but due to psychological and physi-cal benefits. It has also been suggested that if a personknows that he or she is being prayed for it can be up-lifting and increase morale, thus aiding recovery. (SeeSubject-expectancy effect.) Many studies have suggestedthat prayer can reduce physical stress, regardless of thegod or gods a person prays to, and this may be true formany worldly reasons. According to a study by CentraState Hospital, “the psychological benefits of prayer mayhelp reduce stress and anxiety, promote a more positiveoutlook, and strengthen the will to live.”[119] Other prac-tices such as yoga, t'ai chi, and meditation may also havea positive impact on physical and psychological health.

13

Others feel that the concept of conducting prayer ex-periments reflects a misunderstanding of the purpose ofprayer. The previously mentioned study published in theAmerican Heart Journal indicated that some of the inter-cessors who took part in it complained about the scriptednature of the prayers that were imposed to them,[5] sayingthat this is not the way they usually conduct prayer:

Prior to the start of this study, intercessorsreported that they usually receive informationabout the patient’s age, gender and progress re-ports on their medical condition; converse withfamily members or the patient (not by fax froma third party); use individualized prayers oftheir own choosing; and pray for a variable timeperiod based on patient or family request.

One scientific movement attempts to track the physicaleffects of prayer through neuroscience. Leaders in thismovement include Andrew Newberg, an Associate Pro-fessor at the University of Pennsylvania. In Newberg’sbrain scans, monks, priests, nuns and gurus alike have ex-ceptionally focused attention and compassion sites. Thisis a result of the frontal lobe of the brain’s engagement(Newberg, 2009). Newburg believes that anybody canconnect to the supernatural with practice. Those withoutreligious affiliations benefit from the connection to themetaphysical as well. Newberg also states that further ev-idence towards humans’ need for metaphysical relation-ships is that as science had increased spirituality has notdecreased. Newburg believes that at the end of the 18thcentury, when the scientific method began to consumethe human mind, religion could have vanished. However,two hundred years later, the perception of spirituality, inmany instances, appears to be gaining in strength (2009).Newberg’s research also provides the connection betweenprayer and meditation and health. By understanding howthe brain works during religious experiences and prac-tices Newberg’s research shows that the brain changesduring these practices allowing an understanding of howreligion affects psychological and physical health (2009).For example, brain activity during meditation indicatesthat people who frequently practice prayer or meditationexperience lower blood-pressure, lower heart rates, de-creased anxiety, and decreased depression.[120]

12 Skepticism

In his book, Christopher Hitchens says of prayer that ifthe petitioner is praying to a god which is omnipotent andall-knowing, it would be presumptuous for the petitionerto believe they understand the grand scheme of things suf-ficiently to pray for what is best. For example, he inter-prets Ambrose Bierce's definition of prayer by stating that“the man who prays is the one who thinks that god has ar-ranged matters all wrong, but who also thinks that he caninstruct god how to put them right.”[121]

Daniel Dennett says that prayer may relieve a person ofthe need to take active measures to address issues aroundthem, stating:

Surely it does the world no harm if thosewho can honestly do so pray for me! No, I'mnot at all sure about that. For one thing, ifthey reallywanted to do something useful, theycould devote their prayer time and energy tosome pressing project that they can do some-thing about.[122]

This potential drawback manifests in extreme forms insuch cases as Christian Scientists who rely on prayersinstead of seeking medical treatment for family mem-bers for easily curable conditions which later result indeath.[123]

13 See also• 24-7 Prayer Movement• Affirmative prayer• Affirmations (New Age)• Catholic prayers• Daily Prayer for Peace• Devotional literature• Ho'oponopono• Interior life (Catholic theology)• Jewish prayers and blessings• Jewish services• List of prayers• Magical thinking• Mani stone• Moment of silence• Mystic prayer• National Day of Prayer (US)• Orant• Prayer beads• Prayer in LDS theology and practice• Prayer in school• Prayer wheel• Prie-dieu• Rosary• Shuckling• Tibetan prayer flag

14 15 REFERENCES AND FOOTNOTES

14 Notes[1] James also gives descriptions of conversion experiences.

The Christian model of dramatic conversions, based onthe role-model of Paul’s conversion, may also have servedas a model for Western interpretations and expectationsregarding “enlightenment”, similar to Protestant influ-ences on Theravada Buddhism, as described by Car-rithers: “It rests upon the notion of the primacy of re-ligious experiences, preferably spectacular ones, as theorigin and legitimation of religious action. But this pre-supposition has a natural home, not in Buddhism, but inChristian and especially Protestant Christian movementswhich prescribe a radical conversion.”[96] See Sekida foran example of this influence of William James and Chris-tian conversion stories, mentioning Luther[97] and St.Paul.[98] See also McMahan for the influence of Christianthought on Buddhism.[99]

[2] Robert Sharf: "[T]he role of experience in the historyof Buddhism has been greatly exaggerated in contempo-rary scholarship. Both historical and ethnographic evi-dence suggests that the privileging of experience may wellbe traced to certain twentieth-century reform movements,notably those that urge a return to zazen or vipassanamed-itation, and these reforms were profoundly influenced byreligious developments in the west [...] While some adeptsmay indeed experience “altered states” in the course oftheir training, critical analysis shows that such states donot constitute the reference point for the elaborate Bud-dhist discourse pertaining to the “path”.[103]

[3] William Blake: “If the doors of perception were cleansedevery thing would appear to man as it is, infinite. For manhas closed himself up, till he sees all things thru' narrowchinks of his cavern.”[109]

15 References and footnotes[1] Harper, Douglas. “pray (v.)". etymonline.com. Online

Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 30 December 2014.

[2] K. Masters, G. Spielmans, J. Goodson “Are there demon-strable effects of distant intercessory prayer? A meta-analytic review.” Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2006Aug;32(1):21-6. [1]

[3] Hodge, David R. (March 2007), “A Systematic Review ofthe Empirical Literature on Intercessory Prayer” (PDF),Research on Social Work Practice, 17 (2): 174–187,doi:10.1177/1049731506296170

[4] Saletan, William (April 2006), “The Deity in the Data:What the latest prayer study tells us about God”, Slate

[5] Benson H, Dusek JA, Sherwood JB, et al. (April 2006).“Study of the Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory Prayer(STEP) in cardiac bypass patients: a multicenter random-ized trial of uncertainty and certainty of receiving inter-cessory prayer”. American Heart Journal. 151 (4): 934–42. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2005.05.028. PMID 16569567.Lay summary (PDF) – John Templeton Foundation (April5, 2006).

[6] Galton, Francis (1872). “Statistical Inquiries into the Ef-ficacy of Prayer”. Fortnightly Review (68): 125–35. Asfound in The Prayer-Gauge Debate. Boston: Congre-gational Publishing Society. 1876. LCCN 39018081.OCLC 1809220.

[7] Byrd, R. C. (1988). “Positive therapeutic effects of in-tercessory prayer in a coronary care unit population”.South Med J. 81 (7): 826–9. doi:10.1097/00007611-198807000-00005. PMID 3393937.

[8] Harris, W. S.; Gowda, M.; Kolb, J. W.; Strychacz, C.P.; Vacek, J. L.; Jones, P. G.; Forker, A.; O'Keefe,J. H.; McCallister, B. D. (1999). “A randomized,controlled trial of the effects of remote, intercessoryprayer on outcomes in patients admitted to the coro-nary care unit.”. Arch Intern Med. 159 (19): 2273–8.doi:10.1001/archinte.159.19.2273. PMID 10547166.

[9] O'Laoire, S (1997). “An experimental study of the ef-fects of distant, intercessory prayer on self-esteem, anxi-ety, and depression”. Altern Ther Health Med. 3 (6): 38–53. PMID 9375429.

[10] Posner, Gary P. (Spring 1990), “God in the CCU? Acritique of the San Francisco hospital study on interces-sory prayer and healing”, Free Inquiry. Online reprint byInternet Infidels at Infidels.org.

[11] Stephens, Ferris J. (1950). Ancient Near Eastern Texts.Princeton. pp. 391–92.

[12] Zaleski, Carol; Zaleski, Philip (2006). Prayer: A History.Boston: Mariner Books. pp. 24–25. ISBN 0-618-77360-6.

[13] Littlebird, Sarracina (2008), Sacred Movement: Dance asPrayer in the Pueblo Cultures of the American Southwest(PDF), Barnard College Department of Dance, retrieved11 October 2011

[14] “The Whirling Dervishes of Rumi – Sufism andDervishes”, WhirlingDervishes.org, archived from theoriginal on 2014-11-04

[15] Omkarananda, Swami (n.d.), How to Pray, OmkaranandaAshram Himalayas, archived from the original on 2014-11-04

[16] Anonymous (2013-07-03). “Judaism: Jewish Ritualsand Practices – Jewish Worship and Prayer”. Religion-Facts.com. ReligionFacts. Archived from the originalon 2014-11-04.. This practice is known, in Yiddish, asshuckling.

[17] Avery, Chel. “Quaker Worship”. Quaker InformationCenter. Retrieved 2008-12-04.

[18] Erickson, Millard J. (1998). Christian theology. GrandRapids: Baker Book House. ISBN 0-8010-2182-0.

[19] The New Encyclopedia of Islam - Page 20, Cyril Glassé -2003

[20] Wynne, John (1911). “Prayer”. In Herbermann, Charles.Catholic Encyclopedia. 12. New York: Robert Appleton.

[21] See, for example, James 5:14

15

[22] Scheckel, Roger J. (January 2004). “The Angelus”. TheMarian Catechists. Archived from the original on 2008-06-23. Retrieved 2008-10-06.

[23] “Buddhist Art”. Pacific Asia Museum. 2003. Retrieved2008-10-06.

[24] Emerick, Yahiya (2002). The Complete Idiot’s Guide toIslam. Indianapolis IN: Alpha Books. pp. 127–28. ISBN0-02-864233-3.

[25] Matthew 6:9-13

[26] Weil, Steven (September 14, 2010), “Why Tefilah Doesn'tMean Prayer: Redefining our Relationship with G-d”,ou.org (video presentation), Orthodox Union

[27] Silberberg, Naftali (n.d.), “Jewish Practice " Mitzvahs& Traditions " Prayer " Insights – Talking With G‑d”,Chabad.org

[28] The Kabbalah of Prayer on Chabad.org

[29] Examining Religions: Christianity Foundation Edition byAnne Geldart 1999 ISBN 0-435-30324-4 page 108

[30] See John 16:23, 26; John 14:13; John 15:16

[31] Parry, Ken; David Melling (editors) (1999). The Black-well Dictionary of Eastern Christianity ISBN 0-631-23203-6 page 230

[32] Slater, Thomas (1911). “Reparation”. In Herbermann,Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. 12. New York: RobertAppleton.

[33] Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed, 1989

[34] “Library - Religion – Christianity - Pentecostalism”. Aus-tralian Broadcasting Company. Archived from the origi-nal on 2014-11-04.

[35] Acts 2:1-13

[36] Acts 10:45-47

[37] George Barton Cutten, Speaking with Tongues Historicallyand Psychologically Considered, Yale University Press,1927.

[38] Goodman, Felicitas D., Speaking in Tongues: A Cross-Cultural Study in Glossolalia. University of Chicago Press,1972.

[39] Hine, Virginia H.: 'Pentecostal Glossolalia toward a Func-tional Interpretation.' Journal for the Scientific Study ofReligion 8, 2: (1969) 211–26: quote on p. 211

[40] Samarin, William J., Tongues of Men and Angels: TheReligious Language of Pentecostalism. Macmillan, NewYork, 1972, quote on p. 73

[41] Hine, Virginia H.: 'Pentecostal Glossolalia toward a Func-tional Interpretation.' Journal for the Scientific Study ofReligion 8, 2: (1969) 211–26: quote on p. 213

[42] Spanos, Nicholas P.; Hewitt, Erin C.: Glossolalia: 'A testof the 'trance' and psychopathology hypotheses.' Journalof Abnormal Psychology: 1979 Aug Vol 88(4) 427–34.

[43] Mary Baker Eddy, “Prayer,” in Science and Health withKey to the Scriptures, Boston, Trustees Under the Will ofMary Baker Eddy, 1934 [etc.]pp. 1-17

[44] “Is there no intercessory prayer?". Retrieved 2007-10-13.

[45] http://nccam.nih.gov/news/camsurvey.htm

[46] Muslim cultures today: a reference guide By Kathryn M.Coughlin, p. 91

[47] Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'íFaith. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. pp. 274–75.ISBN 1-85168-184-1.

[48] “Animism Profile in Cambodia”. OMF. Retrieved 2008-04-09.

[49] Hassig, Ross (2003). “El sacrificio y las guerras floridas”.Arqueología mexicana. XI: 47.

[50] “Prayer stick”. Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.

[51] Elkin, Adolphus P. (1973). Aboriginal Men of High De-gree: Initiation and Sorcery in theWorld’s Oldest Tradition.Inner Traditions - Bear & Company. ISBN 0-89281-421-7.

[52] “Centre pour le Progrès Bénéfique du Dharma (Gue PhelTcheu Tsok) - Prières Bouddhistes et Mantras”.

[53]

[54] “Yahoo ".

[55] " ".

[56] Collins, Steven (1982). Selfless Persons. Cambridge,United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 6.ISBN 0-521-39726-X.

[57] Sangharakshita, Bhikshu (1993). A Survey of Buddhism.Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom: Windhorse Publica-tions. pp. 449–60. ISBN 0-904766-65-9.

[58] “Buddhist Prayers”.

[59] Keown, Damien (ed.) with Hodge, Stephen; Jones,Charles; Tinti, Paola (2003). A Dictionary of Buddhism.Great Britain, Oxford: Oxford University Press. P.100.ISBN 0-19-860560-9

[60] “The Flowering of Faith: Buddhism’s Pure Land Tra-dition” (pp. 185–98) in Smith, Huston; Philip Novak(2003). Buddhism: A concise introduction. San Francisco:HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-050696-2.

[61] Smith and Novak (2003) state that “Pure Land Buddhismhas entered America almost exclusively from Japan, andthe church Shinran founded is the largest Pure Land pres-ence on this continent” (p. 193).

[62] This quotation is Smith and Novak’s paraphrase of Shin-ran’s teaching.

[63] Stephen Jacobs (2010), Hinduism Today : An Introduc-tion, Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 44

[64] “Ardas”, sgpc.net, Shiromani Gurdwara ParbandhakCommittee

16 15 REFERENCES AND FOOTNOTES

[65] “Learn and recite the Holy Ardas”, sgpc.net, ShiromaniGurdwara Parbandhak Committee

[66] Chapter IV: Category of fierce types of spells for expla-nation

[67] " ".

[68] TheWiccan Prayer Book: Daily, MarkVentimiglia - 2006

[69] Palmer, Susan J., Aliens Adored. Rutgers UniversityPress, 2004

[70] Raël, Sensual Meditation. Tagman Press, 2002.

[71] Eckankar: Ancient Wisdom for Today - Page 20, 1995

[72] Rayor, Diane. “The Homeric Hymns”. University of Cal-ifornia Press. Retrieved 2009-01-14.

[73] “Religio Romana”. Nova Roma. Retrieved 2009-01-14.

[74] Frederic de Forest Allen, Remnants of Early Latin(Boston: Ginn & Heath 1880 and Ginn & Co 1907).

[75] e.g.: Cato's Mars Prayer, found in De Agri Cultura (141),English translation at: Jonathan Slocum; Carol Justus, eds.(13 May 2014), “Cato’s Mars Prayer”, Indo-EuropeanTexts: Old Latin, Linguistics Research Center at UTAustin

[76] “The Poetic Edda: Sigrdrifumol”.

[77] Grundy, Stephan (1998). “Freyja and Frigg” as collectedin Billington, Sandra. The Concept of the Goddess, p. 60.Routledge ISBN 0-415-19789-9

[78] Hollander, Lee (trans.) (1955). The saga of the Jómsvík-ings, p. 100. University of Texas Press ISBN 0-292-77623-3

[79] Gordon, R. K. (1962). Anglo-Saxon Poetry. Everyman’sLibrary #794. M. Dent & Sons, LTD.

[80] Lambdin, Laura C and Robert T. (2000). Encyclopediaof Medieval Literature, p. 227. Greenwood PublishingGroup ISBN 0-313-30054-2

[81] Wells, C. J.” (1985). German, a Linguistic History to1945: A Linguistic History to 1945, p 51. Oxford Uni-versity Press ISBN 0-19-815795-9

[82] Thelema is seen by some neutral parties as a philosophy,and not a religion. See Crowley, Aleister. Little Essays To-ward Truth,p. 61-62 New Falcon Publications; 2 Rev Subedition (May 1, 1996) ISBN 1-56184-000-9 (“These andsimilar considerations lead to certain types of philosoph-ical skepticism. Neschamic conceptions are nowise ex-empt from this criticism, for, even supposing them identi-cal in any number of persons, their expression, being intel-lectual, will suffer the same stress as normal perceptions.[...] But none of this shakes, or even threatens, the Phi-losophy of Thelema. On the contrary, it may be calledthe Rock of its foundation.”); See also Thelemapedia,“Arguments against Thelema being a religion” availableat: http://www.thelemapedia.org/index.php/Arguments_against_Thelema_being_a_religion

[83] DuQuette, Lon Milo. The Magick of Aleister Crowley:A Handbook of the Rituals of Thelema, p. 12. Weiser,2003. ISBN 1-57863-299-4.

[84] Hessle, Erwin. “The Point of View of the Sun”.

[85] Greenberg, Moshe. Biblical Prose Prayer: As a Windowto the Popular Religion of Ancient Israel. Berkeley: Uni-versity of California Press, c1983

[86] Bounds, Edward McKendree (1907). The Necessity ofPrayer. AGES Software. ISBN 0-8010-0659-7.

[87] Guide to the Perplexed 3:51

[88] Sefer Ha'Ikarim 4:18

[89] “Catechism of the Catholic Church - Expressions ofprayer”.

[90] The Darkness of God: Negativity in Christian Mysticismby Denys Turner 1998 Cambridge University Press ISBN0521645611

[91] Hori 1999, p. 47.

[92] Issues in Science and Religion, Ian Barbour, Prentice-Hall, 1966, page 68, 79

[93] Issues in Science and Religion, Ian Barbour, Prentice-Hall, 1966, page 114, 116-119

[94] Issues in Science and Religion, Ian Barbour, Prentice-Hall, 1966, p. 126-127

[95] Sharf 2000, p. 271.

[96] Carrithers 1983, p. 18.

[97] Sekida 1985, p. 196-197.

[98] Sekida 1985, p. 251.

[99] McMahan 2008.

[100] Sharf 1995-B.

[101] Mohr 2000, p. 282-286.

[102] Low 2006, p. 12.

[103] Sharf 1995-C, p. 1.

[104] Hori 1994, p. 30.

[105] Samy 1998, p. 82.

[106] Mohr 2000, p. 282.

[107] Samy 1998, p. 80-82.

[108] Samy 1998, p. 80.

[109] “If the doors of perception were cleansed every thingwould appear to man as it is, infinite. For man has closedhimself up, till he sees all things thru' narrow chinks ofhis cavern. by William Blake”.

[110] Mohr 2000, p. 284.

[111] “About Islamic Prayer Group (U.K)", Islamicprayer-group.com, archived from the original on 2009-07-17

17

[112] “World Wide Prayer Group”. Retrieved 2008-10-30.

[113] “Pell adamant prayer cures cancer”. The Age. Melbourne.2009-12-21.

[114] Anonymous (July 20, 2005), “Skeptico – Prayer still use-less”, skeptico.blogs.com (blog), archived from the originalon 2014-11-04

[115] Tessman I and Tessman J “Efficacy of Prayer: A CriticalExamination of Claims,” Skeptical Inquirer, March/April2000,

[116] Leibovici, L (2001). “Effects of remote, retroactive inter-cessory prayer on outcomes in patients with bloodstreaminfection: randomized controlled trial”. BMJ. 323 (7327):1450–1. doi:10.1136/bmj.323.7327.1450. PMC 61047. PMID 11751349.

[117] Aviles, JM; Whelan, SE; Hernke, DA; Williams, BA;Kenny, KE; O'Fallon, WM; Kopecky, SL (2001). “In-tercessory prayer and cardiovascular disease progressionin a coronary care unit population: a randomized con-trolled trial”. Mayo Clin Proc. 76 (12): 1192–8.doi:10.4065/76.12.1192. PMID 11761499.

[118] Krucoff, MW; Crater, SW; Gallup, D; Blankenship, JC;Cuffe, M; Guarneri, M; Krieger, RA; Kshettry, VR; Mor-ris, K; Oz, M; Pichard, A; Sketch, MH Jr; Koenig, HG;Mark, D; Lee, KL (2005). “Music, imagery, touch,and prayer as adjuncts to interventional cardiac care:the Monitoring and Actualisation of Noetic Trainings(MANTRA) II randomised study”. Lancet. 366 (9481):211–7. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66910-3. PMID16023511.

[119] Mind and Spirit. from the Health Library section ofCentraState Healthcare System. Accessed May 18, 2006.

[120] Newberg, Andrew. Interviewed by Barbra BradleyHagerty. “Prayer May Re-Shape Your Brain”. www.npr.org “All Things Considered.” 20 May 2009. NationalPublic Radio. Web. 30 June 2010. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyID=104310443

[121] Hitchens, Christopher (2012). Mortality. New York:Twelve. ISBN 9781455502752. OCLC 776526158.

[122] Dennett, Daniel C. (2007). “Thank Goodness”. InHitchens, Christopher. The Portable Atheist: EssentialReadings for the Nonbeliever. Philadelphia: Da CapoPress. ISBN 9780306816086. OCLC 156811900.

[123] Margolick, David (6 August 1990). “In Child Deaths,a Test for Christian Science”. The New York Times.Archived from the original on 2014-11-04.

16 Further reading

• Stein, Rob (March 24, 2006). “Researchers Lookat Prayer and Healing”. Washington Post. Retrieved2014-11-04.

17 External links• Media related to Prayer at Wikimedia Commons

18 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

18 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

18.1 Text• Prayer Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prayer?oldid=780076811 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Eloquence, Wesley, Tarquin, Ed Poor,RK, Danny, Hajhouse, Rmhermen, Novalis, Fubar Obfusco, SJK, SimonP, Shii, Youandme, Olivier, Someone else, Pdfox, Stevertigo, Lif-tarn, MartinHarper, Stephen C. Carlson, Cyde, Sannse, Alfio, Tregoweth, Ihcoyc, Mortene, Ahoerstemeier, Darkwind, Usedbook, Jschwa1,Andres, Jiang, Jacquerie27, Kaysov, KayEss, Focus mankind~enwiki, Charles Matthews, Paul Stansifer, Vrakes, Kaare, Hyacinth, Dog-face, Phoebe, Thue, Stormie, Pollinator, Hajor, Robbot, Jesus Saves!, MrJones, JeMa, Fredrik, Goethean, Romanm, Naddy, Modulatum,Wjhonson, Yosri, Academic Challenger, Nilmerg, Auric, Mr-Natural-Health, Hadal, Puffy jacket, PhilTLL, Cyrius, DonaldSutherland,Tom harrison, Bradeos Graphon, Jfdwolff, Ojl, Bobblewik, Chris Strolia-Davis, Gadfium, Andycjp, MikeX, Quadell, Antandrus, Piotrus,Kusunose, Savant1984, Kaldari, One Salient Oversight, EuroTom, Sam Hocevar, Biot, ZZyXx, Fg2, Kasreyn, Esperant, Spiffy sperry,DanielCD, Beirne, Rich Farmbrough, KillerChihuahua, Guanabot, Wclark, Rorschach567, Carptrash, Dbachmann, Sergei Frolov, Ben-der235, Danielbutler, Pedant, El C, Lycurgus, RoyBoy, Mairi, MPS, Bobo192, Stesmo, NetBot, Che fox, Adraeus, Skywalker, Manvyi, Jojit fb, Alphax, Haham hanuka, Ogress, Ranveig, Alansohn, JYolkowski, Sherurcij, Ungtss, Hackwrench, Av, Arthena, Wiki-uk,Hipocrite, Snowolf, Denial, VivaEmilyDavies, Birdmessenger, LordAmeth, Richwales, TShilo12, Natarajanganesan, Roland2~enwiki,Navidazizi, Velho, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Ataru, MamaGeek, Bkkbrad, Barrylb, Jeff3000, -Ril-, Schzmo, Xiong Chiamiov, Essjay,Karam.Anthony.K, Coffeemonster~enwiki, KHM03, MrSomeone, Soonercary, BD2412, Cath0de, Bunchofgrapes, FreplySpang, Crzrus-sian, Rjwilmsi, Access.j, Koavf, Syndicate, PinchasC, Quiddity, Voretus, Nneonneo, Cfortunato, Lostsocks, FlaBot, Marax, Musical Lin-guist, Jmc, Brusselsshrek, Nivix, RexNL, Alphachimp, Gurubrahma, Hibana, DaGizza, HKT, Bgwhite, SujinYH, Wavelength, Kinney-boy90, Chavash, RussBot, Hornplease, Mark Ironie, Manop, CambridgeBayWeather, Kyorosuke, Wimt, Yrithinnd, Qinah, NawlinWiki,SEWilcoBot, Bachrach44, Wwilly, Robertvan1, Bloodofox, Ondenc, BirgitteSB, Irishguy, Xdenizen, Brian, Aaron Schulz, AdelaMae,Lumaga, Tomisti, Igiffin, Lprichar, Richardcavell, Sandstein, Zzuuzz, RDF, Closedmouth, Josh3580, Croat Canuck, Peter, Kevin, Yo-dakii, Anclation~enwiki, Kubra, Kungfuadam, WholemealBaphomet, Groyolo, Soir, Sycthos, SmackBot, Aim Here, MARussellPESE,Bobet, Reedy, Hydrogen Iodide, Varazslo, McGeddon, C.Fred, Serte, Jihiro, Frymaster, Matthewteli, HalfShadow, Yamaguchi , Mag-icalsaumy, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, The Famous Movie Director, Bluebot, Madmedea~enwiki, Persian Poet Gal, Bduke, Miquonranger03,Rorybowman, MalafayaBot, Kungming2, Hallenrm, Cyberoidx, Rama’s Arrow, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, DLand, Clinkophonist,Addshore, Huon, The-dissonance-reports, Nakon, Invincible Ninja, BullRangifer, Andrew c, Het, CIS, The undertow, SashatoBot, Eliyak,Kuru, John, Euchiasmus, Scientizzle, Treyt021, J 1982, AstroChemist, Mobial, A. 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18.2 Images 19

18.2 Images• File:Bangladesh_Prayer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Bangladesh_Prayer.jpg License: CC BY2.0 Contributors: Flickr.com - image description page Original artist: Hasan Iqbal Wamy from Dhaka, Bangladesh

• File:BhaiSahibJiArdas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/BhaiSahibJiArdas.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hari Singh

• File:Christ_in_Gethsemane.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Christ_in_Gethsemane.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: Brigham Young University Museum of Art Original artist: Heinrich Hofmann

• File:Duerer-Prayer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Duerer-Prayer.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Incense-LE.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Incense-LE.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:Flickr.com - image description page Original artist: Laughlin Elkind from Santa Cruz

• File:Jewish_Canadian_soldiers_during_WWII.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Jewish_Canadian_soldiers_during_WWII.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from Library and Archives Canadaunder the reproduction reference number PA-174315 and under the MIKAN ID number 3241238Original artist: Lieut. Barney J. Gloster / Canada. Dept. of National Defence

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• File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File:Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk

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• File:Muslims_praying_in_a_Masque_in_Bangladesh.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Muslims_praying_in_a_Masque_in_Bangladesh.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Shaeekh Shuvro

• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0Contributors:Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:Tkgd2007

• File:Ring48.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Ring48.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/ron/ron05.htm Original artist: Arthur Rackham

• File:Salat_positions.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Salat_positions.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: Original drawing by Sureyya Aydin, 1992, first published in the educational book Inn i det ukjente, by NRK (Norwegianbroadcasting corporation) Original artist: Sureyya Aydin, Norway

• File:Shintō_prayer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Shint%C5%8D_prayer.jpg License: CC BY 2.0Contributors: Cropped from http://www.flickr.com/photos/86251769@N00/508977152 Original artist: Kalandrakas ( ) fromKanagawa, Japan

• File:Stelae_of_Ankh-af-na-khonsu_(cropped).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Stelae_of_Ankh-af-na-khonsu_%28cropped%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Taipei_Taiwan_Mengjia-Longshan-Temple-03d.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Taipei_Taiwan_Mengjia-Longshan-Temple-03d.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: CEphoto, Uwe Aranas

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• File:Women_praying_in_the_Western_Wall_tunnels_by_David_Shankbone.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Women_praying_in_the_Western_Wall_tunnels_by_David_Shankbone.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: DavidShankbone Original artist: David Shankbone

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