Precursors of Precursors of Civilization: Mesolithic Civilization: Mesolithic

and Neolithicand NeolithicThe Prehistoric Roots of the The Prehistoric Roots of the

HumanitiesHumanities

Formation of Human SettlementsFormation of Human Settlements

The formation of settled communities is the The formation of settled communities is the next phasenext phase

The Mesolithic is not well defined except for The Mesolithic is not well defined except for the lack of domesticated plants or animalsthe lack of domesticated plants or animals

(Dogs for hunting is an exception.)(Dogs for hunting is an exception.) The Neolithic is defined by the domestication The Neolithic is defined by the domestication

of plant and animalsof plant and animals By then, settled communities developBy then, settled communities develop

Mesolithic Communities: Some Mesolithic Communities: Some ExamplesExamples

Mount Sandel, Ireland, was settled after the era of big Mount Sandel, Ireland, was settled after the era of big game was pastgame was past

Vedbaek, Denmark, was a coastal and Island Vedbaek, Denmark, was a coastal and Island communitycommunity

Nittano, Japan, is a classic example of a settled Nittano, Japan, is a classic example of a settled community with sophisticated pottery—community with sophisticated pottery—

Gnd no agriculture or animal husbandryGnd no agriculture or animal husbandry All three communities were seacoast communities All three communities were seacoast communities

that depended on fishing, hunting, and gatheringthat depended on fishing, hunting, and gathering All three began to develop specialized tradesAll three began to develop specialized trades

Mount SandelMount Sandel

Evidence of settled communitiesEvidence of settled communities 4 huts accommodating 8-12 persons 4 huts accommodating 8-12 persons

(upper left)(upper left) Huts were circular with frame of bent Huts were circular with frame of bent

saplingssaplings Evidence of consistent food yieldEvidence of consistent food yield Resource availability varied by seasonResource availability varied by season Location near seashore ensured year-Location near seashore ensured year-

round occupationround occupation Flints tools, such as this polishedFlints tools, such as this polished

collection (lower left), were presentcollection (lower left), were present

VedbaekVedbaek

Grave sites (22) reveal a rich material culture, Grave sites (22) reveal a rich material culture, including ornamentsincluding ornaments

Main living areas near sea, also with a rich marine Main living areas near sea, also with a rich marine life life

Land animals important but secondaryLand animals important but secondary The island of Vaenget Nord reveals specialized sitesThe island of Vaenget Nord reveals specialized sites Butchering sitesButchering sites Stone and bone tool manufactureStone and bone tool manufacture Woodworking Woodworking

Nittano, Japan: SettlementsNittano, Japan: Settlements

Period is included in the Jomon (12,500-300 BCE)Period is included in the Jomon (12,500-300 BCE) Settlements were permanent, as shown by:Settlements were permanent, as shown by: Complex tool assemblagesComplex tool assemblages Stone drills, knives, and scrapersStone drills, knives, and scrapers Milling stones, including mortars and pestles, which Milling stones, including mortars and pestles, which

indicate seeds and/or grainsindicate seeds and/or grains Pottery, with elaborate designsPottery, with elaborate designs Horseshoe style residential patternsHorseshoe style residential patterns

Nittano, Japan: Subsistence BaseNittano, Japan: Subsistence Base

Heavy dependence on sea resourcesHeavy dependence on sea resources 30 species of shellfish30 species of shellfish Fish was harvested in all seasons but winterFish was harvested in all seasons but winter Fishing gear: fishhooks, harpoons, canoesFishing gear: fishhooks, harpoons, canoes Land Resources:Land Resources: land animals (deer and boar)land animals (deer and boar) edible plant sources (180 species)edible plant sources (180 species) bones indicate year-round occupationbones indicate year-round occupation

Nittano, Japan: Jomon PotteryNittano, Japan: Jomon Pottery

The period (12,500-300 BCE) begins with The period (12,500-300 BCE) begins with a rope design (upper left) a rope design (upper left)

Cords are pressed into the soft clay Cords are pressed into the soft clay before firing : Jomon means “cord before firing : Jomon means “cord marking”marking”

They were probably modeled after reed They were probably modeled after reed basketsbaskets

Later, in the Middle Jomon (2500-1500 Later, in the Middle Jomon (2500-1500 BCE) the top of the pots took on a playful BCE) the top of the pots took on a playful design (lower left)design (lower left)

They may or may not have meaningThey may or may not have meaning Human figures (called dogu) also made Human figures (called dogu) also made

their appearance.their appearance.

The Neolithic: OverviewThe Neolithic: Overview

The Neolithic, or “New Stone Age” begins at The Neolithic, or “New Stone Age” begins at different dates (12000 BCE in the Near East) different dates (12000 BCE in the Near East) in different locations.in different locations.

The features are the presence of:The features are the presence of: Domesticated plants, usually a staple such as Domesticated plants, usually a staple such as

wheat (Near East), corn (Mesoamerica) and wheat (Near East), corn (Mesoamerica) and rice (Central China or Southeast Asia)rice (Central China or Southeast Asia)

Domesticated animals (principally cattle, Domesticated animals (principally cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and camels)sheep, goats, horses, and camels)

Fertile Crescent: The First Neolithic Fertile Crescent: The First Neolithic Region Region

The earliest known sites are found in the Near East around the so-called The earliest known sites are found in the Near East around the so-called Fertile Crescent, from the Upper Nile to the East Mediterranean (Levant)Fertile Crescent, from the Upper Nile to the East Mediterranean (Levant)

Then into Turkey and Syria and to present-day Iraq. Then into Turkey and Syria and to present-day Iraq.

Land Use in Foraging versus Land Use in Foraging versus AgricultureAgriculture

Hunting and Gathering entails:Hunting and Gathering entails:: : Extensive plant/animal exploitationExtensive plant/animal exploitation Foraging over wide eraForaging over wide era Agriculture entails:Agriculture entails: Plant/Animal DomesticationPlant/Animal Domestication Intensive plant/animal exploitationIntensive plant/animal exploitation Intensive cultivation of a small geographical area; Intensive cultivation of a small geographical area;

herding (if practiced along) may involve extensive herding (if practiced along) may involve extensive land use.land use.

Defining Characteristics of Neolithic Defining Characteristics of Neolithic EraEra

Plant/Animal domesticationPlant/Animal domestication Settled Communities or Regular Migration within small, well-Settled Communities or Regular Migration within small, well-

defined areadefined area Technologies requiring settlement involve:Technologies requiring settlement involve: Stones for grinding grainsStones for grinding grains Pottery for cooking and storagePottery for cooking and storage Metallurgy for making agricultural implementsMetallurgy for making agricultural implements Food Storage in pottery or in bins made of stone or clayFood Storage in pottery or in bins made of stone or clay Housing on permanent sitesHousing on permanent sites Trash sites: where you have large populations you have a lot Trash sites: where you have large populations you have a lot

of trash and garbage. of trash and garbage.

Characteristics of Agriculture: Characteristics of Agriculture: PlantsPlants

Cultivation:Cultivation: Preparing soil Preparing soil Propagation:Propagation: Seed selection and planting Seed selection and planting HusbandryHusbandry: weeding, providing water, : weeding, providing water,

protection from pestsprotection from pests HarvestingHarvesting of seeds (grain), fruits, or leaves of seeds (grain), fruits, or leaves

when ripewhen ripe Reproduction:Reproduction: seed storage seed storage

Characteristics of Agriculture: Characteristics of Agriculture: AnimalsAnimals

Selection and breeding of animals for desired Selection and breeding of animals for desired characteristics (meat, milk, wool)characteristics (meat, milk, wool)

Husbandry: feeding and protecting animals Husbandry: feeding and protecting animals during nonproductive periodsduring nonproductive periods

Harvesting: Slaughter for meat, milking, Harvesting: Slaughter for meat, milking, shearingshearing

Primary Centers of Domestication: Primary Centers of Domestication: Where Agriculture was “Invented”Where Agriculture was “Invented”

Near East (Mesopotamia)Near East (Mesopotamia) EgyptEgypt South Asia (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro)South Asia (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro) Northern and Southern ChinaNorthern and Southern China Southeast AsiaSoutheast Asia North America (SE United States)North America (SE United States) MesoamericaMesoamerica Andean America (Peru and its neighbors)Andean America (Peru and its neighbors) AfricaAfrica

Secondary Center of Domestication: Secondary Center of Domestication: EuropeEurope

Adopted agriculture from other regionsAdopted agriculture from other regions Best-known: Europe, which imported Best-known: Europe, which imported

domesticates from Near Eastdomesticates from Near East Europe derived much else of its features from Europe derived much else of its features from

abroad:abroad: ““Arabic” numbers, including the zero concept, Arabic” numbers, including the zero concept,

from India through Syriafrom India through Syria Phonetic writing possibly from the PhoeniciansPhonetic writing possibly from the Phoenicians Metallurgy from the Near EastMetallurgy from the Near East

Primary Centers: Near EastPrimary Centers: Near East

Timeline: ca 12,000-8000 BCETimeline: ca 12,000-8000 BCE Eastern MediterraneanEastern Mediterranean Wheat, barley, ryeWheat, barley, rye Legumes: peas, lentilsLegumes: peas, lentils Fruits: Grapes, figs, olivesFruits: Grapes, figs, olives Fibers: flaxFibers: flax Animals: Pigs, sheep, goatsAnimals: Pigs, sheep, goats Principal technology: canal irrigationPrincipal technology: canal irrigation

Primary Centers: Egypt and the Nile Primary Centers: Egypt and the Nile ValleyValley

Timeline: ca 7000-5000 BCTimeline: ca 7000-5000 BC Grains: Wheat, BarleyGrains: Wheat, Barley Fibers: FlaxFibers: Flax Animals: Pigs, Sheep, Goats, CattleAnimals: Pigs, Sheep, Goats, Cattle Principal Technology: flood plain irrigation Principal Technology: flood plain irrigation

Primary Centers: South Asia (Indus Primary Centers: South Asia (Indus River)River)

Wheat may have diffused from Near EastWheat may have diffused from Near East Animals were indigenous: camels, goats, water Animals were indigenous: camels, goats, water

buffalobuffalo Principal technology: canal irrigationPrincipal technology: canal irrigation

Origins of Agriculture: Origins of Agriculture: Commonalities in ExplanationsCommonalities in Explanations

Usually rejected: evident advantages of agricultureUsually rejected: evident advantages of agriculture Involves more work than foragingInvolves more work than foraging Productivity beyond needProductivity beyond need Explanatory CommonalitiesExplanatory Commonalities Less available land for foragingLess available land for foraging Limitation of water supplyLimitation of water supply Relative overpopulationRelative overpopulation Occurrence of plants and animals that can be Occurrence of plants and animals that can be

domesticateddomesticated

Origins of Agriculture: Oasis Origins of Agriculture: Oasis Hypothesis (Childe)Hypothesis (Childe)

Agriculture develops near water sourcesAgriculture develops near water sources Receding glaciers induce water scarcityReceding glaciers induce water scarcity Examples: Tigris/Euphrates, Nile, IndusExamples: Tigris/Euphrates, Nile, Indus Solution for scarce land and water: intensifySolution for scarce land and water: intensify Plants, animals, and humans in confined areas wherePlants, animals, and humans in confined areas where Water is limited to riversWater is limited to rivers Arable land is scarceArable land is scarce Problem: No indication of receding glaciersProblem: No indication of receding glaciers

Origins of Agriculture: Natural Origins of Agriculture: Natural Habitat Hypothesis (Braidwood)Habitat Hypothesis (Braidwood)

Domesticated Plants should develop at site of Domesticated Plants should develop at site of their wild ancestorstheir wild ancestors

Jarmo developed at the edge of Fertile Jarmo developed at the edge of Fertile CrescentCrescent

Supported this hypothesisSupported this hypothesis

Origins of Agriculture: Population Origins of Agriculture: Population Pressure (Binford, Cohen)Pressure (Binford, Cohen)

Population no longer sustainable by foragingPopulation no longer sustainable by foraging Agriculture began when population reached Agriculture began when population reached

critical masscritical mass Population required more food than habitat Population required more food than habitat

could sustaincould sustain IntensificationIntensification

Origins of Agriculture: Edge Origins of Agriculture: Edge Hypothesis (Binford)Hypothesis (Binford)

Agriculture developed at the edge of natural Agriculture developed at the edge of natural habitathabitat

Food sources scarcer at edgeFood sources scarcer at edge Domestication as a strategy to intensify food Domestication as a strategy to intensify food

sources began theirsources began their Agriculture spread as scarcity became more Agriculture spread as scarcity became more

widespreadwidespread Cohen: Scarcity was region- or continent-wide, Cohen: Scarcity was region- or continent-wide,

not confined to smaller areas.not confined to smaller areas.

Origins of Agriculture: Multivariate Origins of Agriculture: Multivariate Explanation SourcesExplanation Sources

Transition to food production is complexTransition to food production is complex No single place of origin, even within regionsNo single place of origin, even within regions Wild animals and plants were domesticated at Wild animals and plants were domesticated at

various areas at various times (genetic various areas at various times (genetic fingerprinting)fingerprinting)

Radiocarbon dating allows pinpointing dates Radiocarbon dating allows pinpointing dates of early farmingof early farming

Origins of Agriculture: Multivariate Origins of Agriculture: Multivariate FactorsFactors

Population pressurePopulation pressure Distribution of plantsDistribution of plants Rate of environmental changeRate of environmental change Techniques of harvesting, such as wild grassTechniques of harvesting, such as wild grass Location of plants or animals that could be Location of plants or animals that could be

domesticateddomesticated Seasonal distribution; “experiments” might be Seasonal distribution; “experiments” might be

interrupted by need to harvest in-season food plants interrupted by need to harvest in-season food plants elsewhereelsewhere

Plant Domestication: Major Plant Domestication: Major AttributesAttributes

Larger yields of grain (wheat, corn)Larger yields of grain (wheat, corn) Larger size of grain or fruitLarger size of grain or fruit Ease of accessibility: removal from a distant Ease of accessibility: removal from a distant

habitat so that it adapts where humans livehabitat so that it adapts where humans live Loss of natural seeding in many casesLoss of natural seeding in many cases

Plant Domestication: Loss of Natural Plant Domestication: Loss of Natural Seeding AbilitySeeding Ability

Wheat is a variety of Wheat is a variety of grassgrass

Characteristics of wheatCharacteristics of wheat Rachis: Attaches stalk Rachis: Attaches stalk

to tip of grassto tip of grass Glume: Husk covering Glume: Husk covering

wheatwheat

Wild and Domesticated Wheat Wild and Domesticated Wheat ComparedCompared

Wild WheatWild Wheat Brittle rachis, to ensure Brittle rachis, to ensure

propagationpropagation Tough, protective glume for seedTough, protective glume for seed DomesticationDomestication Tough rachis, to keep seed in Tough rachis, to keep seed in

placeplace Brittle glume, to facilitate Brittle glume, to facilitate

winnowingwinnowing Wheat cannot reproduce without Wheat cannot reproduce without

human interventionhuman intervention

Animal Domestication: Population Animal Domestication: Population CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Age and Sex distributionAge and Sex distribution Wild: Preference for young in individual Wild: Preference for young in individual

hunting; all ages in driveshunting; all ages in drives Domesticated (e.g. pigs): preference for young Domesticated (e.g. pigs): preference for young

males; females kept for breedingmales; females kept for breeding Species distributionSpecies distribution Relative portion of domesticated (sheep, goats) Relative portion of domesticated (sheep, goats)

to wild (gazelles)to wild (gazelles)

Animal Domestication: Breeding Animal Domestication: Breeding PatternsPatterns

Meat, especially desirable cutsMeat, especially desirable cuts Breeding to enhance yield of Breeding to enhance yield of MilkMilk Wool and/or hideWool and/or hide May take generations to determine shift from May take generations to determine shift from

wild to domesticated formswild to domesticated forms

Concomitants of Domestication: Concomitants of Domestication: TechnologyTechnology

Grinding tools, from mano and metate or Grinding tools, from mano and metate or mortar and pestle to millstonesmortar and pestle to millstones

PotteryPottery MetallurgyMetallurgy Transportation: horse, oxen and cartTransportation: horse, oxen and cart Roads and trade routesRoads and trade routes Seagoing vesselsSeagoing vessels

Concomitants of Domestication: Concomitants of Domestication: Social ConsequencesSocial Consequences

Settled communitiesSettled communities Socioeconomic differentiationSocioeconomic differentiation Simple to complex social structureSimple to complex social structure Economic specialization (nonfarm) and tradeEconomic specialization (nonfarm) and trade Rise of moneyRise of money Political institutions: chiefdom to statePolitical institutions: chiefdom to state Legal institutions and codified lawLegal institutions and codified law

Concomitants of Domestication: Rise Concomitants of Domestication: Rise of the Humanitiesof the Humanities

We encounter a more leisured society becauseWe encounter a more leisured society because High productivity allows freedom for some from High productivity allows freedom for some from

subsistence activities.subsistence activities. Full-time artisans take up the slackFull-time artisans take up the slack Artisans include those of luxury goods which Artisans include those of luxury goods which

include sculpture, painting, drawinginclude sculpture, painting, drawing They also include more intangible pursuits, such They also include more intangible pursuits, such

as music, drama, dance, and even philosophyas music, drama, dance, and even philosophy