pre-lecture · web viewpre-lecture. time: 5 minutes . slides: 1–11. discussion. learning...

Structural Firefighting, Second Edition Chapter 2: Procedures, Pre-Incident Planning, and Size-Up

Pre-LectureTime: 5 Minutes Slides: 1–11Discussion

Learning Objectives List the kinds of operations that should be covered by standard operating

procedures. Explain the importance of standard operating procedures. Discuss the relationship between standard operating procedures, pre-incident

plans, and size-up. Examine the relationship between standard operating procedures, equipment,

and training. Compare standard operating procedures to standard operating guidelines,

explaining the role of a "reasonable person" clause. Articulate the main components of pre-fire planning and identify steps during

a pre-fire plan review. Recall major steps taken during size-up and identify the order in which they

will take place at an incident. Recognize the relationship between pre-incident planning and construction

characteristics common to a community. Analyze construction methods during everyday responses and while surveying

buildings under construction and demolition. Explain how pre-incident plan information is gathered using pre-formatted

forms as well as methods for storing and retrieving pre-plan information. Examine compatibility issues and usefulness of computer programs in pre-

incident planning. Construct a priority chart of buildings to be preplanned by occupancy type. List factors to be considered during size-up and briefly define and explain the

significance of each factor. Demonstrate (verbally and in writing) knowledge of fire behavior and the

chemistry of fire. Recall the basics of building construction and how they interrelate to pre-fire

planning and size-up. Define and explain the difference between occupancy, occupant, and

occupied. Explain the size-up process in the chronological order in which information is

received. Evaluate a specific fire department's standard operating procedures. Prioritize occupancies to be pre-incident planned in a specific jurisdiction. Create a pre-incident plan drawing and narrative. Perform an initial size-up based on limited information. Apply size-up factors to a fire situation and categorize factors as primary or

secondary.

© 2009 Jones and Bartlett Publishers, LLC www.jbpub.com 1


Support Materials National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 1500: Standard on Fire

Department Occupational Safety and Health Programs. Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2007.

National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 1620: Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning. Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2003.

Department of Health and Human Services/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, NIOSH Alert: Preventing Injuries and Deaths of Fire Fighters due to Truss System Failures. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2005-132. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH Publication Dissemination, 2005.

National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 101: Life Safety Code. Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2006.

Francis Brannigan, Brannigan's Building Construction for the Fire Service, 4th edition. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2007.

National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 220: Standard on Types of Building Construction. Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2006.

National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 5000: Building Construction and Safety Code. Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2006.

National Fire Protection Association, NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 19th edition. Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2003.

National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 1710: Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire Departments. Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2004.

Lecture

I. IntroductionTime: 5 MinutesSlides: 12–14Lecture/Discussion

A. This chapter discusses the importance of pre-incident plans and standard operating procedures (SOPs) and their relationship to size-up.

B. In the fire service, factors that apply to fire-ground operations can and should be outlined in SOPs.

C. The better the pre-incident plan and SOPs, the fewer decisions that will need to be made in the heat of battle.

D. The incident commander (IC) can then focus on important incident-related factors when developing an incident action plan.

E. SOPs, pre-incident plans, and incident-specific information are interrelated and important components of the size-up.



F. SOPs and a good size-up are necessary prerequisites in the development of an incident action plan.

G. For larger and more complex properties, pre-incident planning is essential.

H. Important information about specific buildings can be obtained in advance through pre-incident planning.

I. The entire complex process of evaluating an incident and developing an incident action plan must take place in a few minutes.

J. As more information becomes available and the IC has time to reevaluate, the size-up information and the incident action plan should improve.

II. Developing Standard Operating ProceduresTime: 15 MinutesSlides: 15–23Lecture/Discussion

A. SOPs are general guidelines to be used at all structure fires or fires in similar occupancies.

1. Address any operation that can be handled using a standard approach.2. The types of property to be protected, resources available, equipment, and

training, among other factors, guide the promulgation of SOPs.3. SOPs for handling the same type of fire may look very different from department

to department.4. Although SOPS must be written specifically for an individual department, there is

a need for regional planning in writing procedures.

B. Purpose

1. Good department SOPs and pre-incident plans take the guesswork out of those first few precious moments on the fire-ground.

2. It is best to provide specific SOPs for the first-arriving engine company.3. SOPs provide a structure for the decision-making process, including answering

the questions of who makes what decisions, at what level of command, and from where.

4. NIMS does an excellent job of establishing a command structure and describing the roles of various players at the incident scene.

C. Relationship of SOPs to Training and Equipment

1. NFPA 1500 makes a definite statement that training must be commensurate with SOPs.a. There is a relationship between SOPs, equipment, and training.b. Any time new equipment is introduced or a new procedure is written, the entire cycle

must be completed.



c. Consideration should be given to SOPs when developing new apparatus and equipment specifications.

D. A word about the standard operating guidelines controversy

1. There is some discussion about whether to refer to standard operating procedures as standard operating guidelines, general operating guidelines, or another, similar name.a. It is far more important to have written procedures or guidelines than it is to argue

about the name.b. Many believe that calling procedures "standard operating guidelines" or "general

operating guidelines" somehow changes their strength, in that a guideline may be considered less stringent than a procedure.

c. In reality, procedures are guidelines, and guidelines become procedures through practice. If a task is always performed the same way, that method becomes the procedure for doing that task.

2. The solution to this problem is a "reasonable person" clause in the procedures manual. Essentially, a statement is made that procedures are to be followed, but that fire fighters should follow a reasonable course of action when confronted with a situation in which modification of the procedure is appropriate.

3. When a decision is made to modify procedures, the noncompliant unit or member is required to communicate the variance and be prepared to justify the modification.

4. Call them procedures or guidelines, but write them down, train to them, and use them consistently.

III. Evaluating a Specific PropertyTime: 30 MinutesSlides: 24–42Lecture/Discussion

A. Procedure describing the pre-incident planning system

1. During an official visit to a facility, it makes sense to gather information about all types of problems that may occur at a property.

2. If the facility falls under the requirements of Title III of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), then hazardous materials planning is mandated by law.

3. Establishing SOPs is the first step in the size-up.4. Pre-incident planning is step two. After SOPs are developed, individual properties

should be examined for specific hazards and characteristics.5. Pre-incident plans are a natural extension of SOPs.

B. Pre-incident plans

1. Pre-incident plans can take several forms.a. Formal plans include both a narrative and drawings.



i. Narratives are best written in outline form.ii. Important information should be highlighted, color coded, or otherwise identified

to draw attention to it.b. Simple plans include just a simple notation of a particular problem.

2. NFPA 1620: Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning outlines the steps involved in developing, maintaining, and using a pre-incident plan.a. Recommended occupancies:

i. Assemblyii. Educationaliii. Health careiv. Detention and correctionalv. Residentialvi. Residential board and carevii. Mercantileviii.Businessix. Industrialx. Warehouse and storagexi. Special outdoor locations, such as transformer sub-stations

b. The appendices of NFPA 1620 contain examples of pre-incident plans as well as case histories of several warehouse fires.

C. Types of Pre-Incident Plans

1. Complex a. A plan of a property with more than three buildings or when it is necessary to show

the layout of the premises and relationship between buildings on the site.b. Used to identify building and fire protection features as well as hazards for each

building.c. Also provide an overview of the complex to assist in locating buildings or areas

within the complex.d. Often, buildings are numbered or named according to their function or when they

were constructed, rather than by using a pattern that is readily apparent to those who are unfamiliar with the facility.

2. Formala. A property with a substantial risk to life and/or property would need a formal pre-

incident plan.b. Includes a drawing of the property including specific floor layouts, and a narrative

describing its important features.c. Several plans could be included within a pre-incident plan for a single property

within a complex pre-incident plan.d. The narrative portion would further describe the sprinkler system and hazards

associated with the different processes taking place in these two buildings.3. Notation

a. A simple notation may be made about the premises (e.g., the building has damage from a previous fire).



b. Computer-aided dispatch systems usually have provisions for making a special notation for specific addresses.

c. Another form would include marking the exterior of dangerous buildings.i. Example: Painting a large "X" at the top level of a building denotes that it should

not be entered because of structural problems.ii. The State of New Jersey uses such an exterior marking system to indicate truss

construction.4. Training issue or SOP

a. Fire companies should survey their district on a regular basis.i. Pay particular attention to buildings being demolished and under construction.ii. Buildings being demolished will show the common construction characteristics

for an era and provide a look inside the building's skeleton.iii. When a building is under construction, the interior framework and other features

can be seen.iv. Many fire fighters have discovered construction methods and materials that they

did not know existed when visiting a building under construction.b. Buildings constructed during a given era or period are similar.

i. Balloon-frame(a) Exterior wall studs extend the height of the building instead of stopping at

each floor.(b) This creates a channel through which a fire in the basement could travel

inside the walls and emerge in the attic space.ii. Platform

(a) Each floor is built as a platform on top of the lower floor, thus creating a barrier at each floor level.

(b) However, penetrations through the platform for plumbing, wiring, and the like can compromise the ability of this type of construction to stop the spread of fire within the walls.

c. More can be learned about properties in your jurisdiction during EMS or other responses.

D. Pre-plan incident checklist and drawings

1. Pre-incident planning includes planning for special occupancies or specific types of buildings. Some departments prefer to gather and distribute information using a standard pre-incident plan form.a. Advantages include being able to find specific information in a predictable location

on each pre-incident plan and having defined categories, which ensure the gathering of data for items listed on the form.

b. Disadvantages include having large amounts of "not applicable" space on the form and failing to gather information about items that are not listed on the form.

2. The authors recommend using a detailed format and intuitive drawing symbols that do not require use of a legend.a. Including a drawing is extremely useful.b. In addition to addressing the size-up/pre-plan factors, the building name, address, and

owner/manger/agent name with telephone numbers and emergency contact information should be included in the narrative.



3. An important feature of a good pre-incident plan is its usefulness in the field.4. One of the most common errors is to pre-assign companies to respond to specific

locations. a. If the actual fire occurs in a location other than the pre-planned area, companies will

be in the wrong locations.b. Including a tactical consideration on the pre-incident plan provides a reminder of

possible problems or tactics but does not constitute a pre-assignment.

E. Preparation and time involved in pre-planning

1. Pre-incident planning is a time-intensive activity that requires extensive data collection, and then entering those data into a computer or onto paper.a. Requires updated plans as a building's occupancy, layout, and contents change.

i. The revision process is also time-intensive.ii. This is especially true if plans must be completely redrawn and the information

must be reentered.iii. A computer can be used to great advantage as minor details can be changed and

the new information printed out with little effort.b. Changes to the interior of a building can greatly affect safety and tactics.c. Keeping pre-incident plans current is at least as important as creating the initial pre-

incident plan.d. Bad information can be worse than no information.

F. What structures are pre-planned

1. A decision regarding what properties to pre-incident plan depends on the jurisdiction being protected.

2. The operational priority list (life safety, extinguishment, property conservation) provides direction regarding what buildings may need to have pre-incident plans.a. If there is a high life hazard (including fire fighter safety issues), a particularly

difficult extinguishment problem, or high-value property, then there is a need to prepare a pre-incident plan.

b. High life hazard properties should be given the highest priority for planning. Pre-incident planning deals more with potential demand (properties with the potential for a large loss of life or property) than it does with realized demand (the actual number of fires in a building or type of building).

c. Buildings that present an extraordinary challenge in terms of life safety, extinguishment, and salvage should be pre-planned.

d. Other buildings that are generally preplanned, whether or not they present a high life safety, extinguishment, or property conservation problem, include the following:i. Buildings protected by fire protection systems (with the exception of small

restaurants with a hood system)ii. High-rise buildingsiii. Industrial complexes

G. Modifying SOPs



1. SOPs describe a standardized method for addressing predictable operational circumstances.

2. Pre-incident planning addresses what is different or unusual.3. Pre-incident plans are building specific, while SOPs are general.4. If the specific property fits the general category of operations, the SOP is assumed

to be in effect.5. However, there can be special circumstances in which the SOP is not the most

effective way to go to work.

H. Estimating life safety needs

1. Any building that poses an unusually high risk to fire fighters or occupants must be included in the pre-planning process.a. Nursing homes, hospitals, places of assembly, schools, churchesb. Other places holding large numbers of people or a significant number of disabled

people2. A notation-type pre-incident plan may be enough for buildings that have

previously been damaged by fire or weather.

I. Estimating extinguishment needs

1. A building with compartments requiring more than two standard pre-connected hose lines, as calculated by using the volume of the fire compartment divided by 100, should be pre-planned.

2. If special or hazardous materials are present in quantity (i.e., flammable liquids, plastics, rubber tires, and idle wood pallets), smaller buildings or areas may require a pre-incident plan.

3. The estimated rate of flow should be included on the pre-incident plan when applicable.

J. Estimating property conservation needs

1. High-value contents could justify a pre-planning effort.2. These include furs, jewelry, electronic equipment, and many other items.

K. Relationship of pre-planning to size-up

1. Size-up is a continuous process that is a natural extension of the SOP and pre-planning process.a. SOPs get the operation off to a predictable start.b. Pre-incident plans provide specific information about the building in advance of the

fire.



IV. Analyzing the Situation Through Size-UpTime: 90 MinutesSlides: 43–115Lecture/Discussion

A. Size-up factors are difficult to categorize in terms of relative importance.

1. Incident conditions will determine which size-up factors are most important.a. Factors related to life safety are most likely to be critical.b. Incident conditions will dictate which conditions are primary.c. The initial size-up analysis is limited to evaluating these primary factors.d. Less important factors are categorized as secondary.

2. Size-up actually begins before the incident with the development of SOPs and pre-incident planning.

3. When an alarm occurs, the IC considers what is already known about the specific property.

i. General type of property and area ii. Important factors (i.e., weather conditions, time of the alarm, and day of the

week) will be known as the response begins.4. Other incident-related information begins with the dispatcher's information about

the location of the fire, method of alarm, and other conditions reported to dispatch.

5. Once on the scene, the IC will add to what is known through personal observation, communications with fire companies and building personnel, and reconnaissance.

6. Size-up continues throughout the incident and into the overhaul phase.

B. Life safety/fire fighter safety

1. Smoke and fire conditions a. These are directly related to occupant survival and fire fighter safety, and are primary

factors at a structure fire.i. Heavy, dark, pressurized smoke and visible fire conditions may necessitate a

defensive attack, whereas light smoke with no fire evident indicates a high probability of saving occupants still inside the building.

ii. Reading smoke and fire is not an exact science, and hidden fire can cause a rapid increase in the volume of smoke and fire when it breaks out of containment.(a) Flashover is a critical indicator at a structure fire.(b) Occupants inside post-flashover compartments have a very low probability of

survival.iii. Smoke and fire conditions also can provide a warning of an impending backdraft.

b. Experienced ICs learn to evaluate pressure, smoke characteristics, and other factors in determining the intensity of the fire; however, interior reconnaissance is generally



the best way to realistically determine fire intensity when an interior attack is possible.

c. Smoke and fire conditions will not be known until the time of the fire, but the compartment size and tightness as well as fuel content provide pre-fire indicators of the relative fire potential.

2. Fire locationa. Knowing the fire's location is necessary to successfully combat the fire.

i. In most cases, company officers will be able to determine the location of the fire on arrival. The information received from dispatch, alarm systems, and information from occupants as well as visual clues assist in finding the fire location.

ii. When information is incomplete or incorrect, finding the fire can be very difficult especially in a large building. Locating the fire and its extension paths are critical to the operational plan.

b. Extinguishment is the primary life safety tactic as well as an operational priority.c. Open flaming is a definite indicator of fire location, but the origin of the fire could be

from another location, usually below the visible flame.d. Understanding the basic chemistry and physics of fire is helpful in learning to read

smoke—smoke velocity will be greatest near the main body of fire.e. In most cases, smoke will go to the nearest and largest opening unless wind

conditions reverse the venting.f. Smoke rapidly flowing from an opening is a clue that the fire may be nearby.

3. Direction of travela. Knowing where the fire is most likely to spread is important to life safety and

extinguishment tactics.i. Products of combustion travel upwards until reaching a barrier; they then travel

horizontally to fill the top of the compartment and, finally, they will travel downward.

ii. Fire, heat, and smoke will travel upward via the path of least resistance.b. Although it is impossible to know the exact means of fire travel during pre-incident

planning, it is possible to know the probability of fire travel considering the construction methods and any alterations that may affect fire spread.

4. Ventilation statusa. A key factor during all phases of the operation.

i. Venting for life safety involves moving the fire away from occupants and fire fighters.

ii. The vent opening should pull the fire away from occupants and fire fighters.b. Ventilation possibilities can be known through pre-incident planning.

5. Occupancy typea. Major occupancies can and should be identified through pre-fire planning.

i. The building's use will determine how likely the building is to be occupied at the time of the fire, the number of occupants, fuel load, fuel type, value of the contents, and other essential facts.

ii. However, buildings also are used for purposes other than their intended use.



b. Estimated number of occupantsi. Estimating the number of occupants in a large building is difficult at best.

(a) The buildings intended use (occupancy) can provide evidence of relative occupant density.

(b) NFPA 101:Life Safety Code establishes the maximum occupant load per square foot by occupancy type.

(c) Places of public assembly may be posted with the maximum number of occupants.

c. Evacuation statusi. Estimating the number of people still in the building is the next logical step after

estimating how many people may have occupied the building upon discovery of the fire.

ii. Most buildings do not have an occupant accountability system.iii. The only way to be sure the building has been evacuated is to conduct a primary

search. Fire fighters need to verify the search with a secondary search.iv. If a pre-planned building has an occupant accountability system, the specifics of

the plan should be noted on the pre-plan.d. Occupant proximity to fire.

i. Knowing the location of occupied areas through pre-incident planning can be very useful during the size-up process.

e. Awareness of occupantsi. People who are awake and alert are more likely to hear an alarm or sense the

products of combustion and then take action to evacuate the building.ii. Awareness is directly related to type of occupancy.

f. Mobility of occupantsi. Knowing the occupancy of the building can be very helpful in determining

whether occupants can successfully escape the fire.g. Occupants’ familiarity with the building

i. In most cases, the people inside a place of public assembly are not familiar with the building’s layout or alternate exit facilities.

ii. Many large, loss-of-life fire reports in places of assembly address unfamiliarity as a major problem.

h. Primary and alternative egress routesi. Most occupants will escape unassisted if there is sufficient egress.

(a) Codes specify egress facilities and pre-plan drawings should show the location of all exits.

(b) Some occupied buildings (i.e., hospitals) designate a defend-in-place strategy for occupants.

ii. Many public buildings have areas of refuge where immobile occupants wait to be helped.(a) Pre-plans should address these special facilities.(b) Fire fighters must know the location, how many occupants could be at the

area of refuge, and what the occupant and building managers expect to happen in an emergency.

(c) The fire department must always check areas of refuge during an emergency.j. Medical status of occupants



i. Whenever people are still in the building upon arrival, emergency medical service units need to be summoned to the scene.

ii. A medical branch is needed if there are large numbers of potential victims.6. Operational status

a. SOPS provide a standard way of going to work at a fire scene.b. The IC continually evaluates the safety and effectiveness of the standard operation,

and determines whether a nonstandard attack would be more effective.c. Safety is the IC’s most important consideration. It is critical that the IC continually

reevaluate the situation in terms of risk management.d. The IC must consider the following questions:

i. Is the search being conducted in a systematic manner?ii. Are the occupants who are in the most danger being rescued?iii. Has the fire been properly vented to control the fire spread?iv. Is progress being made to control the fire?v. Are rate-of-flow requirements being met?vi. Has salvage been considered?

7. Adherence to SOPsa. One of the few size-up factors about which very little can be known through pre-

incident planning.b. SOPs that are developed in preparation for fire emergencies provide an advanced

indicator.8. Fire zone/perimeters

a. Generally refers to an area where a specific level of protective clothing is required or possibly a safe area where no protective clothing is needed.

b. Set up to keep non-response people out of the area.c. The IC should evaluate the present zones/perimeter to determine whether they are

sufficient.d. General rules for fire zones/perimeters should be part of department SOPs.

9. Accountabilitya. The fire department accountability system accounts for all fire fighters at the incident

scene, not occupants of the building.b. The primary accountability system is NIMS.c. A properly organized incident provides the first level of fire fighter accountability.d. NIMS is a safety system.e. It is important that freelancing be avoided and that units on the fire-ground work

together as a single unit.f. A formal accountability system is required by NFPA 1500: Standard on Fire

Department Occupational Safety and Health Programs.10. Rapid intervention

a. NFPA 1500 also requires a rapid intervention crew (RIC).b. A RIC is a team of firefighters who are immediately available to rescue fellow fire

fighters who need assistance.11. Organization and coordination



a. NIMS is the acceptable method of organizing an incident.i. All units on the scene must be included in the organizational structure and their

activities coordinated.ii. Command must assure that all units are working toward common tactical

objectives within the overall strategy.12. Rescue options

a. The IC first evaluates the ways occupants can be removed from the building.b. Then, the IC selects the safest and the most efficient option.

13. Staffing needed to conduct primary searcha. The number of crews that should be assigned to the primary search is determined by

the following factors:i. Size of the area to be searchedii. Smoke conditionsiii. Rescue methods availableiv. Condition of the occupants

b. If victims must be physically removed, there will be a need for additional staffing.14. Staffing to conduct a secondary search generally will be the same as for the

primary search.15. Staffing needed for interior rescue/evacuation

a. This could be the same staffing as required for the primary search.b. Additional teams may be assigned to remove victims who are found during the

primary search.16. Staffing needed for exterior rescue/evacuation

a. If ladders or other exterior rescue methods are warranted, additional staffing will be needed.

b. Most exterior rescues require more staffing per rescue than removal via the interior stairs.

17. Access to building exteriora. Pre-incident plans should note apparatus access points for secured properties as well

as street or road access around the structure and aerial access points. b. Pre-incident plans should note unsafe roadways and those inaccessible to fire

apparatus.18. Access to building interior (forcible entry)

a. A need for forcible entry can significantly delay search and rescue operations as well as the initial fire attack.

b. Pre-incident planning should include changes made to security features in the jurisdiction.i. Times when the building is secured or when special security features (e.g.,

internal locks and gates) may impede entry19. Structure

a. The IC must always consider structural conditions as part of the size-up.b. A thorough risk-versus-benefit analysis determines whether the operation will be

offensive or defensive.



i. Although somewhat subjective, experience and training can greatly improve its accuracy.

c. A major risk-versus-benefit consideration involves evaluating structural conditions.i. If the structure is in imminent danger of collapse, no expected benefit is worth

the risk posed by entry into the structure.ii. If the building is being damaged but adequate time remains before a potential

collapse, an offensive attack posture to save lives could be warranted.iii. A decision may be made to contain the fire and rescue occupants, with a switch

to a defensive attack once the primary search and rescue are complete.d. The effect of the initial operations should be reevaluated once occupants are removed

from the structure.20. Signs of collapse.

a. Collapse is defined as the failure of a supporting structure; the complete or nearly complete destruction of a building.

b. Many occur with no perceptible warning, especially in truss-constructed buildings.21. Collapse zone

a. The height of the structure plus an allowance for debris scatter is highly recommended. In most cases, this translates to a collapse zone 1-½ times the height of the building.

b. Because it is very difficult to estimate the height of the building by looking up from the street level, it is much easier to measure or estimate building height during pre-incident planning.

22. Construction typea. All members of fire departments should become familiar with building types and

common building problems.i. Although few fire fighters would be capable of an engineering analysis to

determine structural stability, they can recognize potential structural problems during pre-incident planning.

ii. Studying past fires in different types of construction is also important.b. During pre-incident planning, the building should be classified by construction type

according to NFPA 220: Standard on Types of Building Construction:i. Type I construction: Fire-resistiveii. Type II construction: Non-combustibleiii. Type III construction: Ordinaryiv. Type IV construction: Heavy timberv. Type V construction: Frame

c. The fire-resistive (Type I) building is superior to all other building types.23. Roof construction

a. Roof covering can be important, particularly if it is combustible (e.g., wood shake shingles).i. The structure that supports the roof is generally most important to fire fighters in

this era of nearly universal, non-combustible roof coverings.b. Roof collapse is a killing mechanism in its own right, but also a precursor to

catastrophic collapse.



i. The roof tends to tie in the walls of the building.ii. When walls damaged by fire lose roof support, they often fail.iii. Truss roofs have been responsible for many fire fighter fatalities.

(a) If a truss roof is present—especially a long span truss roof—it should be highlighted on the pre-plan narrative.

(b) Add a symbol to the pre-plan drawing indicating the truss roof.24. Condition

a. A building in poor repair or one that is previously damaged presents an extra hazard for fire fighters.i. Abandoned buildings often have structural damaged caused by weather, previous

fires, or unauthorized occupants.b. Even if the building does not warrant formal pre-incident planning, a notation should

be made warning responding fire fighters of structural damage or hazards (i.e., holes in the floor).

c. The IC must consider serious pre-fire damage as a critical factor when making an offensive/defensive decision.

25. Live and dead loadsa. Dead loads are the loads imposed on structural members by the building and

permanent attachments.i. The type of construction is a major factor in determining the overall dead load.ii. Heavy roof loads should be noted on the pre-incident plan.

b. Live loads are those loads produced by the building contents.i. The live load will vary from very light to extra hazard.ii. Warehouse buildings tend to carry very heavy live loads with a possible added

impact load due to materials handling equipment.iii. Extraordinary live loads should be noted on pre-plans.iv. Knowing a building's live load is important when determining incident-specific

tactics.26. Fire suppression water load

a. The obvious water load is the weight of the water fire fighter's discharge into the building during fire operations.

b. Each gallon of water weighs 8.33 pounds (3.8 kg).c. Therefore, a 1000 GPM (63 L/sec) master stream operating into the building is

adding 8330 pounds (3778 kg) to the building each minute.27. Enclosures and fire separations

a. The type of construction and occupancy (both of which can be known before the fire) will be major clues in determining extension probability.

b. The balloon-frame building is noted for a lack of compartmentation and thus has no rated fire assemblies to prevent fire spread.

28. Extension probability is directly related to the presence of enclosures/fire separations and concealed spaces.

29. Concealed spacesa. Most buildings (except for heavy timber, Type IV construction) contain multiple

concealed spaces.



i. Of special note are attics, particularly when several buildings or units share a common attic.

ii. Fire separations are often damaged or removed in buildings that were originally constructed with attic fire separations.

b. Sometimes the only separation between the attic and useable space below is a suspended ceiling.i. Suspended ceilings create a false space where subsequent fire travel can result in

fire cutting off fire fighter egress paths.ii. As fire fighters make entry, ceiling tiles should be lifted or removed to determine

if fire is in the false ceiling area.iii. If the concealed space is involved in fire and contains a truss roof or floor

assembly, expect rapid collapse. Immediately communicate this finding to the IC.c. The time to discover concealed spaces and truss roofs/floors is during pre-incident

planning before the fire. Smoke conditions may not allow an examination during the fire.

30. Agea. Positive effects of a building’s age—most older buildings will have heavier, more

fire-resistive construction.b. Negative effects of a building’s age

i. Renovated older buildings may contain new, lightweight construction in the renovated areas.

ii. The building may be getting weaker as it ages, depending on the construction materials and building maintenance.

c. The year the building was constructed should be noted on the pre-incident plan.31. Height and area

a. Building size at least partially dictates the total volume of fire.b. Rate of flow formulas are based on the size of the fire compartment.

i. The location and size of large undivided areas of buildings should be noted on pre-incident plans.

c. The height of the building determines the effectiveness of ground-based fire apparatus.i. When pre-incident planning a multi-story building, determine the maximum

reach of available aerial apparatus in terms of floors.ii. Aerial access points should be identified in advance of the fire.iii. The height of the building also affects the number of possible occupants, type of

construction, fuel load, and other factors, all of which should be included in the pre-incident plan.

iv. All high-rise buildings should be pre-planned.32. Complexity and layout

a. The pre-incident plan should include a general floor layout for the building.b. Also include any information that might affect firefighting operations or fire fighter

safety.

C. Extinguishment

1. Probability of extinguishment is also important to life safety.



a. When the fire is extinguished, the probability of death and injury are greatly diminished.

b. Extinguishment is nearly always a primary factor at a working structure fire.c. Knowing flow requirements and the extent of fire are key factors in determining

whether a rapid, lifesaving extinguishment is possible.2. Offensive/defensive/non-attack

a. Deciding the overall attack strategy is critically important as the entire operation hinges on this early decision.

b. Whenever command is transferred, the person assuming command must consider whether the present strategy is correct.

c. Critical factors change as tactical objectives are achieved.d. The most important objectives are those related to life safety.

3. Ventilation statusa. Finding and extinguishing the fire is much easier when the fire has self-vented in a

building that is still safe to enter.i. If the fire is unvented, it should be vented as soon as possible.ii. Venting for extinguishment involves making openings to pull smoke and heat

away from the hose crew to support a quick, efficient fire attack.b. Part of the pre-incident planning process involves identifying available built-in vents

and evaluating the roof structure for roof operations.4. External exposures

a. Pre-incident plan drawing should show the location of nearby exposures.b. The narrative part of the pre-plan should identify the occupancy and any special

considerations regarding the exposures.5. Internal exposures

a. Parts of the fire building or connected structures are categorized as internal exposures.

b. Identifying fire pathways is best done prior to the fire.6. Manual extinguishment

a. Fuel loadi. Varies as to quantity, type of fuel, geometric orientation and other factors.

b. Calculated rate of flowi. The big question in calculating rate of flow is whether the standard attack line

with a back-up line can extinguish expected fires.ii. The rate of flow should be pre-calculated and noted on pre-plans if:

(a) The fire compartment is larger than what two standard pre-connects can extinguish, or

(b) The fuel load will create a fire situation beyond the control of two standard attack lines.

c. Number of hose lines needed for extinguishmenti. An extension of rate of flow: once the rate of flow and the flow provided by

department hose lines are known, the required number of hose lines needed to extinguish an advanced fire can be estimated.

d. Additional hose liens/master streams needed



i. Extinguishment is the primary purpose for using hand-held hose lines and master streams.

ii. There is also a need to cover internal and external exposures, provide a back-up line, and protect critical egress routes.

e. Staffing needed for hose linesi. In most cases, a full fire company should be assigned to each hose line.

(a) An exception is when the apparatus operator is needed at the pump panel (two members are assigned as the initial RIC) or when there are more than five people assigned to the apparatus.

(b) Departments should operate nozzles and hose lines under simulated fire conditions during training to determine the actual staffing needs for each hose/nozzle combination.

(c) Keeping company members together also results in better accountability.f. Water supply.

i. Once a fire occurs, it is too late to evaluate the water supply capability.ii. Some public and nearly all private water systems have a limited supply. These

limitations must be understood when deploying large flow appliances.iii. Large municipal water systems are often supplied by multiple water systems.

(a) These multiple systems can usually be cross-tied to supply water from adjoining systems, thus increasing the total flow available at the scene of a major emergency.

(b) If the water system has this capability, members should know how to open valves (or how to get assistance in opening valves) connecting water systems.

iv. Even departments with a strong water supply should plan for situations where the water supply could be reduced or unavailable.

g. Apparatus pump capacityi. Apparatus specifications should consider available water supply and fire hazards

when pumps are specified. ii. Individual apparatus pump

(a) Capacity is a known factor.(b) However, the total flow needed for a given situation is incident-dependent.(c) Often the pump capacity exceeds the available water supply.

h. Manual fire suppression systemsi. In most cases, manual fire suppression system refers to a standpipe system.

(a) The IC must decide whether the system is to be used in a one-story, low-rise, or lower floor of a high-rise building.

(b) Usually, it is best to use the standpipe because its use reduces the work required to advance a hose line.

(c) Reliance on the standpipe is directly related to the height of the fire floor: the higher in the building the fire, the greater the reliance on the standpipe.

ii. The location of control valves (main and sectional), pumps, fire department connections, and hose outlets should be shown on pre-incident plans.(a) Use of these valves, whether they can be adjusted, and what equipment is

needed to adjust the pressure/volume should be explained also.(b) SOPs and pre-incident plans should specify hose, nozzles, and equipment

needed during standpipe operations.



i. Automatic fire suppression equipmenti. Just as with the standpipe system, the location of control valves (main and

sectional), pumps, fire department connections, and hose outlets should be shown on the pre-incident plan for sprinkler-protected buildings.(a) When a building is equipped with an automatic sprinkler system, the primary

tactic involves letting the system do its job.(b) Simultaneously, fire fighters support the system and move in for final

extinguishment.ii. The sprinkler system becomes the first line of defense.

j. Property conservationi. Property conservation is the third operational priority.ii. Seldom will factors related to property conservation take on the urgency

associated with life safety and extinguishment.iii. Information about property value and location within the building usually can be

known in advance; pre-planning property conservation measures can significantly reduce the overall loss.

k. Salvageable propertyi. Nearly every property has some form of salvageable property.

(a) During pre-incident planning, it is important to determine what there is to salvage.

(b) Also must know the value of the property.ii. Property also might have non-monetary value.

l. Location of salvageable propertyi. In the residential occupancy, salvageable property can be found throughout the

building.ii. In other occupancies, there may be concentrations of high-value property (i.e.,

computer rooms in a school or business occupancy).iii. Pre-incident plans should identify these locations and possibly provide guidance

in handling the salvage effort.m. Water damage

i. The primary extinguishment tactic involves applying water to the burning material; thus, there will be some quantity of water in the building.

ii. Water will migrate through various openings and possibly damage property on floors where water is discharged and below.

n. Susceptibility of contents to water damagei. How easily the property is damaged.ii. Some property is highly vulnerable to water damage (e.g., paper files).

o. Water pathways to salvageable propertyi. Water will flow downward through paths of least resistance.ii. If the floor contains openings or holes, water will flow through the openings or

holes to the floor below.iii. Otherwise, it will flow to stairways, elevators, drains, or other routes.

p. Water removal methods availablei. Preferred methods involve using built-in features that drain the water out of the

building.



ii. Otherwise, water removal will involve pushing or directing water to channels leading out of the building, or possibly removing it with water vacuums.

q. Protective measures availablei. When property cannot be moved out of harm's way, the most common way to

protect property from water damage is by placing covers over the exposed contents, starting with the property that is in the water pathway and most susceptible to water damage.

ii. At times it is possible to move contents above floor level (e.g., placing furniture on skids or placing more valuable property on top of less valuable property).

iii. Water removal is also a means of protecting property from flowing water.r. Smoke damage

i. Smoke can infiltrate the entire building, especially through ventilation systems.ii. The most common pathway for smoke is upward; therefore, most smoke damage

occurs on the fire floor and floors above.s. Ventilation

i. The best way to reduce smoke damage is to ventilate the building.(a) Some ventilation methods that are ill-advised prior to full fire containment

are acceptable after extinguishment.ii. Property that is susceptible to smoke damage on the fire floor and above is most

likely to be damaged.(a) Materials that absorb smoke are more susceptible to damage, as is sensitive

electronic equipment.iii. Forcible entry and ventilation are often necessary to achieve tactical objectives,

but they can be overdone.(a) If a building is closed and locked, forcible entry nearly always results in

some damage, as will ventilating.(b) However, damage should be limited to what is needed to achieve these

tactical objectives.

D. General factors

1. Total staffing available versus staffing neededa. Implementation of an incident action plan will require resources, and until the actual

plan is developed, the exact number of resources needed is unknown.b. However, approximations need to be made during the early size-up.c. Staffing is generally the most important and difficult resource to obtain when

initiating an offensive attack.i. It has been estimated that it takes a minimum of 11 to 13 fire fighters to safely

and efficiently combat a working structure fire in a multilevel building with a life hazard.

ii. This estimate is for a single-family dwelling where one or two hose lines will be sufficient and the areas to be searched are limited.

iii. As the size and complexity of the property increase, the required staffing also increases.

iv. If the calculated fire flow requires multiple 2-½" lines to attack the fire, more staffing will be needed to meet the rate of flow.



d. The NFPA Fire Protection Handbook lists some suggested guidelines for staffing for high, medium, and low-hazard occupancies as well as for rural operations.

e. These guidelines are further reinforced in NFPA 1710: Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire Departments, where a staffing requirement of at least 14 fire personnel are needed on the scene (15 if an aerial device is being used).

f. Searching large areas, physically removing victims, larger rate of flow requirements, or areas beyond a fixed water supply will require additional staffing.

g. Offensive operations are typically labor-intensive.h. Defensive operations require fewer fire fighters, operating apparatus, and equipment

that require large volume water supplies.i. The IC needs to estimate the staffing resources required and then consider how the

responding resources match these requirements.j. Augmenting resources could take the form of requesting additional alarms or mutual

aid.i. If resource capabilities cannot match the needs of an offensive attack, attempting

an offensive operation will place fire fighters in extreme danger.ii. If the needs of neither an offensive nor a defensive attack can be met, the IC's

only safe option may be to assign available resources to exposure protection.k. Once the IC matches incident requirements with available resources, the

offensive/defensive attack decision can be made.2. Total apparatus available versus apparatus needed

a. Offensive operations are staffing-intensive; the initial response generally provides an adequate number of apparatus.

b. Defensive operations are apparatus-intensive and require more apparatus for water supply and master streams.

3. Staging/tactical reservea. SOPs should address staging in a general way.b. Small scale incidents usually require at least one engine company and one truck

company.c. Larger and more complex incidents require a larger tactical reserve.

4. Utilities (water, gas, electricity, other)a. Residential gas or fuel supplies can be shut down if they are causing a problem or if

they are leaking.b. Utility company personnel are better equipped to shut down electrical and piped gas

supplies.c. Pre-incident plans should show the location of gas and electric shut-offs with

particular attention to hazard areas.5. Special resource needs. The ICS should assess the need for special resources (e.g.,

police or EMS) as part of the size-up.6. Time

a. Time of incident is one factor that will not be known until a fire occurs.



b. Time of day: A factor in determining the likelihood of people being in the building and their degree of awareness of the fire

c. Day of week: Similar to time of day; occupancies are generally fully occupied on different days of the week.

d. Time of year: Should be considered in relation to weather conditions.e. Special times: Holidays should be considered because they can change the occupant

load of a structure.7. Weather

a. The IC must consider the effect of the present weather conditions.b. The variety of weather conditions is nearly endless, but the IC should concentrate on

extremes.i. Extremely cold or hot weather conditions may require occupant shelter and fire

fighter rehabilitation (REHAB) stations.ii. Humidity is particularly important during hot weather extremes, where it

increases the fatigue factor. Humidity also can affect smoke movement.

E. Size-up chronology

1. Size-up follows a chronological sequence:a. SOPs and the pre-incident plan

i. Accomplished well in advance of an alarm but play a significant role in developing an incident action plan

ii. Provide the IC a head start on the size-up process and actually become part of the incident size-up

b. Shift/day/timei. As the IC reports for a shift, unusual weather conditions, day of the week, and

related factors are considered.c. Alarm information

i. When the alarm is received, the time-of-day factor is immediately processed along with dispatch information.

ii. Dispatch information can include the following:(a) Building location/address(b) Fire location(c) Fire intensity (numerous calls usually mean big fires)(d) Occupant status (e.g., report of an occupant trapped on the second floor)

iii. Additional information may be known about the area or the specific building, or the dispatch file may contain a pre-incident plan notation.

d. En routei. The dispatcher may be able to provide additional information to the responding

units.ii. Companies arriving on the scene should give status reports.iii. Initial information received from units on the scene is critical to formulate an

incident action plan.e. Visual observations at the scene

i. Many questions are answered as the IC gets the first look at the situation.(a) When conditions permit, it is a good idea to get a view from several angles.



(b) This must be done quickly so that an incident action plan can be developed and implemented.

ii. The combination of visual information and reconnaissance from companies working on the interior or other unseen locations provides the basis for the initial incident action plan.

iii. The big question is whether the current incident action plan will accomplish the desired objectives.

iv. The quality and quantity of information will greatly increase with time.f. Information is gained during continuing operations.g. Overhaul

i. Overhaul should be planned and deliberate.ii. The emergency phase is over, and extreme caution should be taken to avoid

injuring firefighters.

V. SummaryTime: 5 MinutesSlides: 116, 117Lecture/Discussion

A. By establishing procedures in advance of an incident and by identifying target hazards as well as developing pre-incident plans, the IC's job is simplified.

B. By having this information available, coupled with a thorough size-up, a safe and effective incident action plan can be developed.

Post-Lecture

I. Wrap-Up ActivitiesTime: 30 MinutesSmall Group Activity/Discussion

Purpose

These activities are designed to assist the student in gaining a further understanding of the importance of pre-incident plans and standard operating procedures (SOPs) and their relationship to size-up.

Instructor Directions

1. Direct students to the suggested activities located in the Wrap-Up section at the end of the chapter. Several of these activities are designed as out-of-class work and should be assigned as such. Students should be directed to be prepared to report on their answers at a subsequent class meeting. Those activities able to be completed in class should be assigned to students. Students should report their answers in a group discussion format.



2. Encourage students to view fire-ground videos or listen to fire-ground audio clips, many of which are available on the Internet, to gain a perspective of how size-up communications occur on actual incidents.

3. Instructors can facilitate a lesson review utilizing the Lesson Review Questions listed below. Answers are provided for Instructors to use in initiating this review.

II. Lesson Review QuestionsTime: 25 MinutesDiscussion

1. What are the three inter-related components of a size-up?

2. Name the guidelines that are used at all structure fires except when circumstances indicate the need for a different approach.

3. Which federal regulation mandates hazardous materials planning for some buildings?

4. Name the three types of pre-incident plans.

5. Name two of the important building considerations listed in a pre-incident plan.

6. Name two types of buildings commonly pre-planned.

7. What determines which size-up factors are more important (primary) or less important (secondary)?

8. When does size-up begin?

9. What two factors are considered primary factors because of their effect on life safety?

10. Name three important life safety factors.

11. Name the two overall attack strategies.

12. What is the goal of property conservation measures?

13. Name two of the outside resources called upon to handle special tasks.

14. Name three factors that can affect the overall action plan.

15. Name several of the items considered to be alarm information.

Answers

1. SOPs, pre-incident plans, incident-specific information

2. Structural fire SOPs

3. Title III of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)

4. Complex, formal, notation

5. Type, age, or current usage



6. Buildings protected by fire protection systems, high-rise buildings, industrial complexes

7. Incident conditions

8. With the development of SOPs and pre-incident planning

9. Smoke and fire conditions

10. Direction of fire travel, ventilation status, occupancy type, the number and mobility of occupants, operational status

11. Offensive and defensive

12. To mitigate smoke and water damage

13. Red Cross, police, EMS

14. Weather conditions, time of day, day of the week, season, and type of occupancy

15. Building address, location and intensity of the fire, status of the occupants.


pre-lecture · web viewpre-lecture. time: 5 minutes . slides: 1–11. discussion. learning...

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