precautionary principle cumulative effects mitigation measures … · 2011-03-31 · happy...

Annette Luttermann PhDAnnette Luttermann PhD

Changes Due to Flow Regulation in the Riparian HabitatsChanges Due to Flow Regulation in the Riparian Habitats of the Churchill Riverof the Churchill River

The Imperative of Meaningful Cumulative Effects AssesThe Imperative of Meaningful Cumulative Effects Assessmentsment

Presentation to the Lower Churchill Review PanelPresentation to the Lower Churchill Review Panel Happy ValleyHappy Valley--Goose BayGoose Bay

March 31, 2011March 31, 2011

CrossCross--Cutting IssuesCutting Issues

Precautionary PrinciplePrecautionary Principle

Cumulative EffectsCumulative Effects

Mitigation Measures Mitigation Measures

Riparian wetland habitatsRiparian wetland habitats

Presentation to LCPP Review Panel Presentation to LCPP Review Panel -- March 31, 2011 Annette Luttermann PhDMarch 31, 2011 Annette Luttermann PhD________________________________________________________________________________________

An opportunity to utilize our collective historAn opportunity to utilize our collective historand current knowledge to better understand and current knowledge to better understand

LabradorLabrador’’s largest river is affected bys largest river is affected byhydroelectric developmenthydroelectric development

Environmental Impact Assessmen

1. Scoping1. Scoping



2. Analysis2. Analysis



2. Analysis2. Analysis3. Mitigation3. Mitigation



2. Analysis2. Analysis3. Mitigation3. Mitigation

4. Significance4. Significance


TransLabrador Highway

Precautionary Principle

Uncertainty?


What are some areas of some What are some areas of some scientific certainty with regards scientific certainty with regards to environmental effects of to environmental effects of these developments? these developments?


Shoreline in the West Forebay Shoreline in the West Forebay downstream of the Lobstick Control Structuredownstream of the Lobstick Control Structure

1.1. In the EIS there is an inadequate understanding of In the EIS there is an inadequate understanding of the degradation of riparian habitats due to changes the degradation of riparian habitats due to changes in hydrological regimes.in hydrological regimes.



2.2. The proposed mitigation measures for riparian The proposed mitigation measures for riparian habitat loss are vague and unrealistic.habitat loss are vague and unrealistic.




3.3. The methods used to measure significance are not The methods used to measure significance are not adequately protective of longadequately protective of long--term biodiversity.term biodiversity.




3.3. The methods used to measure significance are not The methods used to measure significance are not adequately protective of longadequately protective of long--term biodiversity.term biodiversity.

4.4. There is an inadequate characterisation of There is an inadequate characterisation of cumulative effects of multiple hydroelectric projects cumulative effects of multiple hydroelectric projects on riparian habitats within the watershed and the on riparian habitats within the watershed and the region.region.


Sources of InformationSources of Information

Research on the effects of dams and impoundments in Research on the effects of dams and impoundments in boreal riparian zones in other regionsboreal riparian zones in other regions

Hydrological data from the Churchill River systemHydrological data from the Churchill River system

Historical records of riparian habitats and relevant Historical records of riparian habitats and relevant natural history in the Churchill River watershed natural history in the Churchill River watershed

Local environmental knowledge and perspectives Local environmental knowledge and perspectives about changes in the riverabout changes in the river

Field surveys of riparian vegetation structure and Field surveys of riparian vegetation structure and composition along the main stem of the river, in composition along the main stem of the river, in reservoirs and downstream reachesreservoirs and downstream reaches


Knowledge of the river - past and present

Riparian Vegetation SurveysRiparian Vegetation Surveys

200 m 200 m ––long reacheslong reaches

•• substrate typessubstrate types•• distance from mouthdistance from mouth•• elevationelevation•• hydrological regimehydrological regime•• channel widthchannel width•• relative river flow velocityrelative river flow velocity•• average riparian zone width and heightaverage riparian zone width and height•• aspectaspect•• relative slope relative slope

vascular plant species richnessvascular plant species richness% vegetation cover in riparian zone% vegetation cover in riparian zone

Wetlands StudyWetlands Study

Nalcor contracted a study of wetlands in Nalcor contracted a study of wetlands in the Study Area.the Study Area.

It provides some useful information and is It provides some useful information and is a good start for a region that has a good start for a region that has undergone very little previous study. undergone very little previous study.

But it fails to document all riparian habitatsBut it fails to document all riparian habitats

In addition, there are several problems In addition, there are several problems with the interpretation of the data.with the interpretation of the data.

Wetlands Study in the EIS Wetlands Study in the EIS ________________________________________________________________________________________

According to the data in the wetlands According to the data in the wetlands report, of the wetlands identified, the report, of the wetlands identified, the losses would be:losses would be:

100% of marsh/swamp complexes100% of marsh/swamp complexes

98% of riparian marsh habitat; 98% of riparian marsh habitat;

90% of shallow water swamp complexes90% of shallow water swamp complexes

95% of shallow water wetlands in the 95% of shallow water wetlands in the Study Area. Study Area.


Loss of Riparian MarshesLoss of Riparian MarshesThe report states:The report states:

““Approximately 321 ha of the 327 ha (98%) of riparian Approximately 321 ha of the 327 ha (98%) of riparian marsh habitat identified within the study area will be marsh habitat identified within the study area will be inundated (based on 102 sampled wetlands). inundated (based on 102 sampled wetlands).

Prior to this study the presence of these wetlands along the Prior to this study the presence of these wetlands along the lower Churchill River was not documented and so it is lower Churchill River was not documented and so it is likely that the actual presence of this wetland form is likely that the actual presence of this wetland form is more common than currently thought in Labrador.more common than currently thought in Labrador.””

In fact riparian marsh and swamps are not likely very In fact riparian marsh and swamps are not likely very common in Labrador.common in Labrador.


The EIS states that the loss of existing wetlands The EIS states that the loss of existing wetlands would be only small portion (13%) of the would be only small portion (13%) of the wetlands present in the study area. These wetlands present in the study area. These numbers not accurately represent the loss of the numbers not accurately represent the loss of the very rich plant communities all along the lower very rich plant communities all along the lower river reaches. river reaches.

In this calculation they have grouped the very In this calculation they have grouped the very common bogs and relatively common fens of common bogs and relatively common fens of upland Labrador with the much less common upland Labrador with the much less common fluvial marshes and swamps. fluvial marshes and swamps.


It is well known in the ecological literature It is well known in the ecological literature that riparian zones of large rivers have that riparian zones of large rivers have greater species richness of vascular plants greater species richness of vascular plants than those of smaller rivers. than those of smaller rivers.

The Churchill River is the largest river in The Churchill River is the largest river in Labrador by an order of magnitude over Labrador by an order of magnitude over the next largest river. the next largest river.


““High habitat suitability was typically associated High habitat suitability was typically associated with fens, bogs and marshes. Fens and bogs with fens, bogs and marshes. Fens and bogs represent the large majority of wetlands found represent the large majority of wetlands found within the study area, and therefore the loss of within the study area, and therefore the loss of habitat for herpetiles is considered to be habitat for herpetiles is considered to be negligiblenegligible””..IR# JRP.155 RevisedIR# JRP.155 Revised

The data report 16 sampled riparian marsh and The data report 16 sampled riparian marsh and swamp sites that had high herpetile suitabilityswamp sites that had high herpetile suitability2 bog sites, 9 fen sites2 bog sites, 9 fen sites


Loss of Riparian Wetland Habitat Loss of Riparian Wetland Habitat PotentialPotential

Loss of habitats means loss of wildlife Loss of habitats means loss of wildlife potential long into the future for those potential long into the future for those species that are associated with those species that are associated with those habitats.habitats.


Wetlands were studied for the EIS, but no Wetlands were studied for the EIS, but no ecological value is accorded to linear riparian ecological value is accorded to linear riparian vegetation complexes in the EIS. vegetation complexes in the EIS.

Riparian habitat is formed all along seasonally flooded river and lake shorelines.

Hydrological Influences on Riparian Wetland Habitats ________________________________________________________________________________________

Relatively high species richnessRelatively high species richness in the lower riverin the lower river

Species Richness by Flow Regime

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

23UR

24STR

31STR

32STR

33STR28

DIV29

DIV34

DIV25

FB30

FB2D

S3D

S4D

S5D

S6D

S7D

S8D

S9D

S10

DS11

DS12

DS13

DS14

DS15

DS16

DS17

DS18

DS19

DS20

DS21

DS22

DS

Site ID Number and Flow Regime Type: UR-Unregulated, STR-storage reservoir, DIV-diverted reach, FB-forebay reservoir, DS-downstream reach

Num

ber o

f Spe

cies

Obs

erve

Hydrological processes are a primary influence on the fluvial geomorphology of a river and create riparian habitat diversity.

Ushakusk-shipissLower Brook

Delta of a tributary of theMishta-shipu



Natural Hydrological Regimes in Boreal RiversNatural Hydrological Regimes in Boreal Rivers

Riparian zones develop a dynamic mosaic of vegetation at various stages of succession .

They provide structural diversity in habitats adjacent to water bodies - important to many species

Mishta-shipu near Nakutshash-shipiss (Cache River)


Riparian areas provide unique habitats, are generallyspecies rich compared to upland areas, and are always

directly affected by changes in thehydrological regime

of the river

(Nilsson, 1992; Naiman and Decamps, 1997; Jansson et al. 2000)(Nilsson, 1992; Naiman and Decamps, 1997; Jansson et al. 2000)


Minaiku

White Sprucein the Mishta-shipu valley


Rich herb forest stands Rich herb forest stands develop in old river develop in old river valleys subject to valleys subject to periodic extreme floods periodic extreme floods over the longover the long--term. term.

Typical Upland vegetation cover

Given what is known about riparian habitats, any river regulation project should have a strong focus on hydrological regimes as a fundamental, landscape-level ecological process.


Primary Effects of River RegulationPrimary Effects of River Regulation

conversion from lotic to lentic environments above damsconversion from lotic to lentic environments above dams

changes in sediment transport, deposition and erosion changes in sediment transport, deposition and erosion processes, and nutrient, temperature and moisture processes, and nutrient, temperature and moisture regimes below dams;regimes below dams;

alterations in community composition and succession alterations in community composition and succession processes due to increased or decreased disturbanceprocesses due to increased or decreased disturbance

(Naiman et al., 2005).(Naiman et al., 2005).


Effects of River Regulation on Boreal Effects of River Regulation on Boreal Riparian VegetationRiparian Vegetation

Reduction in species richnessReduction in species richness

Reduction in vegetation cover Reduction in vegetation cover

Decreased structural complexityDecreased structural complexity

(Nilsson, 1986; Naiman and D(Nilsson, 1986; Naiman and Déécamps, 1997; Jansson et al., 2004camps, 1997; Jansson et al., 2004))


Large hydroelectric facilities were constructed in the upper watershed during the 1960s and 1970s

Lobstick Control Structure The town of Churchill Falls

113 kilometres of dikes

Churchill Falls tailraces

Cumulative Effects________________________________________________________________________________________

What has already been lost?

What will be left?

The late Penote Ben Michel - Former Innu leader


Cumulative Environmental Effects

The incremental change in the environment that The incremental change in the environment that results from an action, when added to other results from an action, when added to other past, present, and foreseeable future actions. past, present, and foreseeable future actions.

Cumulative effects are the spatial and temporal Cumulative effects are the spatial and temporal accumulation of change in environmental accumulation of change in environmental systems. systems.

Cumulative effects can result from individually Cumulative effects can result from individually minor, but collectively significant actions taking minor, but collectively significant actions taking place concurrently, or over a period of time.place concurrently, or over a period of time.

(U.S. Council on Environmental Quality, 1978; Ross, 1994; Sears and Yu, 1994)


Cumulative Effects Assessment (CEA)Cumulative Effects Assessment (CEA)

Expanded temporal and spatial scope of Expanded temporal and spatial scope of assessment beyond the immediate footprint of assessment beyond the immediate footprint of the proposed projectthe proposed project

Definition and understanding of indicators of Definition and understanding of indicators of cumulative environmental changecumulative environmental change


Regulated hydrological regimes associated with the Menihek and Regulated hydrological regimes associated with the Menihek and Churchill Falls hydroelectric developmentsChurchill Falls hydroelectric developments

Daily Flow from the Upper Churchill River for Two Years Pre- and Post Regulation

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D

Month

m3/

s

1968-1969 at Flour Lake 2000-2001 at Powerhouse Tailraces

Downstream Reaches

Downstream effects of the powerhouseDownstream effects of the powerhouse

Lower peak floodsLower peak floods

Fewer extreme floods Fewer extreme floods

Lower summer water levelsLower summer water levels

Increased bank erosionIncreased bank erosion

Increased winter ice scourIncreased winter ice scour

Increased erosion and ice scouring Increased erosion and ice scouring along banks in the downstream along banks in the downstream reachesreaches

Oxalis or FredOxalis or Fred’’s Islands IslandCommon Wood Sorrel

Oxalis acetosella subsp. montana

The upstream end of the island is pushed up and scoured by ice.

Monthly Mean Flows above Muskrat Falls during two Periods Pre-and Post-Regulation

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

Flow

m3/

s

1954-1961 1990-2002

Summer water levels are lower

Depositional areas with finer substratesprovide opportunities for

riparian vegetation to become established

Tributary delta at upstream Tributary delta at upstream end of Winokapauend of Winokapau

79 species of vascular plants79 species of vascular plants

Flow at the Powerhouse Tailraces and above Muskrat Falls in 2001, and Two Pre-Regulation Years at Muskrat Falls

(Data Sources: Churchill Falls (Labrador Corporation, and Water Survey of Canada).

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Day of Year

Flow

(m3/

s)

Churchill Falls Tailraces 2001 Above Muskrat Falls 2001Above Muskrat Falls 1967 Above Muskrat Falls 1960

The lower river The lower river valley continues to valley continues to host relatively high host relatively high species richness, species richness,

vegetation cover on vegetation cover on shores and overall shores and overall habitat complexityhabitat complexity

Storage ReservoirsStorage Reservoirs

Monthly Mean Water Levels in the Smallwood Reservoir for Selected Years

464

466

468

470

472

474

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

Met

res

Abo

ve S

ea L

evel

1973 1980 1985 1990 1994 2001 2004

Smallwood Reservoir Smallwood Reservoir –– perimeter 3395 km perimeter 3395 km

Total Annual Precipitation at Churchill Falls, Labrador 1969-2006

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

19691971

19731975

19771979

19811983

19851987

19891991

19931995

19971999

20012003

2005

Year

Tota

l Ann

ual P

reci

pita

tion

(mm

LG 2 Reservoir, QuLG 2 Reservoir, Quéébecbec

Lake Michikamau Lake Michikamau –– Smallwood ReservoirSmallwood Reservoir Pre and Post Flooding Pre and Post Flooding

Ossokmanuan Reservoir – perimeter 751.9 km

accumulation of woody debris

accumulation of woody debris

Development of riparian vegetation is impeded by daily drawdown in the control reservoirs

West Forebay West Forebay –– perimeter 417 kmperimeter 417 km

Daily Forebay Water Levels in 2001 (Data source: Churchill Falls (Labrador) Corporation).

446

447

448

449

450

451

452

453

454

Jan

Feb Mar Apr

May Jun Jul

Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

Wat

er L

evel

(mas

l

West Forebay East Forebay

East ForebayEast Forebay Churchill Falls Control Churchill Falls Control

ReservoirReservoir

Typically narrow active Typically narrow active riparian zone riparian zone

Few riparian speciesFew riparian species

Lower vegetation cover Lower vegetation cover and simplified structure and simplified structure

Percent Vegetation Cover per Site

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

23-un

regula

ted

31-st

orage

rese

rvoir

32-st

orage

rese

rvoir

33-st

orage

rese

rvoir

24-st

orage

rese

rvoir

30-fo

rebay

25-fo

rebay

28-di

verte

d29

-dive

rted

34-di

verte

d27

-dive

rted

2-dow

nstre

am

3-dow

nstre

am

4-dow

nstre

am

5-dow

nstre

am

6-dow

nstre

am

7-dow

nstre

am

8-dow

nstre

am

9-dow

nstre

am

10-do

wnstre

am

11-do

wnstre

am

12-do

wnstre

am

13-do

wnstre

am

14-do

wnstre

am

15-do

wnstre

am

16-do

wnstre

am

17-do

wnstre

am

18-do

wnstre

am

19-do

wnstre

am

20-do

wnstre

am

21-do

wnstre

am

22-do

wnstre

am

Site Number and Type (Upstream to Downstream)

Perc

ent C

over

Trees & Shrubs Herbs & Dwarf Shrubs Graminoids Bare Ground

It used to be nice country there around Michikamau…. Lots of animals and very beautiful.”

Aesthetic concerns related to shorelines

Aniet Nuna, pers. comm., 2005


East Forebay shoreline East Forebay shoreline in sheltered cove in sheltered cove 8 species of vascular plants 8 species of vascular plants predominantly upland speciespredominantly upland species

East ForebayEast Forebay

Dyke in backgroundDyke in background

Sheltered area on lee shoreSheltered area on lee shore

16 species16 species

Former riparian zoneFormer riparian zone

Minimal draw downMinimal draw down

Typical lake and Typical lake and river shoreline river shoreline habitat in the habitat in the

upper watershed upper watershed of the Mishtaof the Mishta--shipushipu

Ashuanipi shipu

Shoreline of Shoreline of unregulated small unregulated small lake adjacent to lake adjacent to east forebayeast forebay

More complex More complex structurestructure

22 wetland species22 wetland species

Two new reservoirs – no seasonal flow patterns – daily fluctuations within one meter – little opportunity for diverse riparian habitat to reestablish

A dewatered reach of the Churchill River above the fallsA dewatered reach of the Churchill River above the falls

Mishta Paushtuk / Patshetshunau: Before and soon after diversion of the river above the falls

“The whole river and everything connected to it is important … is essential”

Tshaukuesh Penashue

MishtaMishta--shipu upstream of Lake Winokapaushipu upstream of Lake Winokapau

Watersheds with major regulated

reaches in the Québec/UngavaPeninsula region

Mitigation MeasuresMitigation Measures

The EIS does not adequately acknowledge the The EIS does not adequately acknowledge the challenges and limitations in any effort to challenges and limitations in any effort to mitigate the effects of major hydrological mitigate the effects of major hydrological changes on riparian wetland habitats. changes on riparian wetland habitats.

The potential for reThe potential for re--establishing riparian establishing riparian wetlands in the new reservoirs with the habitat wetlands in the new reservoirs with the habitat complexity and biodiversity that currently exists complexity and biodiversity that currently exists is grossly overestimated. is grossly overestimated.

Mitigation Measures ________________________________________________________________________________________

Evidence from other regions where efforts Evidence from other regions where efforts have been made to enhance riparian have been made to enhance riparian habitats in reservoirs with similar water habitats in reservoirs with similar water level regimes, have not been deemed to level regimes, have not been deemed to be successful. be successful.


The mitigation measure proposed in the LCPP The mitigation measure proposed in the LCPP EIS for loss of riparian swamp thickets adjacent EIS for loss of riparian swamp thickets adjacent to water, is to cut trees to create shrub habitat to water, is to cut trees to create shrub habitat along reservoir shores.along reservoir shores.

This mitigation has been implemented in the La This mitigation has been implemented in the La Grand 1 project in Quebec.Grand 1 project in Quebec.

What was found through monitoring is that What was found through monitoring is that these areas did provide additional forage for these areas did provide additional forage for moose and hares, but did not recreate the moose and hares, but did not recreate the diversity of vegetation that is present in riparian diversity of vegetation that is present in riparian shrub communities that are developed and shrub communities that are developed and maintained through hydrological processes. maintained through hydrological processes.


A summary of effects of the la Grande A summary of effects of the la Grande Complex in QuComplex in Quéébec 30 years after bec 30 years after construction, states that, construction, states that,

““Altogether, the natural reconstitution Altogether, the natural reconstitution of the reservoirsof the reservoirs’’ riparian vegetation riparian vegetation remains limited remains limited …”…”.. FORAMEC, 1992aFORAMEC, 1992a


Patterns of development of riparian Patterns of development of riparian vegetation under reservoir conditions vegetation under reservoir conditions associated with La Grande Complex were associated with La Grande Complex were considered to be predictable enough to considered to be predictable enough to estimate losses of comparable habitat for estimate losses of comparable habitat for subsequent projects in northwestern subsequent projects in northwestern QuQuéébec.bec.

This is an example from just one region, This is an example from just one region, but we do not have any other examples of but we do not have any other examples of good riparian vegetation redevelopment good riparian vegetation redevelopment under such altered hydrological conditions.under such altered hydrological conditions.

Mitigation Measures________________________________________________________________________________________

Great Whale ProjectGreat Whale Project

Quantitative analysis of the changes in riparian Quantitative analysis of the changes in riparian habitat was attempted within the context of an habitat was attempted within the context of an environmental assessment for the proposed environmental assessment for the proposed Grande Baleine or Great Whale project, in a Grande Baleine or Great Whale project, in a watershed just north of La Grande, flowing into watershed just north of La Grande, flowing into Hudson Bay (Deshaye et al., 1992; FORAMEC, Hudson Bay (Deshaye et al., 1992; FORAMEC, 1992a; Hydro1992a; Hydro--QuQuéébec, 1989; Hydrobec, 1989; Hydro--QuQuéébec, bec, 1993a, 1993b). 1993a, 1993b).

In that exercise, In that exercise, allall former shorelines in areas former shorelines in areas that would be converted to reservoirs were that would be converted to reservoirs were considered to represent a considered to represent a net loss of productive net loss of productive riparian habitat.riparian habitat.


The new shorelines were not expected to The new shorelines were not expected to develop a rich cover of riparian vegetation.develop a rich cover of riparian vegetation.

Therefore, the area of riparian habitat Therefore, the area of riparian habitat predicted to be lost if the Great Whale predicted to be lost if the Great Whale project were built was quantified by project were built was quantified by multiplying the length of river course that multiplying the length of river course that would be flooded by an estimated average would be flooded by an estimated average width of the zone of existing riparian width of the zone of existing riparian vegetation. vegetation.

A percentage loss of the total riparian A percentage loss of the total riparian habitat was calculated on this basis.habitat was calculated on this basis.


Certainly there is the possibility for future Certainly there is the possibility for future innovation.innovation.

However, the reality is that there is a very However, the reality is that there is a very low level of certainly with regards to the low level of certainly with regards to the potential level of success of these potential level of success of these mitigation measures. mitigation measures.

There is a fairly high level of certainty that There is a fairly high level of certainty that the measures will have minimal success at the measures will have minimal success at best.best.


It is estimated that the perimeter of the Gull It is estimated that the perimeter of the Gull Island reservoir would be about 560 km, and Island reservoir would be about 560 km, and that of Muskrat Falls reservoir would be 172 km that of Muskrat Falls reservoir would be 172 km (Procter and Redfern 1980). (Procter and Redfern 1980).

These areas may develop some minimal riparian These areas may develop some minimal riparian vegetation in a narrow zone similar to the vegetation in a narrow zone similar to the Forebay reservoirs, but perhaps with somewhat Forebay reservoirs, but perhaps with somewhat higher species richness. higher species richness.

Conclusions________________________________________________________________________________________

Loss of Riparian Habitats in the Loss of Riparian Habitats in the Lower ChurchillLower Churchill

We could therefore state fairly confidently expect We could therefore state fairly confidently expect that at least 730 km of relatively diverse riparian that at least 730 km of relatively diverse riparian shorelines will be lost from the lower reaches of shorelines will be lost from the lower reaches of the river.the river.

The new shorelines will not be expected to The new shorelines will not be expected to develop similar vegetation composition and develop similar vegetation composition and structure. structure.

Mitigation measures can only realistically be Mitigation measures can only realistically be expected to represent a very small expected to represent a very small improvements. improvements.

Loss of Riparian Habitats in the Loss of Riparian Habitats in the Lower ChurchillLower Churchill

Conclusions________________________________________________________________________________________

Predictable Adverse Changes Predictable Adverse Changes in Riparian Vegetation due to in Riparian Vegetation due to the Churchill River Projectsthe Churchill River Projects

Extensive, cumulative loss of structurally Extensive, cumulative loss of structurally diverse and species rich riparian wetland diverse and species rich riparian wetland vegetation complexes in the areas vegetation complexes in the areas converted to reservoirsconverted to reservoirs

Conclusions ________________________________________________________________________________________

(Graphic: Atlantic Business Weekly, 2001)(Graphic: Atlantic Business Weekly, 2001)

‘Hydroelectricity is green power’

Conclusions ________________________________________________________________________________________

We knew that country. We have been all around that area and visited the falls. We knew all the rivers around

there. Pien Penashue, pers. comm., 2001

precautionary principle cumulative effects mitigation measures … · 2011-03-31 · happy...

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